Chapter LX: Act 46: , Parl. 3, Act 106, Parl. 7, Act 24, Parl. 11, King James VI., do (36)

The Greek and Latin words, (ἱερεύς, _sacerdos_,) which we translate “_priest_,” are derived from words that signify holy: and so the word _priest_, according to the etymology, signifies him whose mere charge and function is about holy things; and therefore seems to be a most proper word to him who is set apart to the holy public service and worship of GOD, especially when he is in the actual ministration of holy things. If it be objected that, according to the usual acceptation of the word, it signifies him that offers up a _sacrifice_, and therefore cannot be allowed to a minister of the gospel, who hath no sacrifice to offer, it is answered, that the ministers of the gospel have sacrifices to offer, (1 Pet. ii. 5,) “Ye are built up a spiritual house, an holy priesthood, to offer up spiritual sacrifices” of prayer, praises, thanksgiving, &c. In respect of these, the ministers of the gospel may safely, in a metaphorical sense, be called priests; and in a more eminent manner than other Christians, because they are taken from among men to offer up these sacrifices for others. But besides these spiritual sacrifices mentioned, the ministers of the gospel have another sacrifice to offer, viz. the “unbloody sacrifice,” as it was anciently called, the commemorative sacrifice of the blood of CHRIST, which does as really and truly show forth the death of CHRIST, as those sacrifices under the law did; and in respect of this sacrifice of the eucharist, the ancients have usually called those that offer it up, priests.—_Fludyer’s Comm._

That it might not be doubted by whom the form of absolution may be pronounced, the rubric expressly informs us, that it is the priest who officiates. By _priest_, in Church language, is understood a person who is advanced in the ecclesiastical orders to the dignity of a presbyter; and no person, in any age of the Church, who was under this degree, did ever pretend, as of right, to pronounce absolution. The penitentiaries, in the ancient and more modern ages of the Church, were always of this degree. It was adopted into an axiom in the canon law, “_ejus est absolvere cujus est ligare_.” No one could pronounce absolution but he who had power to excommunicate. In the body of that law, absolutions of all kinds are reserved either to presbyters or bishops; and in our provincial constitutions it is strictly enjoined, “_de pœnitentia præcipimus quod diaconi pœnitentias dare non presumant_,” unless the priest be away when a man is dying.—_Lyndwood._ Our Church, in the last review of the liturgy, has chosen to put in the word _priest_ instead of _minister_, (which was in King Edward VI.’s Second Book, and in Queen Elizabeth’s,) to the end that no one might pretend to pronounce this but one in priest’s orders; being sensible that some bold innovations have been made herein, by reason of some persons misunderstanding or misapplying the word _minister_. But the first compilers of the Common Prayer understood the same by _minister_ as we do now by _priest_, that being the general acceptation of the word at that time. The compilers of the Second Book of Edward VI. (in which the Confession and Absolution were first inserted) put into the rubric, “to be pronounced by the minister” (or priest) “_alone_,” to avoid the imputation which the Papists had charged some of the reformed with, for permitting absolution to be pronounced by persons not of this order. For in the provincial Council of Sens, A. D. 1528, which was before that of Trent, and twenty years before the compiling our Common Prayer, we find the Protestants found fault with for affirming, that laics and women among them might pronounce absolution; which indeed was Luther’s opinion, but only so (as Chemnitius explains it) that in case of extreme necessity they might use it; which doctrine he had from the Papists themselves.—_Nicholls_; and see his long note on the subject, if necessary, in his “Commentary on the Common Prayer,” Evening Service.

In the diocese of Alexandria, the privilege of giving absolution to great criminals and scandalous offenders was reserved to the patriarch; as appears in the case of Lamponianus, an excommunicated presbyter. “Though,” says he, “he expressed his repentance with tears, and the people interceded for him, yet I refused to absolve him; only assuring this, that if he should be in manifest danger of death, any presbyter should receive him into communion by my order.” And in general, in the primitive Church, the granting absolution to reconcile penitents, was the bishop’s sole prerogative, and rarely committed to presbyters; but never to deacons, except in cases of extreme necessity, when neither bishop nor presbyter was at hand.—_Bingham._

The privilege was also allowed in times of persecution, to martyrs and confessors in prison; but then they always signified what they had done to the bishop.—See _Cave’s Prim. Ch._

At the last review of the Common Prayer Book, A. D. 1661, the Presbyterian divines requested that “as the word _minister_, and not priest or curate, is used in the Absolution, and in divers other places, it may throughout the whole book be so used, instead of those two words.” To which the Episcopalian commissioners replied, that “it is not reasonable the word _minister_ should be only used in the liturgy. For since some parts of the liturgy may be performed by a deacon, and others, such as absolution and consecration, by none under the order of a _priest_, it is fit that some such word as priest should be used for those offices, and not _minister_, which signifies at large every one that ministers in that holy office, of what order soever he be.” Accordingly the word “_priest_,” in its exclusive sense, and in contradistinction to the word _deacon_, was inserted, and the sense of the Church of England on this subject, ascertained through the objection made by the Presbyterian divines, was adopted and ratified by the act of parliament.

In the primitive Church, the deacons were ranked among the “sacred orders;” and though their office has not always been so accurately defined as that of the presbyters, or priests, yet in the Church of England they are to most purposes considered as an inferior degree of “_the priesthood_.” Their duties are laid down in the office of “the Form and Manner of making Deacons;” and, “for the resolution of all doubts,” the preface to the Book of Common Prayer has wisely directed, that “the parties that so doubt, or diversely take anything, shall always resort to the bishop of the diocese, who by his discretion shall take order for the quieting and appeasing of the same; so that the same order be not contrary to anything contained in this book.”

