Chapter II

DESECRATION OF OLD BRIDGES, 225 _et seq._, 230-6;
see also “Highway Boards.”

DEVIL’S BRIDGES, 66, 67, 70, 170, 184, 296. Many other bridges
have been attributed to the devil. In plate 58 of the treatise
by Hann and Hosking, you will find the Devil’s Bridge over the
Serchio near Lucca; there is also a very interesting account of
it, p. cxxxv. It is a gabled bridge with one big arch and four
smaller ones. The span of the big arch is 120 feet, and its
height above low-water level is more than 60 feet. The roadway
is very narrow, being only 9 feet wide, and it turns abruptly at
the wings, as if to close the entrances against wheeled traffic.
The quoins of the smaller arches and all the voussoirs of the
wide arch are of dressed stone. Every other part of the bridge
is rubble masonry bound together with most excellent mortar. The
courses of stone in the wide arch vary from 8 inches to 21
inches deep, but only a few have the latter depth. Yet this
slight bridge, which is nothing more than a broad arcaded wall,
has withstood many centuries of floods. On October 2nd, 1836,
for example, a head of water more than 30 feet deep swept
roaring through the five round arches and against the four piers
at the rate of 8 miles an hour; yet no harm was done. If this
bridge was built about the year 1000 A.D., as Hann and Hosking
say, it is somewhat older than the controversial date of Albi
Bridge.

DEVORGILLA’S BRIDGE at Dumfries, 94.

DIABLE, PONT DU, St. Gotthard Pass, 67.

DIARBEKR, on the Tigris, a Roman bridge at, 202.

DION CASSIUS, on Trajan’s bridge over the Danube, built before A.D.
106 by Apollodorus of Damascus, 129, 130.

DISMANTLING OLD LONDON BRIDGE, 219, 220.

DIVERTING THE THAMES from his bed when the old bridge was built, 253,
254.

DOGS, offered as sacrifices to the evil spirits of rivers, 69.

DON ANTONIO DE ULLOA (1716-95), on the tree-bridges of South
America, 135;
on a Peruvian suspension bridge called the Tarabita, 146;
on Capac Yupanqui’s bridge of rushes, 146-7;
on large bujuco bridges, 147.

DONCASTER BRIDGE had a chapel on it, 231.

DOUBLE AND TRIPLE RINGS OF VOUSSOIRS, 305 _footnote_.

DRAGON, its use in the decorative art of Chinese bridges, 126.

DRAWBRIDGE, one arch of mediæval bridges was often a drawbridge, 260.

DROITWICH, and its very curious chapelled bridge, now destroyed, 231.

DRYOPITHECUS, 113-14.

DUNSTAN, SAINT, Archbishop of Canterbury, _b._ 924--_d._ 988, from
his time the Mediæval Church regarded the building and upkeep
of bridges as a work of pious charity, 207.

DURDLE DOOR, on the coast at Lulworth, a natural archway, 151.

DURHAM BRIDGES, 96, 97, 205, 231.

DUTCH, THE, of the seventeenth century wished to bury a living child
under the foundations of a dam, 69.

EADS, CAPTAIN JAMES B., engineer of the Illinois and St. Louis
Bridge, 352-3.

EAGLE-BEAKED TOOLS of the Pliocene Period, 119-22.

EAMONT BRIDGE, 94, 305 _footnote_.

EARLIEST LONDON BRIDGE, a timber structure destroyed by fire in 1136,
220, and _footnote_.

EARTHQUAKE AT ASCOLI in 1878, 201.

EARTHQUAKES AND VOLCANOES, the first armourers of the Stone Age, 110;
they made some slab-bridges, 123-4;
earthquakes in their relation to natural arches, 152, and to
bridges of stepping-stones, 114.

ECCLESIASTICAL WORKMANSHIP in a few English bridges, 303, 305;
see also “Abbot’s Bridge, Bury St. Edmunds.”

EDWARD I came to the relief of Old London Bridge, 50.

EGOTISM, or the Creed of Self, a motive-power behind the strife that
bridges and roads circulate, 19 _et seq._, 22-6, 39-52.

EGYPTIAN BRIDGES, 126, 155, 166.

ELEPHANTS, in Decorative Sculpture, on Chinese bridges, 312
_footnote_.

ELIZABETH, QUEEN, 332.

ELLIPTICAL ARCHES, in Babylonian work, 275 _footnote_;
in ancient Mexico, 157 _footnote_;
in St. Bénézet’s great bridge, 81;
in the vault of Chosroes’ great hall at Selucia-Ctesiphon, 275,
and to some extent in the Pons Fabricius at Rome, 196.
We know not whether Bénézet was acquainted with the Pons
Fabricius, or with the great hall at Selucia-Ctesiphon, two
forerunners of his elliptical arch. At Florence, in every arch
of the Trinità, Ammanati achieved a cycloid rather than an
ellipse, 316.

EMIGRATION, its influence on old types of society, 275.

EMY, COLONEL, a writer on timber bridges, 140, 143 _footnote_.

ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA, on the High Level Bridge at Newcastle, 80;
on Framwellgate Bridge at Durham, 96-7;
on the Porta dell’ Arco at Arpino, 156;
on the Treasury of Atreus at Mycenae, 158;
on Roman aqueducts and bridges, 167;
on the Pul-i-Kaisar at Shushter, 202-4;
on the Ouse Bridge at York, 243 _footnote_;
on New London Bridge, 257;
on the Tay Bridge Disaster, 339, 341.

ENGINEERS, MODERN, their scorn for national defence, 15, 77-8, 79 _et
seq._, 144 _footnote_, 221, 258, 295, 320, 323, 325, 339, 340,
346, 349.

ENGLISH BRIDGES, their inferiority, 9, 44;
contrasted with French bridges, 281-2, 294-5;
desecration of old English bridges, 225 _et seq._, 230-6.

ERASMUS, 52, 236.

ERNULPH, BISHOP, and Rochester Bridge, 243.

ESPAGNE, PONT D’, famous modern bridge, beyond Cauterets, 278.

ESPALION, THE BRIDGE AT, the controversy concerning it, 84, 86, 87,
88, 92, 93;
see also the colour plate facing page 88.

ETRUSCAN ROUND ARCHES, 160-1.

EUDES, COUNT OF CHARTRES, built an early communal bridge, 240.

“EUPHUES AND HIS ENGLAND,” 220, 221.

EVANS, SIR JOHN, on the date of the Bronze Period, 21.

EVE OF EVOLUTION, 117 _et seq._

EVOLUTION, in its relation to the strife that bridges and roads
circulate, 1, 32, 39;
see also Chapter II.

EVOLUTION OF DEFENCELESS BRIDGES, see Chapter V.

EXCEPTIONAL BRIDGES, 302, 305-6, 307, 308-10, 316.

EXTRA-DOSSED ARCHES, Roman and Mediæval, 282-3.

FABRICIUS, PONS, at Rome, 195, 196.

FACT DIFFERS FROM TRUTH, 10, 11.

FEATS OF ENGINEERING, 323, 327, 341, 356.

FERNWORTHY BRIDGE, Dartmoor, 60.

FINANCE, as a phase of permanent war, 35, 36, 361.

“FINDS” IN RESEARCH, 6.

FIRE, its discovery, 58.

FIREARMS, 332-3.

FIRES ON OLD LONDON BRIDGE, 218-19.

FLAMBARD, BISHOP, before the year 1128, is said to have built
Framwellgate Bridge at Durham, using ribbed arches. If so, then
the ribbed arches in this bridge are about as old as those of
the Pont de Vernay at Airvault: see the illustration facing
page 96.

FLAMINIAN WAY and the Pons Milvius, 197, and the bridge at Narni, 23.

FLAVIEN, PONT, a Roman bridge with two triumphal arches at
Saint-Chamas, 176-7.

FLEMISH TOWNS and their defensive bridges, 289-91.

FLINT TOOLS AND WEAPONS prove the terrible slowness of human
progress, 57;
the earliest bridges of handicraft considered in their relation to
the earliest hand-made tools and weapons, 56-7, 109, 110, 119,
120, 121, 122.

FLODDEN FIELD and Twizel Bridge, 94, 355.

FLOOD-WATER BAYS cut through the piers of bridges, 284, as in the
great military Roman bridge at Mérida, 181-2;
the Pons Fabricius another Roman example, 196;
later specimens, the Three-arched Bridge at Venice, colour plate
facing page 224, the Pont des Consuls at Montauban, colour
plate facing page 256, and the Pont St. Esprit over the Rhône,
293.

FLORENCE, the Ponte Vecchio, 211, 222;
the Ponte della Trinità, Ammanati’s masterpiece, 316.

FO-CHEU, PONT DE, a Chinese bridge described by Gauthey, 314-15.

FOOTPATHS, the earliest were made by quadrupeds, 3;
human footpaths, their number, and what it has cost to make them,
17;
they belong not to the illusion called peace but to the reality
named strife, 17.

FOOTWAYS OVER MEDIÆVAL BRIDGES, usually they were narrow, very often
they were steep, and sometimes, as in the Pont St. Esprit and
the Pont St. Bénézet, they formed an elbow with the angle
pointing up-stream. The Coa Bridge in Portugal, near Almeida,
the scene of Crawfurd’s action in the Peninsular War, is also
angular on plan; but its elbow points down-stream, and its line
seems to have been dictated by the position of the rocks on
which the piers are built. For other bridges of this angular
sort see page 238.
Narrow footways over bridges suggested the safety recesses for
foot-passengers, which modern engineers have copied in many of
their wide bridges, 258.
Steep footways are dealt with under “Gabled Bridges,” and in
Appendices I and II.