It has generally been customary for deacons to substitute a prayer taken from the liturgy, which has been usually one of the collects in the conclusion of the Communion Service; and a pious commentator (Mr. Waldo) countenances this by saying, “a deacon, when he officiates, is never to use it, but is to offer up some short prayer in its stead.” But this is improperly said. For if a deacon, an officiating minister of the lowest order, may be considered at liberty to make this alteration in breach of the act for uniformity, where is the point at which he shall stop? What in this case he should do seems settled by the authorities referred to by Shepherd.

“If a deacon is neither to read the Absolution, nor to substitute a prayer in its room, what is he to do? The rule is plain, and leaves him no alternative. After the confession, he is to remain kneeling, and to proceed to the LORD’S Prayer. This always appeared to me to be the necessary and only conclusion to be drawn from the premises. Suspecting, however, the validity of my own arguments, I requested the opinion of a respectable divine, for whose modesty I have such regard, that I dare describe him only as having been, for many years, the confidential and intimate friend of Bishop Lowth. By his judgment, the opinion already given was sanctioned and confirmed. In consequence of further inquiry, I have since learned, that the heads of a cathedral church lately recommended the same practice. It is the business of priest vicars, I understand, in some cathedrals, to read morning and evening prayer; and it once happened, that a deacon was appointed a priest vicar. When it came to his turn to officiate, he was directed to omit the Absolution, and after the confession to say the LORD’S Prayer.”—_Shepherd._

PRIEST’S INTENTION. (See _Intention_.)

PRIMATES, or METROPOLITANS. In the Christian hierarchy, or scheme of Church government, are such bishops of a province, as preside over the rest.

Some derive the original of primates or metropolitans from apostolical constitution.—_Bingham, Orig. Eccles._ b. ii. c. 16. But it may be doubted, whether the apostles made any such general settlement in every province; and the records of the original of most churches being lost, it can never be proved that they did. It is most probable, that this order of bishops commenced not long after the apostolic age, when sects and schisms began to break in apace, and controversies multiplying between particular bishops, it was found necessary to pitch upon one in every province, to whom the decision of cases might be referred, and by whom all common and public affairs might be directed. Or, it might take its rise from that common respect and deference, which was usually paid by the rest of the bishops to the bishop of the metropolis, or capital city, of each province: which advancing into a custom, was afterwards settled by a canon of the Council of Nice.—_Conc. Nic._ c. 6.

As to the offices and privileges of primates or metropolitans, they were as follows. First, they were to regulate the elections of all their provincial bishops, and either ordain, or authorize the ordination of them: and no election or ordination of bishops was valid without their approbation. Nor was this power at all infringed by setting up the patriarchs above them. For, though the metropolitans were to be ordained by the patriarchs, yet still the right of ordaining their own suffragans was preserved to them. It is to be observed, that this power was not arbitrary: for the primates had no negative voice in the matter, but were to be determined and concluded by the major part of a provincial synod.—_Conc. Chalced._ Act. 16.

Their next office was, to preside over the provincial bishops, and, if any controversies arose among them, to interpose their authority to end and decide them: also to hear the accusations of others, who complained of injury done to them by their own bishops, from whom there was always liberty of appeal to the metropolitan. But still there lay an appeal from the metropolitan to a provincial synod, of which he was only the president or moderator.

A third office of the metropolitans or primates was, to call provincial synods, and preside in them. To this end, their circular letters, called _Synodicæ_ and _Tractoriæ_, were a legal summons, which no bishop of the province might disobey under pain of suspension, or other canonical censure, at the discretion of the metropolitan and council.

Fourthly, it belonged to the primates to publish and disperse such imperial laws and canons, as were made either by the emperors or the councils, for the common good of the Church. This gave them a right to visit, and inquire into neglects, abuses, and disorders, committed by any bishop throughout the whole province.

Fifthly, bishops, when they travelled into foreign countries on extraordinary occasions, used to consult the primate, and take his _Formatæ_, or letters of commendation. This was particularly required of the African bishops by the third Council of Carthage.

A sixth branch of the metropolitan office was, to take care of all vacant sees within their province, by administering the affairs of the Church, securing the revenues of the bishopric, and procuring a speedy election of a new bishop.

Seventhly, it belonged to the metropolitans, yearly to review the calculation of the time of Easter, and give notice to their suffragans of it. The care of composing the cycle was, indeed, by the Nicene fathers particularly committed to the bishop of Alexandria. But due care not being always taken in this matter, the metropolitan in every province was concerned to settle the time, and acquaint the whole province with it.

The primate of Alexandria was the greatest metropolitan in the world, both for the absoluteness of his power, and the extent of his jurisdiction. For he was not metropolitan of a single province, but of all the provinces of Egypt, Libya, and Pentapolis, in which there were at least six large provinces, out of which above an hundred bishops were called to a provincial synod.

Besides an actual primacy of power, there was likewise a primacy of honour; that is, some bishops had the name and title of primates, but not the jurisdiction. Of these there were three sorts. First, the senior bishops in each province, next to the metropolitan. These primates had no power above others, except when the metropolitans were some way disabled, or disqualified for discharging their office, by irregularity or suspension. In this case, their power devolved on the senior bishop of the province.

The second sort of honorary primates were the titular metropolitans, or bishops of such cities as had the name and title of metropolis bestowed on them by some emperor, without the privileges, which were still continued to the ancient metropolis of the province. Of this sort were the cities of Chalcedon and Nice.

Thirdly, some bishops were honoured with the title of primates, in regard to the eminency of their see, being some mother-church, or particularly honoured by ancient prescription. This was the case of the bishop of Jerusalem, in consideration of its being the mother-church of the Christian world.

The division of England into two provinces, Canterbury and York, in 1152, gave occasion to the introducing primacies among us. Canterbury, which before was the metropolis, gives to its bishop the title of Primate of _all_ England; York, only that of Primate of England. Accordingly, the former has some jurisdiction over all England, which the latter has only in his own province.

The archbishop of Armagh is primate of all Ireland; of Dublin, that of Ireland. Until the late mutilation of the Irish branch of the Church, the archbishop of Cashel was primate of Munster; of Tuam, primate of Connaught. The archbishop of St. Andrew’s was primate of Scotland. The archbishop of Rheims is primate of France; of Rouen, primate of Normandy; of Lyons, primate of Gaul; of Toledo, primate of Spain, &c.

PRIME. The service said at sunrising. (See _Canonical Hours_.)

PRIMER. (_Primarius_, Lat. A book of primary or elementary instruction.) Dr. Burton, in his preface to King Henry VIII.’s Three Primers, shows that the word was in use at least as far back as 1527, when a Primer of the Salisbury use was printed: and that it was “applied to a first or elementary book, which was put into the hands of children. The term was, perhaps, sometimes applied to a mere spelling-book, or to any book which was used for teaching children to read; but it seems generally to have conveyed the notion of religious instruction. The lessons were taken from the Creed, the Lord’s Prayer, the Ten Commandments, the Ave Maria, or from some other common formulary, with short and easy explanations, for the use of young beginners, or for private devotion. In course of time, the word came to have a still more limited meaning, as applied to offices of religion, and was analogous to the modern term Prayer Book, with the exception that a Primer was not confined to any one definite set of prayers, but contained different selections, according to the choice of the compiler; though the Creed, Pater Noster, and Ave Maria, always held a prominent place in the Primer.”

The earliest Primer printed by Dr. Burton was in Henry VIII.’s reign, in 1535: “A goodly Primer in English.” This was an improved edition of a former one, and was one of the first overt advances towards reformation, though containing much Romish doctrine. It contains, among a great many other things, an exposition of the Ten Commandments, and the Creed, and the Offices for the Seven Hours, mainly taken from the old offices. In 1537 appeared the Institution of a Christian Man, a still further advance; published by authority of convocation. In 1539 appeared a Primer by Bp. Hilsey of Rochester, the subject, though not the form, being much the same as in the first-mentioned Primer. In 1545 King Henry VIII.’s Primer appeared. The services for the Hours in this, formed the basis for all future Primers, and were much the same as in Queen Elizabeth’s of 1559. In Edward VI.’s reign appeared, in 1547, a reprint of Henry VIII.’s Primer. In 1549, 1551, 1552, improved editions, with omissions of the superstitious invocations of the Virgin Mary. Queen Elizabeth’s first Primer, 1559, was a reprint of King Edward’s of 1551, or rather, 1552. The next, in 1566, was altered a good deal from the form. A second edition was published in 1575. All these had the services of the Hours, besides Litanies, and other prayers. Some the catechism, some the penitential psalms, &c. A Latin Form of Prayer, like the Primer, was published by authority in 1560, and Preces Privatæ, a distinct, though similar publication, in 1564. The last Primer which appeared (though not under that name) was Dr. (afterwards Bp.) Cosin’s “Collection of Private Devotions: in the practice of the ancient Church, called the Hours of Prayer; as they were after this manner published by authority of Queen Elizabeth, 1560, &c.” This was published in 1627, by command of King Charles I. See Mr. Clay’s valuable edition of “_Private Prayer_,” &c., _during the reign of Elizabeth_, edited for the Parker Society; and _Dr. Burton’s Three Primers_.

PRIMICERIUS, or _Primmicerius_, defined by Suicer as “_qui in_ primâ cerâ hæres scriptus,” one who is designated as the principal heir. Hence it came to signify one who presided over any particular department; the chief notary, for instance, was called πριμμικήριος νοταρίων: and so the chief reader, the chief chanter, &c., in great churches. It is the title of a dignitary in several Italian cathedrals, and is supposed to answer to our chancellor; a name not used in Italy as that of a cathedral officer. The precentor of Aberdeen cathedral was anciently called Primicerius, as Kennedy states in his _Annals of Aberdeen_.

PRIMITIVE CHURCH. (See _Tradition_.) The Church as it existed in the ages immediately after its first establishment. From its near connexion with the apostles and other inspired men, the primitive Church enjoyed many advantages, of which, at later periods, it was deprived. To the earliest ages we naturally look for illustrations of obscurities in the New Testament, for evidence and testimony of matter of fact, for sound interpretations of doctrine, for proofs of the efficacy of the gospel, and for examples of undaunted Christian heroism. Hence the value we are accustomed to attach to the writings which have come down to us from the first three centuries after CHRIST; and this value is considerably enhanced by the fervour, the beauty, and the surpassing eloquence which adorned the Church in that early day, and in the ages following. These were familiarly known to the Reformers of the Church of England; and, having taken the primitive Church as their model, and as the best witness of Catholic principles and usages, they transfused its spirit, not only into the liturgy, but into the whole framework and superstructure of that venerable fabric they aimed to restore. How well they succeeded, is evidenced in that fearless appeal which Catholics ever make, first to the Apostolic Church, then to those who drew their principles from it along with their infant breath, and flourished and died in an age when inspiration itself was scarcely extinct. That Church has nothing to dread which can lay its standards on the altar of antiquity, and return them to her bosom, signed with the glorious testimony of a Polycarp, an Ignatius, a Clement, and a “noble army of martyrs;” nothing has she to dread but the possibility of declension, and unfaithfulness to her sacred trust.