FOOTWAYS OVER ROMAN BRIDGES, 82, 183, 199, 367-8.

FORDS, 207-8, 250-1.

FORESTS, in their relation to Roman bridges, 139, to English bridges,
207, 208.

FORTH BRIDGE, 336, 344, 350-1.
Add to the text the fact that in one of our naval manœuvres the
Forth Bridge was “destroyed” by the small attacking fleet.

FORTIFIED TOWERS AND GATEWAYS ON BRIDGES, Roman, at Mérida, 182;
at Alcantarilla, 367;
at Saint-Chamas, 176-7;
mediæval, 254-5, 261, 276-301;
See also the Lists of Illustrations;
Nearly all the old attributes of defensive bridge-building
have been copied by modern engineers in their defenceless
bridges--an absurd affectation of learned research introduced
by Telford in his cast-iron bridge at Craigellachie, 349;
Even dummy machicolations have been used on make-believe towers
guarding industrial bridges from the fresh air, 275;
Every civilized country has bridges of this foolish sort. Surely
medals ought to be granted to fools, and their public display
ought to be enforced by law; then engineers and others would
become ashamed of their bad public work.

FOUNDING PIERS, 99, 197, 251-2, 341-2;
See also “Cofferdams,” 253 _footnote_.

FOUNTAINS ABBEY, YORKSHIRE, BRIDGES AT, 96, 305.

FRAMWELLGATE BRIDGE, Durham, 96-7.

FRANCE, her administration of roads and bridges, 43, 44, 356;
rich in remains of Roman bridges and aqueducts, 168-75, 176-81;
her bridges are superior to the British examples, 9, 256-8, 294-5.

FRANCIS STONE, his book of “Norfolk Bridges,” 135.

FRASER, G. M., on Scotch bridges, 94.

FREAKISH BRIDGES, over the Tavignano in Corsica, 238;
at Laroque, 300;
at Bâle, 306.

FRÉJUS, REMAINS OF A ROMAN AQUEDUCT AT, 176.

FRENCH AND ENGLISH BRIDGES contrasted, 256, 281, 294-5.

FRENCH ANGULAR BRIDGES, 237-8, 297.

FRENCH GENIUS, often more masculine than the English genius, 294-5.

FRENCH MILL BRIDGES, 223-4;
see also the colour plate facing page 352.

FRÈRES PONTIFES, or Pontist Brothers, 296, and _footnote_.
St. Bénézet was one of the leaders of this order. It is worth
noting that some lay brotherhoods in England, animated by the
religious spirit, repaired roads and bridges, like the Gild of
the Holy Cross in Birmingham, which was founded under Richard
the Second. There were similar gilds at Rochester and Bristol
and Ludlow, etc.
For information on “English Gilds,” see Toulmin Smith.

FROGGALL BRIDGE, its angular recesses for the safety of
foot-passengers, 258 _footnote_.

FUENTES DE OÑORO, its slab-bridges akin to our Dartmoor “Clappers,”
104-5.

GABLED BRIDGES, 27, 28, and _footnote_;
Chinese, 248, 312, 365-6.

GABRIEL, a French engineer, tried to revive the Roman and mediæval
use of abutment piers, 339 _footnote_.

GADDI, TADDEO, the reputed designer of the Ponte Vecchio at Florence,
222.

GALLERIES, COVERED, in Persian Bridges, 214, 215, 270.

GAOL, the chapel on the bridge at Bradford-on-Avon became a gaol, 232;
also the one on Bedford Bridge, 231;
a gaol stood at the east side of the Ouse Bridge at York, 243,
and _footnote_.

GARD, PONT DU, the famous Roman aqueduct, 83, 167-75, 321.

GARDENS, SOME, on Old London Bridge, 219.

GARIBALDI, when he marched to Rome the Ponte Salaro was blown up, 192.

GARSTANG BRIDGE, a steep Lancashire bridge built in 1490, 250
_footnote_.

GATEHOUSE, on the defensive bridge at Sospel, 276;
on the thirteenth-century bridge at Narni, 277.

GATEWAYS, DEFENSIVE, 208, 315.

GATEWAY TOWERS, 97, 272, 278, 280, 286, 289, 323;
see also the Lists of Illustrations.

GAULISH BRIDGES, 70, 71.

GAUTHEY, EMILAND, historian of bridges, 126-7, 191, 197, 199, 314,
322.

GEBEL BARKEL, TWO PYRAMIDS AT, have arched porticoes built with
voussoirs, 160.

GENIUS, the motive-power of progress, 56, 59;
her work usually weakened by the opposition of custom and
convention, 59;
she is a single creative agent with a double sex, 58;
ordinary men have been of but little worth until genius has taken
control of them, 239;
her warfare against the stupidity of mankind, 110 _et seq._;
see also “Mother-Ideas.”

GENIUS, THE ENGLISH, is often inferior to the French genius in
architecture, 294-5.

GENIUS, THE ROMAN, 167-204.

GERMANY, some of her old bridges, 259, 260;
her creed of aggressive war, 33 _footnote_, 350, 359, 360, 361.

GERONA, FAMOUS GABLED BRIDGE AT, 28, 29.

GHENT, THE RABOT AT, a fortified bridge and lock, 289, 290, 291.

GIGNAC, PONT DE, famous bridge of the 18th century, 310.

GIPSY’S CARAVAN, how it stuck fast under the low tower at the
entrance of Warkworth Bridge, 261, 262.

GIRDERS, there are three types or classes of bridge: the girder,
the arched, and the suspended. Girders may be of various
materials; wrought iron, cast iron, and wood are chiefly used.
Professor Fleeming Jenkin describes with apt brevity the
essential difference between the three classes of bridge. “In
all forms of the suspension bridge the supporting structure is
_extended_ by the stress due to the load; in all forms of the
arch the supporting structure (i.e. the ring of voussoirs) is
_compressed_ by the stress due to the load; and in all forms of
the beam or girder the material is partly extended and partly
compressed by the flexure which it undergoes as it bends under
the load. Thus when a beam of wood carrying a load bends, the
upper side of the beam is thereby shortened and the fibres
compressed, while the lower side of the beam is lengthened and
the fibres extended.” So, too, in a girder of metal. In some
bridges, as in the High Level Bridge at Newcastle, the girder
principle is united to bowstring arches of metal, but a true
girder is less expensive and lighter, 80.

GIZEH, AT, in the Great Pyramid of Menkaura, there is a very early
pointed arch, 155-6.

GLACIERS, in their relation to rock-basins and rock-bridges, 152.

GLANVILLE, GILBERT DE, Bishop of Rochester, 1185-1215, built a small
chapel at the Strood end of Rochester Bridge, 245.

GLASTONBURY, its lake-village a good example of prehistoric
bridge-building, 21, 137 _et seq._

GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE, her genius described, 152-3.

GRANDISON, Bishop of Exeter, granted indulgences to those who helped
in the building of Bideford Bridge, Devon, 305 _footnote_;
See also “Indulgences.”

GRATIANUS, PONS, another name for the Pons Cestius, 196.

GRAY, WALTER DE, Archbishop of York, between 1215 and 1256, rebuilt
the Ouse Bridge, preserving some portions of the Norman Chapel,
242.

HADRIAN, destroyed Trajan’s Bridge over the Danube, 129;
and built the Pons Ælius at Rome, 194.

HALL, LADY JANE, in 1566, contributed a hundred pounds to repair the
Ouse Bridge at York, 242.

HAMBURG MERCHANTS, THE YORK SOCIETY OF, after the Reformation, used
the chapel on the Ouse Bridge as an exchange, 242.

HAND-GUNS, 333.

HANDICRAFT, the first public school, 118;
has never had a standard of uniform merit, 121;
its indebtedness to Nature’s models, 3, 4, 6, and Chapter II.

HAND-MADE WEAPONS preceded hand-made bridges, probably, 110.

HAROLD’S BRIDGE at Waltham Abbey, 162.

HAUNCHES OF A BRIDGE, 265 _footnote_.

HENRI IV, PONT, at Châtellerault, 331-2;
see also the illustration facing page 332.

HENRY III, of England, and his wife, rob Old London Bridge of her
revenues, 49-51.

HENRY V, of England, in the fourth year of his reign Abingdon Bridge
was built, 251.

HENRY VIII, during and after his reign bridge chapels were
desecrated, 225-6, 230-3.

HERALDS OF MAN, 113 _et seq._

HERODOTUS, on the canal begun by Necho II, 17 _footnote_;
mentions the bridge at Babylon over the Euphrates, 274.

HEXHAM, SMEATON’S BRIDGE AT, 339.

HIGH BRIDGE, Lincoln, 221-2.

HIGHERFORD BRIDGE, near Colne, attributed to the Romans, 305
_footnote_.

HIGH LEVEL BRIDGE at Newcastle, a “scientific” adventure with an
amusing history, 79-80.

HIGHWAY BOARDS, their inefficiency in England, 43, 230.

HINDRANCES TO BRIDGE-BUILDING, 250-1, 254-5, 264.

HOEN-HO, THE RIVER, and the bridge at Pulisangan, 310-13.

HOOGESLUIS, THE, at Amsterdam, a strumpet of a bridge, 323.

HORACE mentions the Pons Fabricius as attractive to suicides, 195-6.

HOSKING, writer on bridges, 143 _footnote_, 309, 317, 325-6.

HOUSED BRIDGES, 208, 213-15, 216-24, 225.