PRIOR. (See _Monk_.) The head or superior of a convent of monks, or the second person after the abbot, corresponding nearly to the dean in churches of secular canons.

PRIORY. (See _Monastery_.) A house occupied by a society of monks or nuns, the chief of whom was termed a prior or prioress; and of these there were two sorts: first, where the prior was chosen by the convent, and governed as independently as any abbot in his abbey; such were the cathedral priors, and most of those of the Augustine order. Secondly, where the priory was a cell subordinate to some great abbey, and the prior was placed or displaced at the will of the abbot. But there was a considerable difference in the regulation of these cells; for some were altogether subject to their respective abbots, who sent what officers and monks they pleased, and took their revenues into the common stock of the abbeys; whilst others consisted of a stated number of monks, under a prior sent to them from the superior abbey, and those priories paid a pension yearly, as an acknowledgment of their subjection, but acted in other matters as independent bodies, and had the rest of the revenues for their own use. The priories or cells were always of the same order as the abbeys on which they depended, though sometimes their inmates were of a different sex; it being usual, after the Norman Conquest, for the great abbeys to build nunneries on some of their manors, which should be subject to their visitation.

_Alien priories_ were cells or small religious houses in our country, dependent on large foreign monasteries. When manors or tithes were given to distant religious houses, the monks, either to increase the authority of their own order, or perhaps rather to have faithful stewards of their revenues, built convenient houses for the reception of small fraternities of their body, who were deputed to reside at and govern those cells.

PRISCILLIANISTS. Certain heretics whose founder was Priscillian, a Spaniard of noble extraction, very wealthy, and endued with much wit, learning, and eloquence. Mark, an Egyptian heretic, having sown the errors of Gnosticism in Gaul, went into Spain, where carnal pleasure, which was the principal article of his doctrine, procured him quickly a great many disciples, the chief whereof was Priscillian, who covered his vanity under the appearance of a profound humility. He taught, besides the abominations of the Gnostics, that the soul was of the same substance with GOD, and that, descending to the earth, through seven heavens, and certain other degrees of principality, it fell into the hands of the evil one, who put it into the body, which he made to consist of twelve parts, over each of which presided a celestial sign. He condemned the eating of the flesh of animals, and marriage as an unlawful copulation, and separated women from their husbands without their consent; and, according to his doctrine, man’s will was subject to the power of the stars. He confounded the holy persons in the TRINITY, like Sabellius, ordered his followers to fast on Sundays and Christmas day, because he believed CHRIST had not taken true flesh upon him. Lying, a most abominable vice, and so contrary to the GOD of truth, was a thing tolerated amongst his followers. There was a volume composed by them called _Libra_, because that in the twelve questions in it, as in twelve ounces, their whole doctrine was explained. Priscillian broached his heresy in the fourth century. He was put to death, with some of his followers, at Treves, in 385, by order of the usurper Maximus, contrary to the earnest instance of St. Martin, bishop of Tours. This was the first instance of the infliction of death for heresy, and at the time excited universal horror among Christians. St. Ambrose refused to communicate with the bishops who had taken part in it, and a synod at Turin excommunicated them.

PROCESSION OF THE HOLY GHOST. As the FATHER is eternal, without beginning, so is the SON without beginning, the only begotten GOD of GOD, Light of light, being very GOD of very GOD: in like manner the HOLY GHOST, without beginning, has _proceeded_ from the FATHER and the SON. This is one of the mysteries which must be always incomprehensible, from our inability to comprehend an eternity _a parte ante_. In all discussions relating to these subjects, we may quote to the objector the wise words of Gregory Nazianzen: “Do you tell me how the FATHER is unbegotten, and I will then attempt to tell you how the SON is begotten and the SPIRIT proceeds.”

We will first give the doctrine as stated in the Articles and Creed, and then give from Dr. Hey the history of the controversy which has long subsisted between the Eastern and the Western Church.

Of the HOLY GHOST the fifth article says, “The HOLY GHOST, proceeding from the FATHER and the SON, is of one substance, majesty, and glory, with the FATHER and the SON, very and eternal GOD.”

The same doctrine is declared in the Nicene and Athanasian Creeds.

In the Nicene Creed:

“I believe in the HOLY GHOST, who proceedeth from the FATHER and the SON.”

In the Athanasian Creed:

“The _Holy Ghost_ is of the FATHER and of the SON, neither made nor created nor begotten, but proceeding.”

In the fourth, fifth, and sixth centuries, various disputes took place with the followers of Macedonius with respect to the nature and procession of the HOLY GHOST. It may be particularly mentioned, with a view to what followed, that so soon as the years 430 and 431, in the Councils of Alexandria and Ephesus, it was declared that the HOLY GHOST proceedeth from the SON as well as from the FATHER. In order to terminate these disputes, the Church in general made a sort of settlement or determination what should be accounted Catholic doctrine; and, to avoid further adjustings of formularies, agreed that nothing should from that time be _added_ to those then under consideration. It is probable that, at that time, the question whether the HOLY GHOST should be spoken of as proceeding from the FATHER and the SON, (_Filioque_ is the famous word,) did not occur to men’s minds. _Filioque_ was not in the creeds, though it was not new. The students in the Western Church seem ere long to have contracted an opinion, that it was proper for them to profess in a creed, that the HOLY GHOST proceedeth from the SON; they, therefore, inserted (or, one might say, _restored_) _Filioque_, meaning, probably, no harm; and then the Eastern Church thought as little of complaining as the Western of offending. Afterwards, however, contentions for worldly grandeur produced contentions about theological truth. Rome and Constantinople were rivals, not only for imperial but for spiritual pre-eminence. The patriarch of Constantinople styled himself _Episcopus Œcumenicus_. Gregory the Great, bishop of Rome, was more lowly in the title he assumed; he was “_servus servorum_” scilicet Dei; but in his pretensions to authority he was equally ambitious. The patriarch was at the head of the Eastern Church, the pope of the Western. This rivalship made the Churches seek occasions for blaming each other, and thus the insertion of _Filioque_ came to be complained of as a breach of faith. It was defended by the Western Church, because the word contained right _doctrine_: this was enough to make the Eastern Church dispute the _doctrine_: they did so, and the dispute still subsists, and still causes a separation between the Eastern and Western Churches. One pope (Leo III.) did once, for the sake of peace, order _Filioque_ to be put out of the creed, at the same time ratifying the doctrine which it comprehends; but he could only prevail in those churches which were under his immediate sanction, and that only for a time. The obstinate resistance of the Greek or Eastern Church to the insertion of _Filioque_, is the more likely to be owing to some worldly consideration, as several of the Greek fathers have the doctrine in their works clearly expressed.—_Hey._ (See _Holy Ghost_.)

PROCESSION. The formal march of the clergy and the people putting up prayer.

The first processions mentioned in ecclesiastical history are those begun at Constantinople by St. Chrysostom. The Arians of that city being forced to hold their meetings without the town, went thither night and morning, singing anthems. Chrysostom, to prevent their perverting the Catholics, set up counter-processions, in which the clergy and people marched by night, singing prayers and hymns, and carrying crosses and flambeaux. From this period, the custom of processions was introduced among the Greeks, and afterwards among the Latins; but they have subsisted longer, and been more frequently used, in the Western than in the Eastern Church. The name of _Procession_ was formerly sometimes used for the _Litany_. (See _Litany_, _Rogation Days_.)

PROCTOR. (_Procurator_, Lat.) Proctors are officers established to represent, in judgment, the parties who empower them (by warrant under their hands, called a _proxy_) to appear for them to explain their rights, to manage and instruct their cause, and to demand judgment.

The representatives of the clergy in convocation are also called proctors.

The same name is given to university officers, whose business is to guard the morals and preserve the quiet of the university at Oxford and Cambridge; to present candidates in arts and music for their degrees; and (formerly in a more special manner than at present) to superintend their public exercises. The latter is now the prominent practice of the proctors in the university of Dublin: the senior proctor presiding at the Masters’ exercises, the junior at the Bachelors’. They are two in number, and chosen annually by the several colleges in cycle.

_Procurators_ were officers in some of the ancient universities of Europe, as in Paris; they were then four in number, elected annually, each by one of the four _nations_ into which the students were divided: and the rector, the deans of divinity, law, medicine, and the four proctors, formed the standing council of the university: somewhat analogous to the _caput_ at Cambridge. The _deans_ were the proctors of their respective faculties. Anciently the university of Oxford was divided into two “nations,” as they might be called, each of which was represented by a proctor.

PROCURATION. A pecuniary sum or composition by an incumbent to an ordinary or other ecclesiastical judge, to commute for the provision, or entertainment, which he was formerly expected to provide for such ordinary at the time of visitation. (See _Synodal_.)

PROFESSOR. A public teacher in a university.

PROPHECY. (From προφητεία.) The prediction of future things. (See _Scripture, Inspiration of_, and _Miracles_.)

PROPHESYINGS. Religious exercises of the clergy in the reign of Queen Elizabeth, instituted for the purpose of promoting knowledge and piety. The ministers of a particular division at a set time met together in some church of a market or other large town, and there each in order explained, according to their abilities, some portion of Scripture allotted to them before. This done, a moderator made his observations on what had been said, and determined the true sense of the place, a certain space of time being fixed for despatching the whole. These exercises being however abused, by irregularity, disputations, and divisions, were restrained.—_Canon_ 72.

PROPHET. One who foretells future events. We have in the Old Testament the writings of sixteen prophets; that is, of four greater prophets, and twelve lesser prophets. The four greater prophets are, Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and Daniel. The Jews do not place Daniel among the prophets, because (they say) he lived in the splendour of temporal dignities, and a kind of life different from other prophets. The twelve lesser prophets are, Hosea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Micah, Jonah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi.