HOUTUM-SCHINDLER, SIR A., on the Pul-i-Kaisar at Shushter in Persia,
202-4.

HOWELL’S “LONDINOPOLIS,” 216-17.

HUMAN BEINGS offered as sacrifices to rivers, 64, 65 _et seq._

HUMAN GUNPOWDER, 23, 352.

HUMAN INITIATIVE, nothing else in Nature is less uncommon, 123.

HUMBOLDT used the pendulous bridges in Peru, 148.

IBERIANS, their stonecraft, 100, 102, 104;
their cult of ancestors, 104;
the world-wide influence of their genius, 125 _et seq._

ICONONZO, ROCK-BRIDGES OF, 151.

IGUANODON, asleep on a Nature-made bridge, 3.

ILLINOIS AND ST. LOUIS BRIDGE, 352-3.

IMITATION among men in societies, 55;
stimulated by Nature-made bridges, 55;
its dead routine, 110;
see Chapter II.

INDULGENCES granted by the mediæval Church to aid the upkeep of roads
and bridges, 40, 305 _footnote_.

INDUSTRIAL BRIDGES, 46.

INDUSTRIALISM, TO-DAY’S, is a very complex phase of war, 35, 36, 46,
48, 333, 352.

INDUSTRIAL WARFARE, 33, 34, 35, 36, 46, 48, 333, 352.

INFERIORITY OF OLD ENGLISH BRIDGES, 9, 44, 256-8, 281, 294-5.

INIGO JONES, his bridge at Llanrwst, 282, and _footnote_.

INVASIONS OF ENGLAND, 20;
the influence of invasions in the rise and fall of nations, 22.

IREMONGER, RICHARD FANNANDE, writer of the Ballad of Abingdon Bridge,
251.

IRISH BRIDGES, 45.

IRON AGE, its approximate date in England, 21.

IRON BARS in Chinese bridges, 314.

IRON BRIDGES, Chinese, 344-5;
European, 144 footnote, 348 _et seq._;
American, 352 _et seq._

Iron Cramps used in bridges, Roman, 172-3;
Babylonian, 274-5;
modern, 283.
Hosking has many good remarks on the subject of cramps and
joggles. He says (p. 208): “It is very desirable that all the
archstones of a large and flat arch should be dowel-joggled in
the beds; but as the usual dowel-joggle cannot be introduced
with the key-course, plugs of proportionate size must be used
instead, and the stones may, besides, be cramped together. In
arches of small size, or in large ones of quick sweep, joggling
may not be so desirable as in those of large size and flat
sweep; though it is to be understood that in any case both
joggles and cramps should be considered as surplusage, and as
precautions merely, to counteract the effect of any
imperfections in the work from want of fulness in any of the
stones in an arch, or otherwise. In building London Bridge iron
bars were let into the back ends or tails of the archstones, and
run with lead as cramps or transverse ties in several courses,
and they do not appear to have produced any injurious effect,
though it may be questioned how far they are of any use. They
ought not to be of any use.” Viollet-le-Duc went further than
this; he regarded iron cramps in a stone bridge as likely to be
injurious.

ISEMBERT, the French bridge-builder who undertook the finishing of
London Bridge after the death of Peter Colechurch, 218.

ISFAHAN, PERSIA, THE BRIDGES OF, 44, 187, 212, 213, 214, 215, 268-70.

“ITHE,” suggested pronoun for any bridge which is not masculine
enough to be called “he,” nor neutral enough to be described as
“it,” 294.

“ITSHE,” suggested pronoun for any bridge which is not feminine
enough to be called “she,” nor neutral enough to be described
as “it.” Criticism of art would be aided greatly by these
pronouns. For instance, our poets of to-day give us a great
deal of inspiration that belongs to the “itshe” class, 294.

JACKSON, O. M., THE REV., on Chinese bridges, 126-7, 145, 248, 315,
347.

JANICULINE BRIDGE, Rome, 197.

JEBB’S “By Desert Ways to Baghdad,” 202.

JENKIN, PROFESSOR FLEEMING, on the elliptical arches in the Bridge of
Avignon, 81;
on Trajan’s bridge over the Danube, 130;
on American timber bridges, 143;
on the defects of metal suspension bridges, 144 _footnote_;
on Colechurch and Bénézet, 217;
on cofferdams, 253 _footnote_;
on the insufficient width of New London Bridge, 257;
on the covered bridge at Pavia, 308;
on Telford’s bridge at Craigellachie, 349.

JHELUM, RIVER, in Kashmír, and its primitive bridges, 71, 72, 73.

JOLLY MILLER’S BRIDGE over the Dee, 305 _footnote_.

JONES, INIGO, his bridge at Llanrwst, 282, and _footnote_.

JUSSERAND, J. J., his book on “English Wayfaring Life in the Middle
Ages,” 40, 49, 50, 98, 99, 100.

KAPELLBRUCKE, Lucerne, 292.

KÂREDJ BRIDGE, Persia, 265-6.

KASHMÍR BRIDGES, 71, 72, 73, 160, 161.

KERSHAW, S. WAYLAND, the late, on bridge chapels, 243 _et seq._

KETTLETHORPE PARK, 226.

KHAJU, THE PUL-I-, at Isfahan, 213, 214, 215, 216.

KIEN-NING-FU, in the province of Fo-Kien, China, its three handsome
bridges mentioned by Marco Polo, 128.

KILBURNE, RICHARD, and his “Survey of Kent,” 244.

KINGSLEY, CHARLES, his visit to the Pont du Gard, 170-2.

KIRCHER, ATHANASIUS, German traveller and philosopher, _b._
1602--_d._ 1680, his book on China, translated into French by
Dalquié, 314, 345, and _footnote_.

KIRKBY LONSDALE BRIDGE, attributed to the Devil, 93.

KNOLLES, SIR R., in 1387, helped to build Rochester Bridge, 244.

KREUZNACH, on the Nahe, Prussia, its old bridge with quaint houses,
208, and the illustration facing p. 208.

KURDISTAN, primitive bridges, 73, 74, 75, 76, 272.

LABELYE’S WESTMINSTER BRIDGE, see “Westminster Bridge.”

LACER, CAIUS JULIUS, Roman architect, and builder of Trajan’s
Bridge over the Tagus at Alcántara, 121, 184, 190, 344. He was
buried on the left bank quite close to his bridge, 184, a
romantic circumstance, like the burial of Bénézet and Colechurch
in their bridge chapels.

LAELLENKOENIG, a grotesque head that used to decorate the tower on
Bâle Bridge, 306, 307.

LAKE DWELLINGS AND VILLAGES, the highest form of prehistoric
bridge-building, 21;
how evolved from Nature’s object-lessons, 111;
primitive shop-bridges probably descended from them, as in Kashmír,
72, 73;
the Glastonbury Lake Village, 136 _et seq._

LAMBÈSE, in Algeria, famous aqueduct, 176.

LANCASHIRE BRIDGES, primitive, 55, 60, 61;
Roman or of Roman origin, 162-3, 263;
mediæval, 250 _footnote_.

LANCASTER BRIDGE, built in the reign of King John, 250 _footnote_.

LANDLORDS, MEDIÆVAL, in their relation to the _trinoda necessitas_,
40 _et seq._

LANKESTER, SIR RAY, on the approximate date of Palæolithic art, 62;
on the eagle-beaked flint tools unearthed from Pliocene deposits
on the East Anglian Coast, 120 _et seq._;
on the approximate date of the Neolithic Period, 136.

LAROQUE, THE BRIDGES OF, near Cahors, 300;
see also the colour plate facing page 300.

“LATE CELTI” ART was practised in the Glastonbury Lake Village as in
the Hunsbury Camp, near Northampton, 137.

LAVA, from volcanoes, has made slab-bridges, 124.

LAVAUR, PONT DE, famous French bridge of the eighteenth century, 310.

LAW, MEDIÆVAL, and its attitude to roads and bridges, 40 _et seq._

LAW, MODERN, in Great Britain law prescribes minimum dimensions for
the over and under bridges of railways; but it takes no notice
at all of the military considerations which can never be wisely
disconnected from the circulation of traffic along roads and
over bridges. An _over bridge_ is one in which a road goes over
a railway; an _under bridge_ is one in which a road goes under a
railway. Both are exceedingly vulnerable, yet the law centres
all its attention on details that concern their size, not on
details that concern their protection from violence. _Over
Bridges._--Width: turnpike road, 35 feet; other public carriage
road, 25 feet; private road, 12 feet. Span over two lines
(narrow gauge), generally about 26 feet; head room, 14 feet 6
inches above outer rail. _Under Bridges._--Spans: turnpike road,
35 feet; other public road, 25 feet; private road, 12 feet. Head
room: turnpike road, 12 feet at springing of arch, and 16 feet
throughout a breadth of 12 feet in the middle; for public road,
12 feet, 15 feet, and 10 feet in the same places; private road,
14 feet for 9 feet in the middle; for exceptions the Acts must
be studied.

LAW OF BATTLE, THE UNIVERSAL, vii, 3, 4, 14-52. See “Battle, Law
of.”

LAWS should get rid of stereotyped customs and conventions in order
to enforce progress on dilatory mankind, 76, 77.

LEEDS BRIDGE had a chapel, 231.

LEGENDS ON DEVIL’S BRIDGES, 65-70.

LIBOURNE, PONT DE, on the Dordogne, its cost, 356.

LIFE everywhere has fed on lives, 3, 4, 37, 38;
how lives are sacrificed in the enterprises of “peace,” so-called,
vii, 17, 34 _footnote_.

LIMOUSIN, FRENCH BRIDGES OF THE, their cutwaters, 262.

LINCOLN, HIGH BRIDGE AT, an old housed bridge restored thirteen years
ago, 221-2.

LINCOLN, NEW PORT AT, a Roman arch, 162.

LINTEL-STONE BRIDGES OF LANCASHIRE, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64.

LION GATE AT MYCENAE, belonging to the Heroic Age, 157, 158.

LIONS, DECORATIVE, at Mycenae, 158;
on a Roman bridge, 177;
on Chinese bridges, 127, 311, 313, 315.

LISTER, LORD, his genius came so very late in the history of man that
it mocked all the dead generations of perhaps a million years,
31.

LITERARY PROJECTS, their division into two classes, v.

“LIU SOH,” a Chinese suspension bridge, 145.

LLANGOLLEN BRIDGE, 258 _footnote_, and 305 _footnote_.

LLANRWST, INIGO JONES’S BRIDGE AT, 282, and _footnote_.

LOCKYER, SIR NORMAN, on the date of Stonehenge, 126.

LONDON BRIDGE, OLD, robbed of her revenues by Henry III and his “dear
wife,” 49-51;
her history, 216-21;
often ravaged by fire, 218-19;
size of the arches and piers, 220-1;
she was an arcaded dam to deepen the water for shipping on the
eastern side, 220;
her chapel, 216-17;
diverting the course of the Thames while she was being built, 253-4;
her drawbridge, 260-1;
her gradual destruction, 219-20.

LONDON BRIDGE, NEW, begun on March 15th, 1824, 219-20;
her scale is too small to be in accord with a tremendous city and a
vast old river, 256-7;
the span of her finest arch, 309;
much money wasted in hammer-dressing the masonry, 325-6;
her length and her total cost, 357.

“LONDINOPOLIS,” HOWELL’S, 216.

LONDON’S ATTITUDE TO BRIDGES, past and present, 49-51, 256, 325, 326,
327.

LOSTWITHIEL BRIDGE, 305 _footnote_.

LOYANG BRIDGE, China, 126-7.

LUDGATE HILL, London, its detestable railway bridge, 326.

LUDLOW BRIDGE had a chapel, 231.

LUYNES, REMAINS OF A ROMAN AQUEDUCT AT, 176.

LYDSTEP ARCH on the coast of Pembroke, a Nature-made archway that
resembles a bridge, 150 _footnote_.

LYON, ROMAN AQUEDUCT AT, 176, 213;
at Lyon, in 1755, an attempt was made to build an iron bridge, but
it failed, 348.

MACHICOLATIONS, openings between the corbels that support a
projecting parapet, or in the floor of a gallery or the roof of
a portal, for shooting or dropping missiles and boiling liquids
upon assailants attacking the base of the walls. They were used
in the defence of old bastille bridges, and silly modern
engineers have copied them as dummy ornaments with which to
decorate trumpery defenceless gateways and towers, 275, 323.

MACHINE-WORSHIP, or the worship of machines, 78, 79, 341.

MAGALHANES, P., on the Chinese bridge of Pulisangan, 311 _footnote_.

MARCIAN AQUEDUCT, 189, and _footnote_.

MARCO POLO, on Chinese bridges in the thirteenth century, 128, 210,
310, 313.

MARNUN, PUL-I, at Isfahan, 212.

MARTINEAU, JAMES, on the law of battle, 36.

MARTORELL BRIDGE in Spain, 27 _footnote_.

MASONS’ MARKS, Roman, 171.

MATHEMATICIANS, how they interfered in bridge-building of the 18th
century, 337.

MATHILDA, QUEEN, twelfth century, builds and endows Bow Bridge, 98.

MEAUX, THE MILLER’S BRIDGE AT, 209, 223.

MEDIÆVAL CHURCH, she protected bridges, 40, 51, 96, 207;
see also “Bridge Chapels.”

MEN OF TRADE in their relation to bridges, 77, 78 _et seq._, 326
_et seq._, 349 _et seq._, 357-8.

MEN, ORDINARY, are the mimics and mechanics of genius, 58.

MENAI BRIDGE, 344.

MÉNARD, M., historian of Nîmes, 174.

MENKAURA, PYRAMID OF, at Gizeh, has a pointed arch, 156.

MÉRIDA, in Spain, her Roman aqueducts and bridges, 181, 182, 200, 285
_footnote_.

MEROE, IN A PYRAMID AT, there is a semicircular arch composed of
voussoirs, 160.

METAL BRIDGES, Chinese, 344-5;
European, 144 _footnote_, 348 _et seq._;
American, 352 _et seq._

METHODS, NEW, IN MILITARY WAR, their effects on bridge-building, vii,
viii, 15, 358, 359.

MICHELANGELO, wrongly reputed to be the author of the Rialto, 211.

MIDDLE AGES, 26, 49, 50, 83;
see also “Bridge Chapels,” “War-Bridges,” “Mediæval Church,” and
the Gothic bridges drawn by Frank Brangwyn.

MILITARY BRIDGES, see “War-Bridges.”

MILITARY FORETHOUGHT, the need of it in bridges, vii, viii, 15,
238-9, 244, 259, 260, 261, 272, 328, 331, 334, 337, 350, 352,
355-9.

MILL, JOHN STUART, on the law of battle in Nature, 37.

MILLAU, 209, and illustration facing page 352.

MILL BRIDGES, 209, 223, 224;
see also the picture of Millau Bridge facing page 352.

MILVIUS, PONS, ancient name of the Ponte Molle, 197.

MIMICRY, or imitation, frees the large human mind from the labour
pains of thinking, 105.

MIMICS, NATURE’S SCHOOL FOR, see Chapter II.

MIOCENE AGE and Nature-made bridges, 113-14.

MODERN BRIDGES, see the last chapter;
also “Metal Bridges,” “London Bridge, New,” “Railway Bridges,” etc.

MODERN SPIRIT, its intemperate vulgarity, 13, 48, 270.

MOLLE, PONTE, modern name for the Pons Milvius, 197.

MONEY bequeathed to bridges, 227, 233.

MONKS OF STRATA FLORIDA built the Devil’s Bridge at Aberystwyth, 67.

MONMOUTH, MONNOW BRIDGE AT, a fortified work, 93, 280, 281.

MONNOW BRIDGE at Monmouth, 93, 280, 281.

MONTAUBAN, THE PONT DES CONSULS AT, 27, 254-7.

MONZIE, near Crieff, in Perthshire, a bridge there similar to
Harold’s Bridge at Waltham Abbey, 163.

MOORE, SIR JOHN, his relation to Spanish bridges, 29 _footnote_,
334-5.

MOORS in Spain, their influence on architecture, 28, 29.

MORE, SIR THOMAS, his decapitated head was displayed on Old London
Bridge, 261.

MORSTON, HAMO DE, in the story of Old Shoreham Bridge, 43 _et seq._

MOSELLE BRIDGE at Coblentz, 260.

MOTHER-IDEAS in human history, 56, 57, 58;
the earliest in the evolution of bridges, 56, 57;
they are phases of strife, 59, 60;
see also “Genius.”

MUD, its use in humble architecture probably borrowed from birds,
111, and _footnote_.

MUNRO, ROBERT, M.A., M.D., etc., his valuable book on “Archaeology
and False Antiquities,” 21.

MURCHISON, SIR RODERICK, famous geologist, his remarks on
rock-basins, 152 _footnote_.

MUTE HISTORIANS, silent works of art, such as great bridges and
churches, 25.

MYCENAE, some of her ancient relics considered in their relation to
the history of vaults and arches, 157 _et seq._

NANTES, her mediæval bridge, now gone, 224-5.

NAPOLÉON, PONT, near Saint-Sauveur, 278, 280.

NARNI, a broken war-bridge of the thirteenth century, 277-8.

NARNI BRIDGE, remains of a Roman masterpiece, 23, 24, 25.

NARROW ARCHES in the first Roman aqueducts and bridges, 191-2.

NARSES, general and statesman, in the reign of Justinian, rebuilt the
Pons Salarus, 191.

NATIONAL DEFENCE, in its relation to bridges, vii, viii, 15, 238-9,
244, 259, 260, 261, 272, 328, 331, 334, 337, 350, 352, 355-9.

NATURAL ARCHES, 6, and _footnote_, 150-6.

NATURAL BRIDGES, 3, 4, 6, and _footnote_;
see also Chapter II.

NATURE, her social rule in her cellular commonwealths is far superior
to the social rule in human societies, 19.

NATURE, her School for Mimics, see Chapter II.

NATURE-MADE BRIDGES, 3, 4, 6, and _footnote_;
see also Chapter II.

NATURE’S STRIFE, 3, 4, 37;
see also “Strife and Historic Bridges,” 14-52.

NAVILLY, PONT DE, by Gauthey, its imperfect decoration, 322.

NERONIANUS, PONS, 197.

NERO’S AQUEDUCT, 189.

NESTS, BIRDS’, their influence on handicraft, 111, 112.

NEUILLY-SUR-SEINE, PONT DE, by Perronet, 338.

NEVILLE, COUNT, in 1440, bequeathed twenty pounds to “Ulshawe
Bridge,” 10.

NEW BRIDGE on Thames, near Kingston, its Early English arches, 96.

NEWCASTLE BRIDGE possessed a chapel, 231.

NEWCASTLE HIGH LEVEL BRIDGE, 79-80.

NEWMAN, CARDINAL, on the terrible strife in human history, 38, 39.

NEW MANHATTAN BRIDGE at New York, 354.