PROPITIATION. (See _Covenant of Redemption_, _Sacrifice_, _Atonement_, _Satisfaction_, _Jesus_.) _Propitiation_ is originally a Latin word, and signifies the appeasing of the wrath of GOD, or doing something whereby he may be rendered propitious, kind, or merciful, to us, notwithstanding that we have provoked him to anger by any sin or offence committed against him. And the original word, ἱλασμὸς, is used by the Greeks exactly in the same sense, as might easily be shown. But that we may fully understand the true notion of the word, as it is here used, our best way will be to consider how it is used in the Greek translation of the Old Testament, made long before St. John’s time; for he, writing to those who were generally accustomed to the words and phrases in that translation, it cannot be supposed but he useth this, as well as other words, in the same sense as it is used there: for otherwise they would not so well have understood him. Now there we find that ἱλάσκεσθαι and ἐξιλάσασθαι all along answer to the כפר, which signifies _to appease_, _to pacify_, _to reconcile_, a person offended, to _atone_ or make him _at one again_ with the offender. So both the Hebrew and the Greek words are used, where it is said, “The wrath of a king is as messengers of death, but a wise man will _pacify_ it.” And also where Jacob, having sent a present before him to his brother Esau, that was offended with him, saith, “I will _appease_ him with the _present_ that goeth before me.” He calls his present מנחה, a word commonly used for offerings to GOD. That was his propitiation, whereby his brother was reconciled to him. So were the sacrifices of the Levitical law: they were the Ιλασμοhὶ, the expiations, or propitiations, whereby GOD was atoned or appeased towards him which brought them; or, as it is there expressed, they were accepted for him, to make atonement for him. And when a man had thus brought his offering, and the priest had therewith made atonement for him, for the sin he had committed, then it was forgiven him, as we often read. In all which places, both the Hebrew and Greek words before mentioned are used; the first by Moses himself, the other by the Seventy which translated him. And therefore we cannot doubt but that the Greek word, coming from the same root, is here also used in the same sense for such a propitiation, or propitiatory sacrifice, whereby GOD is reconciled, or rendered propitious, to us, and our sins are forgiven us; GOD accepting, as it were, of that sacrifice, instead of the punishment which was due unto us for them.

The same appears also from several words derived from the same Hebrew root, as כפר, which the Seventy sometimes translate λύτρα, or λύτρον, which signifies a _ransom_, a price paid for the redemption of man’s life, that was forfeited by any capital crime, something given in recompence and satisfaction for the crime whereby it was done away; sometimes ἄλλαγμα, _commutation_ or _propitiation_, as the vulgar Latin renders it: sometimes περικάθαρμα, “_piaculum_,” or a sacrifice offered for the purging or expiating some heinous crime; or for the diverting some heavy judgment from one to another, as in Prov. xxi. 18, where the wise man saith, “The wicked shall be a _ransom_ (as we translate it) for the righteous;” that is, as he himself elsewhere explains it, “The righteous is delivered out of trouble, and the wicked cometh in his stead.” Sometimes they translate it Ἰξίλασμα, _propitiation_, _expiation_. And so the Jews anciently used this word in their common discourse; for when one of them would show the greatest love he could to another, he would say, כפרי הנני, “Behold, let me be his expiation;” that is, as one of their most learned writers interprets it, “Let his iniquities be upon me, that I may bear the punishments of them,” which will give us great light into the true notion of the word, as we shall see anon.

Another word from the same Hebrew root is כפרים, which is commonly used likewise for a _ransom_, _atonement_, _expiation_, _propitiation_, or the like. As where we read of the כסף הכפרים, the atonement money, the Seventy render it τὸ ἀργύριον τῆς εἰσφορᾶς, the tribute money that every man was to give for the ransom of his life, when the people were numbered—the _sin-offering of atonement_, τῆς ἐξιλάσεως, of _propitiation_, as the Seventy translate it. The _ram of the atonement_, in the Greek, κριὸς τοῦ ἱλασμοὺ, the _ram of propitiation_. In all which places we see the word is used to denote something offered or laid down for the pardon of a man’s sins, and so for the redemption of his life that was forfeited by them. But that which is most observable in this case is, that the great day, when the two goats were chosen, the one for a sin-offering, with the blood whereof the high priest made atonement for the people in the most holy place; and the other for the scape-goat, upon the head whereof he confessed and laid the sins of the people, and then sent him away into the wilderness, never to be heard of more: this day, I say, is called יום הכפרים, the _day of atonement_, or, as the Seventy render it, ἡμέρα τοῦ ἱλασμοῦ, and, which is the same, τοῦ ἐξιλασμοῦ, the _day of propitiation_. To which we might also add, that the lid or cover of the ark where the law lay, is called כפרת, which the Seventy translate ἱλαστήριον, the _propitiatory_, we, the _mercy-seat_.

These things, I confess, may seem something too nice and critical, but I could not but take notice of them for the satisfaction of myself, and of all that understand the original languages, as being of great use to our finding out what the apostle here means by _propitiation_, according to the common notion of the word he useth in those days, and among those to whom he wrote; for hereby we may perceive, that, by the word _propitiation_ here used, is meant such a sacrifice or offering made to GOD for the sins of men, which he is pleased to accept of as a sufficient atonement and satisfaction for the dishonour and injury that was done him by them, so as not to require the punishments which were due unto him for them, but to forgive them all, and to become again as kind and propitious to the persons that offended him as if he had never been offended by them. For he is now propitiated, he is pacified, and reconciled to them: he receives them into his love and favour again, and so into the same state they were in before he was displeased with them.—_Beveridge._

PROPROCTORS. Two assistants of the proctors in the universities nominated by them.