NEW PORT at Lincoln, a Roman arch, 162.

NEY, MARSHAL, his celebrated criticism of the aqueduct of Segovia,
184.

NOBLEMEN, RIVAL, in the Middle Ages, often opposed the building of
bridges, 250-1.

NOMENTANO, PONTE, 298-9;
also the picture facing page 296.

NONE-SUCH HOUSE on Old London Bridge, 216.

NORFOLK BRIDGES, 135.

NORFOLK SHRINES in the Middle Ages, 236.

NORMAN BRIDGES, 96, 97, 98.

NOTRE-DAME, PONT, Paris, 225.

OBELISKS on the Hoogesluis at Amsterdam, 323.

OGIVALE ARCHES, see “Pointed Arches.”

OLD LONDON BRIDGE, see “London Bridge, Old.”

ORENSE, in Gallicia, her famous gabled bridge, 28, 29, and _footnote_.

ORLÉANS, PONT D’, in the fifteenth century, 239;
her Belle Croix, 246-7.

ORNAMENT ON BRIDGES, see “Bridge Decoration” or “Decoration of
Bridges.”

ORTHEZ, VIEUX PONT, mediæval war-bridge, 278-9. There are two
conflicting accounts of the part played by this bridge in the
battle of Orthez, February 27th, 1814. One of them says that the
bridge was neutralised by agreement in order to spare it from
destruction; the other account declares that the solidity of the
stonework baffled the French attempts to break it down. Anyhow,
the bridge was not used in the action. Hill crossed well above
it, and Picton and Beresford below. Napier says: “Hill, who had
remained with 12,000 combatants, cavalry and infantry, before
the bridge of Orthez, received orders, when Wellington changed
his plan of attack, to force the passage of the Gave, partly in
the view of preventing Harispe from falling upon the flank of
the sixth division, partly in the hope of a successful issue to
the attempt: and so it happened. Hill, though unable to force
the bridge, forded the river above at Souars, and driving back
the troops posted there, seized the heights above, cut off the
French from the road to Pau, and turned the town of Orthez.”

OUSE BRIDGE at York, 241-3, and _footnote_.

OUTLAWS, MEDIÆVAL, in their relation to fords and bridges, 207, 208.

PACIFISTS, their false and weakening ideas considered in relation to
the varied strife circulated by roads and bridges, vii, 3, 4,
14-52, 360-1.

PAGET AND THE 10TH HUSSARS, how they protected Moore’s retreat at the
bridges of Castro Gonzalo and Constantino, 335.

PALÆOLITHIC AGE, 62, 110, 131.

PALÆOLITHIC ART, and its approximate date, 131.

PALLADIAN BRIDGE in Prior Park, 343.

PALLADIO, ANDREA, Italian architect, _b._ 1518--_d._ 1580, his
evidence on the Roman bridges in Italy, 193-4, 195-7, 198-9;
his design for the Rialto rejected, though it was better than
Antonio da Ponte’s, 212, and _footnote_.

PANDY OLD BRIDGE at Bettws-y-Coed, 163.

PARADISO, MATHEO, a military architect, in 1217, built a gate-tower
to defend the Alcántara at Toledo, 287.

PARAPETS, low walls or railings serving to protect the edge of
a bridge; they rest on the outer spandrils; sometimes they
project beyond and need brackets or corbels, like the Pont Neuf
at Paris, 321-2, and plate facing page 320. Often in the Middle
Ages some parts of the parapets were crenellated, as they are
above the angular piers of the Valentré at Cahors, see the
colour plate facing page 264; even some modern defenceless
bridges have battlemented parapets, for the imitative silliness
of industrial engineers delights in foolish make-believe.
Parapets cannot be studied with too much care, so there are
frequent references to them throughout this monograph. Some
Roman bridges were built without parapets; there is an example
near Colne, 162, 164; and many of the gabled bridges in Spain
repeat in a giddy manner this dangerous defect, 27.

PARIS AND HER BRIDGES, 225, 321-2. Here is a fine subject for a
book. There is a good reference to the Paris bridges of the year
1517-18 in the “Revue des Deux Mondes,” xlvii., Sep., 1908, p.
467. Five bridges existed then, three stone structures, and two
of wood; and all of them had houses from one end to the other.
Tolls were charged and they belonged to the King. Several
illustrations of Paris bridges will be found in Lacroix,
“Manners, Customs and Dress during the Middle Ages.” On page 321
there is one of the year 1500; see also in the same book pp.
302, 316, and 471.

PARLIAMENT OF TASTE, A, necessary in all large towns for the
discussion of art in all matters that concern the public
intimately, 324-5.

PARTHENAY BRIDGE, a Bastille bridge of the Middle Ages, 34, 35, 281,
and the
plate facing page 36.

PAUL’S BRIDGE, ST., 327.

PAVIA, her famous covered bridge of the 14th century, 308-9.

PAVILIONS in the Pul-i-Khaju at Isfahan, 214, 215, and the line block
on page 213.

PEACE, considered in her relation to the varied strife circulated
by roads and bridges. She is an illusion of the mind and belongs
to a routine of idle sentiment, vii, because every phase of
human enterprise claims a battle-toll of killed and wounded and
maimed, vii, 3, 4, 33-6; see also section ii, Chapter I, 14-52,
and 333, 351, 360-1.

PEACE FANATICS, their dangerous influence on foreign politics, 33
_footnote_, 351, 360-1.

PENINSULAR WAR, the Roman bridge at Alcántara, 16, 186;
the Roman bridge at Constantino, 335;
Orense Bridge, 29 _footnote_.

PERFORATED TOWERS on bridges; modern engineers have passed
suspension cables through towers instead of passing them over
the summits, 346, 354.

PERRONET, JEAN RODOLPHE, 1708-94, French engineer-architect, 282-3,
337-8, also _footnote_ 338.

PERSHORE BRIDGE, 355.

PERSIAN BRIDGES, 202-4, 211, 212-16, 265-70.

PERUVIAN BRIDGES, 146 _et seq._

PHALLUS, a symbol of prosperity, carved twice in low-relief on the
Pont du Gard, 174.

PIERS OF BRIDGES, 114, 200, 264, 316, 338, 341, 342, 353, 354.
There are other references also, but the reader will be able to
follow the history of piers from the natural bridge of
stepping-stones through the many changes and defects mentioned
in the text. To-day, with the rapid improvements in airships and
aeroplanes, new armoured piers will have to be designed, strong
enough to bear the great weight of a roofed superstructure of
armour-plate steel, yet not thick enough to obstruct rivers. Now
that bridges are as vulnerable as Zeppelin sheds, engineers have
an excellent chance to serve their countries well by inventing
new and powerful bridges. How to protect piers--at least as much
as possible--from direct artillery fire is one very difficult
problem; how to protect them from falling shells and bombs is
another. When London is fitted adequately with new defensive
bridges her river will be as impressive as a fleet of
super-Dreadnoughts. See also “Abutment Piers.”

PIERS, CRISS-CROSS, Gaulish, 70;
in Kashmír, 71-3;
in North Russia, 73.

PIERS, FOUNDING, 99, 197, 251-2, 341-2.

PIGS, in China, sacrificed to rivers when bridges are in danger from
floods, 69 _footnote_, 248.

PINGERON, M., his remarks on Loyang Bridge, 127.

PIRANESI, GIAMBATTISTA, 1720-78, 193, 197.

PISA, her chapelled bridge, 209. The late Mr. S. Wayland Kershaw
wrote as follows in 1882: “The most remarkable bridge chapel
abroad is the one dedicated to Santa Maria del’ Epina on the
side of the bridge over the Arno at Pisa, erected about 1230.
Built of the rich stone and marble of the district, it is
ornamented with niches and figures, and, though renovated and
repaired, still presents a graceful appearance.”

POINTED ARCHES AND VAULTS, in Nature, 6 _footnote_;
in Egypt of the Fourth Dynasty, 155-6;
in Babylonian work, 275 _footnote_;
at Arpino, 156;
in early French bridges, 6 _footnote_, 86-93.

POITOU, in its relation to ribbed arches in bridges, 95.

POLO, MARCO, 128, 210, 310, 313.

PONS ÆLIUS, 194-5.

PONS ÆMILIUS, 193 _footnote_.

PONS AURELIUS, 197.

PONS CESTIUS, 196-7.

PONS FABRICIUS, 195-6.

PONS GRATIANUS, 196.

PONS LAPIDEUS, 140.

PONS MILVIUS, 197.

PONS NERONIANUS, 197.

PONS PALATINUS or Senatorius, 192-3.

PONS SALARUS, 191.

PONS SELMIS, 178.

PONS SUBLICIUS, 41, 64, 136, 140.

PONS TRIUMPHALIS, 197.

PONS VATICANUS, 197.

PONT AU CHANGE, a Paris bridge, 224.

PONT AUX MEUNIERS, a Paris bridge, 224.

PONT D’ARC, a Nature-made bridge, 6.

PONT D’AMBROISE, a Roman bridge, 82.

PONT DE BROEL, a Flemish war-bridge, 290.

PONT D’ESPAGNE, a modern French bridge, 278.

PONT DES CONSULS, a mediæval bridge at Montauban, 27, 254-6.

PONT DE VERNAY at Airvault, see the plate facing page 96.

PONT DU GARD, Roman bridge-aqueduct, 83, 167-75.

PONT FLAVIEN at Saint-Chamas, Roman bridge, 176-7.

PONT NAPOLÉON, a great modern bridge, 278.

PONT NEUF, Paris, 321-2, and the illustration.

PONT NOTRE DAME, Paris, 225.

PONT ST. BÉNÉZET at Avignon, frontispiece, 81-4, 217, 236-9, 262,
297.

PONT ST. CLOUD, 296.

PONT ST. ESPRIT, 92, 126, 296 _et seq._

PONT ST. MICHEL at Paris, 225.

PONT VALENTRÉ at Cahors, 263-4, 282-5.

PONT-Y-MYNACH, the Devil’s Bridge near Aberystwyth, 67 _et seq._

PONT-Y-PANT, 131.

PONT-Y-PRYDD, 28 _footnote_.

PONTE AUGUSTUS at Rimini, 199.

PONTE CARTARO at Ascoli-Piceno, 201.

PONTE CECCO at Ascoli-Piceno, 201.

PONTE DELLA TRINITÀ at Florence, 222, 316.

PONTE DI PORTA CAPPUCINA at Ascoli-Piceno, 201.

PONTE MAGGIORE at Ascoli-Piceno, 200.

PONTE MOLLE, 197.

PONTE NOMENTANO, 298-9;
also the picture facing page 296.

PONTE QUATTRO CAPI, 196.

PONTE ROTTO, 23, 192.

PONTE S. BARTOLOMMEO, 196.

PONTE SALARO, 191.

PONTE SANT’ ANGELO, 194-5, 324.

PONTE SISTO, 197, 265.

PONTE VECCHIO, 210, 222.

PONTISM, the historical study of bridges.

PONTIST, a devotee of bridges and their history.

PONTIST Brothers or Friars, or Frères Pontifes, 83, 90, 91, 92,
296, 297, 342.
St. Bénézet was one of the leaders in this religious brotherhood
of good craftsmen.

PORTA DELL’ ARCO at Arpino, celebrated in the history of pointed
arches, 156-7.

PORTAGE BRIDGE, GREAT, on the Genesee River, 353-4.

PORTER, SIMON, bailiff at Old Shoreham in the year 1318;
his official defence of the neglected timber bridge, 41-2.

POSTBRIDGE, Dartmoor, its famous clapper bridge, 104.

PRATT, GODFREY, nefarious guardian of Old Bow Bridge, 98-9.

PREHISTORIC BRIDGES, and their descent from Nature’s models, see
Chapters I and II.

PRESTON BRIDGE, 250 _footnote_.

PRIOR PARK, Palladian Bridge, 343.

PROGRESS IN HUMAN SOCIETIES, its terrible slowness, 39, and section
iii, Chapter I, “Custom and Convention,” 53-84;
see also 110, 333.

PUENTE DE SAN MARTIN at Toledo, 287-8.

PUENTE LA REINA, 27 _footnote_.

PUENTE NUEVO at Ronda, 280, and _footnote_.

PUENTE TRAJAN over the Tagus at Alcántara, 6, 153, 183, 186, 212, 321.

PUL-I-KAISAR at Shushter in Persia, 202-4.

PUL-I-KÂREDJ in Persia, 265-6.

PUL-I-KHAJU at Isfahan, 212-16.

PUL-I-MARNUN at Isfahan, 212;
see also “Persian Bridges” and “Ali Verdi Khan.”

PULISANGAN, China, 310-12.

PULTENEY, WILLIAM, his bridge at Bath, 221.

PURITANS, their enmity to chapelled bridges and to wayside shrines,
230, 233 _et seq._

PYRENEES, FRENCH, great bridges there, 278-80.

QUAKERS, their attitude to the strife that bridges and roads
circulate, 35-6.

QUALITIES OF A GREAT BRIDGE, 320.

QUICKSANDS OF CHEAPNESS, 48.

RABOT, THE, at Ghent, a fortified bridge and lock, 289, 291.

RAILWAY BRIDGES, often detestable, 5, 77, 78;
conventional arguments which have governed their structure, 77;
the High Level Bridge at Newcastle, 79-81;
the Tay Bridge and its disaster, 339-42;
the Forth Bridge, 350;
the Illinois and St. Louis Bridge over the Mississippi, 352-3;
the Great Portage Bridge over the Genesee River, 353-4.
Many railway bridges over strategical rivers can be displaced by
tunnels, but many others must be armoured with cone-shaped roofs
as a protection against overhead wars from airships and
aeroplanes, 358. See Albi Railway Bridge, the plate facing page
8, and Cannon Street Railway Bridge, the plate facing page 48.

RAMESES II, TEMPLE OF, at Abydos, has a primitive vault built with
horizontal courses of stone, showing its descent from the
rock archways made by Nature, 155.

REFINEMENT, a quality often overdone in British art, 168.

REICHENAU, JOHN GRUBENMANN’S BRIDGE AT, 142.

RELIEF BAYS FOR FLOOD WATER, they were introduced by the Romans,
284, and were copied by mediæval bridgemen; witness the Pont des
Consuls at Montauban, 255, 256, and the Pont St. Esprit, 293,
297. Pontists should note both the difference of shape in
flood-water bays and the variation of their position in the
architecture. At Mérida, for example, in the great squat Roman
bridge, they are long and round-headed, and rise from the low
and bold cutwaters, which are overgrown with grey-green mosses
and grass. On the other hand, a Moorish bridge of four arches
near Tangier has much smaller relief bays with round heads, and
they are pierced high up through the spandrils. They look like
three little windows that give light and air to a work of
sun-bleached antiquity. Moreover, their shape is repeated in
about a dozen little holes cut through the base of the parapet,
perhaps to help in the drainage of the roadway, perhaps to be
useful in military defence. This Moorish bridge has semicircular
arches, and the road is inclined over each abutment, just like
the Roman bridge at Rimini. But the technical sentiment is less
virile than the Roman.

RELIGIOUS EMBLEMS OR SYMBOLS on Historic Bridges, such as the
Phallus on the Pont du Gard, 174; the Janus heads on the Pons
Fabricius, 196; the idol or image on the Chinese bridge at
Shih-Chuan, 247; and the cross and crucifix on Gothic bridges of
the Middle Ages, 96, 230, 246. The symbolic lion and tortoise on
the Chinese bridge of Pulisangan were borrowed from the _singa_
and _Kûrma_ of Hindu mythology, 311 _footnote_. I should like
the cross to be raised again on all bridges in unfortified
towns, as a protest against a Teutonic misuse of flying warfare.

RENAISSANCE, THE, and its Genius, in the war-bridge at Würzburg,
Bavaria, 259;
in Venetian bridges, 211-12, 307, 315-16;
in the bastille bridge at Châtellerault, 331-4;
in the gradual decline of bridges from military forethought into a
complete disregard for national defence, 336-44;
in wasteful artistry such as redundant ornament and too elaborate
parapets, 320, 321, 322, 324, 325, 326.

RENNIE, GEORGE, his design for London New Bridge has defects of
scale, 256, 257.

RENNIE, JOHN, _b._ 1761--d. 1821, his poor bridge over the Thames
at Southwark was financed by a Company, not by the City, as if
London were a trivial village with some new industries that
needed encouragement, 326-7.

RENNIE, SIR JOHN, son of John Rennie and brother of George Rennie,
was the acting engineer during the building of New London
Bridge, according to Professor Fleeming Jenkin.

RESEARCH, its illimitable scope in the study of bridges, 3-13.

RHÔNE, THE RIVER, his two famous old bridges, the Pont St. Bénézet
and the Pont St. Esprit, both constructed by the _Frères
Pontifes_, or Pontist Brothers. See Brangwyn’s pictures and the
text.

RIALTO, Venice, 209, 211-12.

RIBBED ARCHES, like those in the Monnow Bridge at Monmouth, 281,
and the Pont de Vernay at Airvault, Deux-Sèvres, plate facing
page 96. The introduction of ribbed vaulting into English
churches and bridges, 93-100. Professor Moseley’s remarks on
groined or ribbed arches may be quoted here from Hann and
Hosking’s profuse volumes. “The groin ... is nothing more than
an arch whose voussoirs vary as well in breadth as in depth. The
centres of gravity of the different elementary voussoirs of this
mass lie all in its plane of symmetry. Its line of resistance is
therefore in that plane.... Four groins commonly spring from one
abutment; each _opposite_ pair being addossed, and each
_adjacent_ pair uniting their margins. Thus they lend one
another mutual support, partake in the properties of a dome, and
form a continued covering. The groined arch is of all arches the
most stable; and could materials be found of sufficient strength
to form its abutments and the parts about its springing, I am
inclined to think that it might be built safely of any required
degree of flatness, and that spaces of enormous dimensions might
readily be covered by it.” Yet “modern builders, whilst they
have erected the common arch on a scale of magnitude nearly
approaching perhaps the limits to which it can be safely
carried, have been remarkably timid in the use of the groin.”
Progress may be compared to a dilatory army that ever fails to
march forward with all its needed units.

RICHMOND BRIDGE, Yorkshire, had a chapel, 231.

RIMINI, her Roman bridges, 82, 199, 200, 220.

RING OF AN ARCH, the compressed arc of voussoirs, 264; the lower
surface of a ring is called the soffit of an arch. In some
bridges the voussoirs form a double or a triple ring, 305, and
_footnote_. Two very fine bridges of this sort, in my collection
of photographs, are the Pont de Vernay at Airvault, 12th
century, and the Pont Saint-Généroux over the Thouët, also in
Deux-Sèvres, 13th and 14th centuries. Another monument to be
studied is the reputed Roman bridge at Viviers over the Rhône,
built mainly with small materials. Whether Roman or Romanesque,
the structure of the arches has great interest, and a large
photograph is sold by Neurdein, 52 Avenue de Breteuil, Paris.