PROSES. There are hymns in the Roman Church which are called _Prosæ_, Proses, a title given to composition in rhyme, in which the law of measure and quantity established by the ancient Greeks and Romans are neglected. These being sung after the Gradual or Tracts, were likewise called _Sequentiæ_. Of this kind is the beautiful _Stabat Mater_. (See _Sequences_.) The use of prosing began at the latter end of the ninth century.—See _Burney’s History of Music_. An uncharitable inference having been drawn from the epithet “beautiful” having been applied to the _Stabat Mater_, as if the idolatry of that composition, in spite of the contrary principles everywhere prevailing in this dictionary, had been approved, it is necessary to state that the epithet has reference only to the music.

PROTESTANT. The designation of _Protestant_ is used in England as a general term to denote all who protest against Popery. Such, however, was neither the original acceptation of the word, nor is it the sense in which it is still applied on the Continent. It was originally given to those who protested against a certain decree issued by the emperor Charles V. and the Diet of Spires, in 1529.—_Mosheim._

On the Continent it is applied as a term to distinguish the Lutheran communions. The Lutherans are called _Protestants_: the Calvinists, the _Reformed_. The use of the word among ourselves in a sense different from that adopted by our neighbours abroad, has sometimes led to curious mistakes. The late Mr. Canning, for instance, in his zeal to support the Romanists, and not being sufficiently well instructed in the principles of the Church of England, assumed it as if it were an indisputable fact, that, being Protestants, we must hold the doctrine of consubstantiation. Having consulted, probably, some foreign history of Protestantism, he found that one of the tenets which distinguishes the “Protestant,” i. e. the Lutheran, from the “Reformed,” i. e. the Calvinist, is that the former maintains, the latter denies, the dogma of consubstantiation.

It is evident that in _our_ application of the word it is a mere term of negation. If a man says that he is a Protestant, he only tells us that he is _not_ a Romanist; at the same time he may be, what is worse, a Socinian, or even an infidel, for these are all united under the common principle of protesting against Popery. The appellation is not given to us, as far as the writer knows, in any of our formularies, and has chiefly been employed in political warfare as a watchword to rally in one band all who, whatever may be their religious differences, are prepared to act politically against the aggressions of the Romanists. In this respect it was particularly useful at the time of the Revolution; and as politics intrude themselves into all the considerations of an Englishman, either directly or indirectly, the term is endeared to a powerful and influential party in the state. But on the very ground that it thus keeps out of view distinguishing and vital principles, and unites in apparent agreement those who essentially differ, many of our divines object to the use of the word. They contend, with good reason, that it is quite absurd to speak of the Protestant _religion_, since a religion must of course be distinguished, not by what it renounces, but by what it professes: they apprehend that it has occasioned a kind of sceptical habit, of inquiring not how much we ought to believe, but how much we may _refuse_ to believe; of looking at what is negative instead of what is positive in our religion; of fearing to inquire after the truth, lest it should lead to something which is held by the Papists in common with ourselves, and which, _therefore_, as some persons seem to argue, no sound Protestant can hold; forgetting that on this principle we ought to renounce the liturgy, the sacraments, the doctrine of the TRINITY, the Divinity and atonement of CHRIST,—nay, the very Bible itself. It is on these grounds that some writers have scrupled to use the word. But although it is certainly absurd to speak of the Protestant _religion_, i. e. a negative religion, yet there is no absurdity in speaking of the Church of England, or of the Church of America, as a Protestant _Church_; the word Church conveys a positive idea, and there can be no reason why we should not have _also_ a negative appellation. If we admit that the Church of Rome is a true, though a corrupt Church, just as a felon is a man, though a bad man, it is well to have a term by which we may always declare that, while we hold in common with her all that she has which is catholic, scriptural, and pure, we protest for ever against her multiplied corruptions. Besides, the word, whether correctly or not, is in general use, and is in a certain sense applicable to the Church of England; it is surely, therefore, better to retain it, only with this understanding, that when we call ourselves Protestants, we mean no more to profess that we hold communion with all parties who are so styled, than the Church of England, when in her creeds and formularies she designates herself not as the _Protestant_, but as the _Catholic_ Church of this country, intends to hold communion with those Catholic Churches abroad which have infused into their system the principles of the Council of Trent. Protestant is our negative, Catholic our definitive, name. We tell the Papist, that with respect to him we are Protestant; we tell the Protestant Dissenter, that with respect to him we are Catholic; and we may be called Protestant or Protesting Catholics, or, as some of our writers describe us, Anglo-Catholics.

PROTEVANGELION. The name of a book attributed to St. James the apostle, which treats of the birth of the blessed Virgin and of that of our SAVIOUR. It was brought first from the East by Postulus in Greek, who translated it into Latin, affirming that it is publicly read in the Eastern Church, and formerly believed to have been written by St. James, first bishop of Jerusalem; but the fables, of which it is full, disprove this.

PROTHESIS. The place in a church on which the elements in the eucharist are placed, previously to their being laid as an oblation on the altar. Called also _credence_. The word _prothesis_ προθεσις is derived from the temple service, in which the placing of the shewbread was called ἡ πρόθεσις τῶν ἄρτων, and the bread itself, οἱ ἄρτοι τῆς προθέσεως, i. e. the loaves set in order before the LORD.

PROTHONOTARY. A word that has a different signification in the Greek Church from what it has in the Latin; for in the first it is the name of one of the great officers of the Church of Constantinople, who takes place next to the patriarch, and writes all despatches he sends to the Grand Seignor; besides which he is empowered to have an inspection over the professors of the law, into purchases, wills, and the liberty given to slaves: but in the Roman Church they were formerly called prothonotaries who had the charge of writing the acts of the martyrs, and the circumstances of their death; a title of honour whereunto is ascribed many privileges, as legitimatizing bastards, making apostolic notaries, doctors of divinity, of the canon and civil law; they are twelve in number.

PROTOPAPAS; i. e. archpriest: the head of a cathedral in the Eastern Church, answering to our dean.

PROVERBS, THE. A canonical book of the Old Testament, containing the Proverbs, or wise sayings, of Solomon, the son of David, king of Israel.

This collection is but a part of the proverbs of that prince: for we are told that “he spake three thousand proverbs, and his songs were a thousand and five.” His name is prefixed to the whole work. In the twenty-fifth chapter it is observed, that the following Proverbs belong to him, but that they were collected by persons appointed by Hezekiah for that purpose. The thirtieth chapter is entitled, “The words of Agur, the son of Jakeh.” The last chapter is inscribed, “The words of king Lemuel.” From these different titles it is concluded, that the first twenty-four chapters are the genuine work of Solomon; that the five next are a collection of several of his Proverbs, made by order of King Hezekiah; and that the two last chapters were added, and belong to different, though unknown, authors.

The Jews are of opinion, that Solomon wrote the Canticles in his youth, the Proverbs in his manhood, and the Ecclesiastes in the latter end of his life. The Hebrews called this book Mische, which signifies a proverb, or allegory; the Greeks style it Παραβολαὶ, and the Latins, _Proverbia_; which may properly be rendered sentences or maxims. They contain rules for the conduct of all conditions of life; for kings, courtiers, masters, servants, fathers, mothers, children, &c. The Greek version of this book is often very different from the Hebrew, and adds a great many verses, that are not found in the original. In the ancient Latin editions several verses are added, which have been left out since the time of St. Jerome.

This proverbial manner of speaking and writing was in great use and esteem among the Hebrews, and in all the countries of the East. Hence it was, that the queen of Sheba came to prove Solomon with hard questions, or parables. Hiram, king of Tyre, they say, held a correspondence by letters with Solomon, and proposed enigmatical questions to him, and answered those that were proposed to him by Solomon.

PROVIDENCE. The superintendence which God exercises over creation. In the very notion of a Creator this power is implied. The work of a creature may continue after its author’s death: because the work of a creature does not depend upon him who was the author of it, but upon some pre-existing things which were not created by him, but merely combined. While the pre-existing things remain in combination, the work lasts; but when the pre-existing thing or things are removed, the work perishes. A house survives the architect and builder, because the pre-existing things, the stones for instance, and the mortar, remain in combination. But the works of GOD are _not_ combinations; _they_ are creations; things formed out of nothing. The pre-existing Being on whom they depend is GOD, and GOD only. If GOD be removed from them they must perish. His presence is their support. But when GOD is present, he is present as an acting and intelligent being. Therefore we say, that what in his wisdom he created, that by his providence he sustains.

The _general_ providence of GOD is seen in the laws of Nature. The universe may be compared to a great machine, the whole of which has been put into motion by the Creator, who watches over his works, and prevents disorder and confusion. According to these laws, the earth proceeds in its annual course, the moon observes its regular changes, the seasons come round at their stated periods, and the tides, in all their variety, keep their courses.

But although, to a certain extent, we perceive that there is such regularity in the order of events, that Nature may be said to be bound by laws; yet, as a matter of fact, we find that there is an occasional and not unfrequent interference with those laws. This fact is expressed in every language in which words occur equivalent to our expressions of luck, chance, good or ill fortune. According to the laws of Nature, the harvest follows the seed-time; but the husbandman is sometimes disappointed in his just hopes: the race is to the swift, and the battle to the strong, according to the laws of Nature; but accidents so frequently occur, that we find that the race is _not_ always to the swift, nor the battle to the strong. These deviations from the laws of Nature, the Scriptures teach us to refer to an interference on the part of GOD, and this interference with the laws of Nature we regard as his _particular_ providence.

Relying on his _general_ providence, we labour and adopt the best means for the furtherance of our ends: we plant, we sow, we endeavour to be swift or strong. Believing in his _particular_ providence, we pray. (See _Prayer_.)

PROVINCE. The limits of an archbishop’s jurisdiction, as the _diocese_ is the limits of the jurisdiction of a bishop: and so _provincial constitutions_, _provincial courts_, _provincial synods_, _provincial canons_, are the canons, synods, courts, and constitutions, which have authority within the rule of a single archbishop.

PROVISIONS. An oppressive invention of the bishops of Rome, whereby the right of patronage of ecclesiastical benefices was arbitrarily suspended by the Pope, that he might present his own creatures, and make _provision_ in the Church of England for foreign ecclesiastics. This usurpation of the pope occasioned much discontent in the Church of England; and at one time the evil had become so intolerable, that it occasioned frightful disturbances. The pope (Gregory IX.) had granted a provision on the patronage of one Sir Robert Thwinge, a Yorkshire knight, who resented it so highly as to associate with himself some eighty others, who had received the like treatment, by whom the persons of foreign ecclesiastics were seized, and even the pope’s envoys murdered. The king, Henry III., set himself to restore peace; and Thwinge, betaking himself to Rome, was reconciled to the pope, and recovered his right of patronage; and the pope conceded that there should be in future no provisions, except in benefices in the patronage of ecclesiastical persons or bodies. These he had usually found more defenceless, and therefore over them he still exercised his usurped authority.