RIVERS, how their violence has given lessons to bridge-builders, 181.

ROADS, ANCIENT BRITISH, 22; Roman, 139, and _footnote_; they and
bridges circulate all the strife in the overland enterprise of
mankind, 4, 14-52; types of society are as old as their systems
of circulation, just as women and men are as old as their
arteries, 13; mediæval roads in England, 51, 52. Many of them
were a survival of the Roman empire, in which the construction
of highways was a military and political necessity. The
genuinely mediæval roads connected new towns with the main or
ancient thoroughfares, which had traversed Roman Britain from
her principal colonies, London and York, to the other
settlements. “The roads of England,” says Thorold Rogers, “are
roughly exhibited in a fourteenth century map still preserved in
the Bodleian Library, and are identical with many of the
highways which we know familiarly. In time these highways fell
out of repair, and were put in the eighteenth century under the
Turnpike Acts, when they were repaired. But comparatively little
of the mileage of English roads is modern. What has been
constructed has generally been some shorter and easier routes,
for in the days of the stage-coaches it was highly expedient to
equalize the stages.”

ROANNE, PONT DE, its length and its cost, 356.

ROBIN HOOD BALLADS, their rustic charm is repeated in some old
English bridges, 9, 44.

ROCHE PERCÉE, LA, at Biarritz, natural arched opening, 151.

ROCHE TROUÉE, LA, near Saint-Gilles Croix-de-Vie, 151.

ROCHESTER BRIDGE and her Chapel, 243-6.

ROCK-BASINS, their formation by the erosive power of glaciers, 152,
and _footnote_.

ROCK-BRIDGES, or bridges made by Nature, 6, and _footnote_, 150-3.

ROGERS, THOROLD, PROFESSOR, on mediævalism and industrialism, 47;
on mediæval roads, 52;
see also “Roads.”

ROMAN GATEWAYS to defend bridges, 176-7, 272.

ROMAN GENIUS, 23-5, 26-7, 30, and Chapter III.

ROMAN CASTLES OR TOWERS to defend bridges, at Mérida, 182, at
Alcantarilla, 367-8.

ROME, ANCIENT, her bridges, 193 _et seq._

RONDA AND HER BRIDGES, 183, 280, and _footnote_.

RONDELET’S “Essai Historique sur le Pont de Rialto,” 212.

ROOFED BRIDGES, the Pons Ælius is said to have had a bronze cover
upheld by forty-two pillars, 195;
Chinese examples, at Ching-tu-fu, 211 _footnote_, in Western China,
291;
Grubenmann’s timber bridge at Schaffhausen, 141;
Italian, at Pavia, 308, at Venice, 211;
Sumatra, 291;
Swiss, 291-2;
steel-clad roofs to protect bridges from airships and aeroplanes,
358, 359.

ROPE, its first model was the twisted stem of a vine-like creeping
plant, 145;
bamboo ropes, 145, 348, and _footnote_;
ropes of Peruvian grass, 146-7.

ROSS-ON-WYE, Wilton Bridge, an Elizabethan structure with ribbed
arches and angular recesses for pedestrians, 94, 182, and
_footnote_. Recently, I regret to say, this beautiful old bridge
has been attacked by the highwaymen called road officials; and
now she is horribly scarred all over with “pointing,” just like
the mishandled Roman bridge at Alcántara. A new bridge of
ferro-concrete, suitable for motor lorries and the like, would
have cost the county less than this uneducated trifling with a
genuine masterpiece.

ROSTRO-CARINATE, flint tools shaped like an eagle’s beak, 120.

ROTHERHAM BRIDGE AND HER CHAPEL, 93, 209, 219, 232-3.

ROTHENBURG on the Tauber, her two-storeyed bridge, 271.

ROTTO, PONTE, at Rome, 23, 192, 193.

ROUSSEAU, JEAN JACQUES, French philosopher and writer, born in
Geneva, 1712, _d._ 1778;
his visit to the Pont du Gard, 168.

RULES OF WAR in the Middle Ages, curious French examples, 237, 241-2.

RUNCORN BRIDGE, dating from 1868, 275.

SAINT ANGELO’S BRIDGE at Rome, 194-5, 324.

SAINT BÉNÉZET’S BRIDGE at Avignon, frontispiece, 81, 82, 83, 217,
236-8, 262, 280 _footnote_.

SAINT-CHAMAS and the Pont Flavien, 176-7.

SAINT-CLOUD, PONT, 296.

SAINT-ESPRIT, PONT, 92, 293-8.

ST. IVES in Huntingdonshire, her chapelled bridge, 232.

ST. MARTIN’S BRIDGE at Toledo, 285, 287-8.

ST. MICHEL, PONT, Paris, 225.

ST. NEOT’S BRIDGE, 305 _footnote_.

SAINT-NICOLAS, PONT, on the road to Nîmes, 295.

SAINT-THIBÉRY, a Roman bridge near, 178.

SAINTES, BRIDGE AT, in France, and its tremendous fortifications,
300-1.

SALAMANCA, Roman bridge at, 182, 285 _footnote_.

SALARO, PONTE, 191.

SALFORD BRIDGE, its date, 250 _footnote_.

“SANS-PAREIL, LE,” Beffara’s bridge near Ardres, 305-6.

SARGISSON, C. S., pontist, vi, 61 _footnote_, 163.

SAVOY, hills of, survival there of Gaulish timber bridges, 70-1.

SCALE in the Proportion of Bridges, 256;
defective in many English bridges, 256-7.

SCATCHERD, N., his writing on Wakefield Bridge Chapel, 228
_footnote_, 230.

SCHAFFHAUSEN, Ulric Grubenmann’s bridge at, 141-2.

SCHLOSS BRÜCKE at Berlin, a feeble copy of the Ponte Sant’ Angelo in
Rome, 324.

SCIENTIFIC BRIDGES, Modern, 337-42, 349-53.

SCOTCH BRIDGES, 44.

SCOTCH, their neglect of ribbed arches, 94.

SEGÓVIA, the Roman Aqueduct, visited by Marshal Ney, 183-4;
its technique, 189.

SEMIRAMIS, her reputed bridge over the Euphrates at Babylon, 273-4.

SENTIMENTALISTS, BRITISH, 33 _et seq._, 294, 360-1.

SEWERS, Roman, 161.

SEX IN BRIDGES, 194, 284-5, 293-4.

SEXTUS IV and the Ponte Sisto, 197, 265.

SHAKESPEARE, his debt to the Mediæval Church, 233.

SHAPUR I of Persia, 202.

SHIH-CHUAN, in Western China, its important bridge, 247.

SHOREHAM BRIDGE, OLD, in Sussex, 41-3.

SHREWSBURY, WELSH BRIDGE AT, used to be a fortified work, 261.

SHRINES, WAYSIDE, 207, 230, 236, 246-7.

SHRINED BRIDGE at Elche in Spain, picture facing page 236;
at Trier over the Moselle, 247.

SHUSHTER, in Persia, the Pul-i-Kaisar, 202-4.

SICHUAN, China, bridges in this province, 126, 145, 210 _footnote_,
248, 315, 347.

SIGHS, BRIDGE OF, 307.

SIN-DIN-FU, now called Ching-tu-fu, this city’s bridges as seen by
Marco Polo, 210 _footnote_.

SISTO, PONTE, 197, 265.

SLAB-BRIDGES with Stone Piers, 125-8; see also 61-3, 100-5.

SLEEP is united by bad dreams to the law of battle, vii.

SMEATON, JOHN, English civil engineer, _b._ 1724--_d._ 1792, his
big “scientific” bridge over the Tyne at Hexham was a tragic
failure, 339.

SMILES, SAMUEL, Scottish author and pontist, 104.

SMITH, SIR WILLIAM, English classical scholar, the Pons Sublicius,
140;
the Porta dell’ Arco at Arpino, 157;
the stones employed in the Pont du Gard, 171 _footnote_;
the masonry of the Pont du Gard, 175 _footnote_;
Roman aqueducts, 189 _footnote_;
the Pons Salarus, 191;
Pons Cestius, 196;
Pons Neronianus, 197.

SMYRNA, Roman Bridge and Aqueduct, 164.

SOMMIÈRES, on the Vidourle, Roman bridge at, 179.

SOSPEL, GATEWAY BRIDGE AT, 276.

SOUTHWARK BRIDGE, London, its queer history, 326-7, 357.

SPAIN AND HER BRIDGES, 13, 27-9, 104-5, 179-88, 238, 285-9.

SPANS, WIDE, IN STONE BRIDGES, the Puente de San Martin, Toledo, 140
feet, 288;
at Trezzo, 251 feet, 309;
Grosvenor Bridge, Chester, 200 feet, 309;
Trajan’s Bridge over the Tagus, 309
New London Bridge, and Waterloo Bridge, 309-10;
Pont de Gignac and Pont de Lavaur, 160 feet each, 310;
Bridge of Cho-Gan, China, 313-14.

SPEED-WORSHIP, and its effects on the strife that bridges and roads
circulate, 48.

SPIDERS gave lessons to primitive men in the building of suspension
bridges, 145.

SPIERS, R. PHENÉ, architect and writer on architecture, 190, 199.

SPRINGERS, the voussoirs at the springing of an arch.

SPRINGING OF AN ARCH, the plane of demarcation between the ring
and the abutment is called the springing. In other words, the
springing marks the place where a ring of voussoirs starts out
on its upward curve from a pier or from an abutment.

SRÍNAGAR, capital of Kashmír, her bridges with criss-cross piers of
deodar logs or trunks, 71-2.

STAIRCASE BRIDGE in China, 248.

TAHMASP, SHAH, of Persia, who reigned from 1523 to 1575, built the
Pul-i-Marnun at Isfahan, 212.

TALAVERA BRIDGE, Spain, 285 _footnote_.

TARABITA, a Peruvian suspension bridge, 146.

TARRAGONA, ROMAN AQUEDUCT AT, 189.

TAVIGNANO, RIVER, in Corsica, and its old military bridge shaped like
a Z, 238.

TAXES to help the building and repair of bridges, in London, 50;
at Montauban, 255.

TELFORD, THOMAS, Scottish engineer, _b._ 1757--_d._ 1834;
his views on Grubenmann’s bridge at Schaffhausen, 141-2;
on Inigo Jones’s bridge at Llanrwst, 282 _footnote_;
his foolish bridge at Craigellachie, 349.

TENNYSON, on Nature’s strife, 37;
his talk with a jerry-builder, 78.

TENORIO, PEDRO, ARCHBISHOP, renewed the bridges of Toledo, fourteenth
century, 287, 288-9.

TERRACE-WALK on the Pul-i-Khaju at Isfahan, 215, and on the Ali Verdi
Khan, 270.

TERROR inspired by the slowness of human progress, 55-6.

TERTIARY TIMES, their handicraft, 120-1.

TESSANGES, JEAN DE, Abbot of Cluny, who commissioned the building of
the Pont St. Esprit, 297.

TEWKESBURY, KING JOHN’S BRIDGE AT, 258 _footnote_.

THAMES BRIDGES, 96, 256;
see also “London Bridge” and “Westminster Bridge.”

THEBES, THE TEMPLE OF AMMON-RĒ, an early arch, 155.

THEORY, defined, 11;
misuse of this great word, 12.

THEORY, THE, OF PONTINE DEFENCE, 14-17, and of the universality of
strife, 17-52.

THIRLMERE, a primitive structure at, which is partly a dam, partly a
bridge, 131.

THORNTON, ROGER, of Newcastle, in 1429, bequeathed a hundred marks to
the Tyne Bridge, 10.

THOUARS, in Deux-Sèvres, Gothic bridge at, 275.

THRIFT IN BRIDGE-BUILDING, 264-5, 325-6.

TIBER, THE, and the sacrifice of human beings, 64.

TIBERIUS, he finished the beautiful Roman bridge at Rimini, which
Augustus had begun, 201.

TICINO, THE RIVER, and the covered bridge at Pavia, 308.

TILES, they have been used in some Chinese bridges, 211 _footnote_;
Persian bricks resemble Roman tiles, 267;
the spandrils of the Pul-i-Khaju at Isfahan are mostly filled in
with modern tiles, 215.

TIMBER BRIDGES, the earliest, 3, 58, 114, 115, 116, 118, 119, 122,
123;
tree-bridges with stone piers, 129-32;
tree-bridges with timber piles, 133-5;
some typical timber bridges, 136-43;
in the United States of America, 142-3, 353;
see also “Criss-cross Piers.”

TIRYNS, early vaults at, 157.

TODENTANZBRUCKE AT LUCERNE, 292.

TOLEDO AND HER BRIDGES, 285-9.

TORDESILLAS BRIDGE, Spain, 285 _footnote_.

TORTOISE, SYMBOLIC, used in the decoration of some Chinese bridges,
311.

TOURNAI, PONT DES TROUS AT, 290.

TOURS, PONT DE, on the Loire, her cost and her length, 357;
see the picture facing p. 344.

TOWER BRIDGE, London, 78, 327;
see the two illustrations facing pages 80 and 328.

TRAJAN’S BRIDGE over the Danube, 129-30.

TRAJAN’S BRIDGE over the Tagus, 183-7, 309.

TREASURY OF ATREUS at Mycenae, 158-9.

TREE-BRIDGES, 3, 4, 58, 114, 115-19, 122, 123;
tree-bridges with stone piers, 129-32;
tree-bridges with timber piles, 133-5.

TREZZO BRIDGE, destroyed by Carmagnola, 309-10.

TRIANGULAR ARCHES, 157, 160-1.

TRIANGULAR BRIDGE at Crowland, see “Crowland”; in Spain, 181.

TRIER BRIDGE over the Moselle, with her shrines, 247.

TRINITÀ at Florence, 316-17.

_TRINODA NECESSITAS_, and its relation to bridges and roads, 40 _et
seq._

TRIUMPHAL ARCHES, Roman, on the Pont Flavien at Saint-Chamas, 176;
on the bridge at Saintes, 301, and _footnote_;
on a Chinese bridge described by Gauthey, 315.

TRIUMPHALIS, PONS, 197.

TRUTH differs from fact, 11.

TRUTHS, TECHNICAL, in Bridge-building, 13.

TUDELA BRIDGE, Spain, 285 _footnote_.

TUNNELS bored under water by ants, 122;
tunnels to displace many of those strategical bridges which
airships and aeroplanes could wreck with bombs, 59, 358.

TURNER, J. M. W., his “Walton Bridges,” 6.

TURNPIKE ACT OF 1773, 59.

TURKISH BRIDGE at Zakho, 65-6.

TWIZEL BRIDGE and Flodden Field, 94.

ULLOA, ANTONIO DE, Spanish Admiral and traveller, _b._ 1716--_d._
1795, his book on South America;
primitive timber bridges, 135;
the tarabita, a Peruvian suspension bridge, 146;
the fifth Ynca’s bridge of rushes, 146-7;
bujuco bridges, 147-8.

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA, 142-3, 352-4.

UZÈS, on the road to Nîmes, the Pont Saint-Nicolas, XIII century,
295-6.

VAISON, in Vaucluse, an important Roman bridge at, 176.

VALENTRÉ, PONT, at Cahors, famous war-bridge, 27, 263-4, 282-5, and
two illustrations.

VATICANUS, PONS, 197.

VAUXHALL BRIDGE, London, date and cost, 357.

VECCHIO, PONTE, Florence, 210, 222.

VENICE, the Rialto, 209, 211-12, and the picture facing page 212;
Ponte della Paglia, the picture facing page 152;
a canal bridge, 329.

VERONA. The fine Veronese bridges are not mentioned in this
monograph; they passed from the text in a revision; but pontists
know them well, and set great store by the charming Ponte di
Pietra, and by the old sloping bridge with forked battlements
that swaggers picturesquely across the Adige from the Castel
Vecchio. The Ponte di Pietra rises from ancient foundations and
she still retains two Roman arches, certainly often restored;
the other spans are gracefully architectural. A circular bay for
the relief of floods tunnels the spandrils above the cutwater of
the middle pier.

VICENZA, two bridges of Roman origin, 199.

VIOLLET-LE-DUC, EUGÈNE EMMANUEL, French architect and historian of
architecture, _b._ 1814--_d._ 1879. Gaulish bridges, 70, 71;
_arcs doubleaux_, or ribbed arches, 94, 95;
the millers’ bridge at Meaux, 223;
some other mill bridges, 224;
on the shape of cutwaters, 262;
on the martial bridge at Saintes, 300, 301.

VISCONTI, BERNABÒ, founder of the bridge at Trezzo, 309.

VISCONTI, GIAN GALEAZZO, founder of the covered bridge at Pavia, 308.

VITRUVIUS, 190.

VOLCANOES, their lava hardened into a thick crust over many gaps in
the land forming slab-bridges, 124.

VOUSSOIRS, or archstones; they form the compressed arc called the
ring.

WAKEFIELD BRIDGE and her Chapel, 209, 226-30.

WALES, her bridges, 45, 46;
see also “Brecon,” “Llangollen,” “Pont-y-Pant,” and “Pont-y-Prydd.”

WALLA BROOK, Dartmoor, 60, 100.

WALLINGFORD BRIDGE had a Chapel, 231.

WALTHAM ABBEY AND HAROLD’S BRIDGE, 163.

WAR, every sort of human enterprise must be a phase of war, for it
claims a battle-toll of killed and wounded and maimed;
strife everywhere is the historian of life, vii;
examples of this truth chosen from the illusion named Peace, 17,
33-6;
see also “Strife and Historic Bridges,” 14-52.

WAR, THE PRESENT GREAT, against Germany and Austria, vii, 33
_footnote_, 350, 358-61.

WAR-BRIDGES, vii;
a broken one of the XIII century at Narni in Italy, 14, 277-8;
a fine one of the XIV century at Orthez in France, 18, 278-9;
how war-bridges originated, 118-19;
Roman examples at Mérida, 182, and Alcantarilla, 367;
the Pont des Consuls at Montauban, 254-6;
Würzburg Bridge in Bavaria, 259;
the drawbridge of Old London Bridge, 260-1;
Warkworth Bridge, 261-2;
Pont Valentré at Cahors, 263-4, 282-5;
in Bhutan, India, 272 _et seq._;
at Sospel, 276;
Monnow Bridge at Monmouth, 281-2;
the Alcántara at Toledo, 285 _et seq._;
Puente de San Martin at Toledo, 287-9;
defensive bridges in Flemish towns, 289-91;
covered defensive bridges of timber, 291-3;
Pont St. Esprit over the Rhône, 293-8;
Ponte Nomentano in the Campagna, 298-300;
at Laroque, near Cahors, 300;
the bridge at Saintes in France, destroyed in 1843, 300-1;
the evolution from fortified bridges into defenceless viaducts,