Chapter II: Part 2

The card first used has been modified somewhat to make it more
applicable to local conditions, but the principle remains the
same. The most important feature of the score card is its
absolute fairness, it being impossible for the inspector who
follows the printed instructions to display any partiality. It
further calls the attention of the inspector to many details
which he might otherwise overlook, which, from our standpoint at
least, are very important. After a dairy is scored and the score
card sent in we can tell exactly what conditions exist upon the
farm--where it is well equipped and where it is deficient. It
should be borne in mind that we inspect the dairies and use the
card to bring out the bearing of the production of milk upon the
public health. Therefore some features looked upon in this light
are of more significance than others and are consequently given a
greater weight, as, for instance, cleanliness of milking counts
10 points, while cleanliness of stable yard counts but 3 points.
It is difficult for many dairymen to comprehend this, and they
are prone to look upon an expensive herd of cattle or barns of
more importance than the sanitary features of milk production.

The average score of dairies inspected is too low, being below
50. We hope and expect in time and as we score the dairies more
frequently to raise the standard. This is, of course, a matter
of education, but with intelligence and patience on both sides
we shall certainly succeed, and those of you who profit by the
points here discussed will be the first to reap a material
benefit in the form of an increased demand for milk produced
under sanitary conditions.

* * * * *

Dr. R. G. PERKINS, city bacteriologist: Since the establishment
of the laboratory the chief part of the work on milk has been of
the ordinary routine type. Samples of suspicious milk have been
studied, and a long series of counts were made on samples taken
from the receiving stations and from wagons in the endeavor to
find a suitable standard for the city. As a result of this work
the standard was set at 500,000 bacteria per cubic centimeter.
Even in the summer months it is the exception rather than the
rule that this limit is passed, and it seems that a lower one
might be quite practicable. The most interesting work done in
the department was an endeavor to find the relative proportion
of bacteria in milk obtained from the cans, as served to
customers by the so-called “dip method,” and that obtained from
bottles carried in the same wagons. An ordinance had been passed
compelling the delivery in bottles, and these tests were made
shortly before it went into effect. Samples were taken from
dealers trading in various parts of the city, to cover all the
conditions, and were taken every day for a week in each series.
The conditions, such as weather, etc., were carefully noted and
the following conclusions were reached:

In the average of the 40 samples the “dip” milk was found to
contain 37 per cent more bacteria than the bottle milk.

In 77.5 per cent of the samples the “dip” milk contained more
bacteria than that in the bottle. Sixteen samples were over 50
per cent higher, and 8 of these were over 300 per cent higher
than the corresponding bottled samples.

In 22 samples the bottled milk had most bacteria, only 3 of these
being more than 50 per cent over the “dip” samples.

Dry weather, especially with a stiff breeze, usually resulted in
an increase of several hundred per cent in the bacterial content
of the “dip” milk over the corresponding bottles.

The results of these examinations were considered adequate
to justify the ordinance requiring the delivery in bottles
exclusively, although in the case of a milkman who is dirty it is
quite possible that the use of bottles may increase the amount of
bacteria. This, however, is a matter which should be controlled
by adequate inspection of the dairies and the bottling plants.

* * * * *

Prof. WILLIAM PATE, Jr., city chemist: Our work consists
wholly of the determination of quality as required by law and
examination for the presence of chemical preservatives, colors,
cream thickeners, or other adulterants. We collect and test 40
samples of milk a day, taken from the milkmen upon the streets
and from the stations as it is delivered to the milkmen. The Ohio
law and our municipal requirements are that the milk must contain
3 per cent of fats and 12 per cent of solids for the entire year.
Formerly the requirement was 2.8 per cent fats and 11.5 per cent
solids during the grass months of May and June, but it seems that
3 and 12 per cent are low enough even for these months, and we
conclude that any herd which produces milk below these limits
is not a well-balanced herd, at least before our law. It is
very true that some herds are producing milk below 3 and 12 per
cent, but the producer having such a herd should balance it with
animals giving lesser quantity but richer quality so as to bring
his average for the entire herd up to the legal requirement.

For the year just passed we had for average results of 6,045
samples of milk taken: Lactometer, 312; fats, 3.71 per cent;
solids, 12.51 per cent. And for the year 1905, 5,890 samples:
Lactometer, 312; fats, 3.81 per cent; solids, 12.65 per cent.

As the average result of the year will show, we have very good
milk in Cleveland from the standpoint of quality as required by
our law, although it is only fair to say to the producers that
the milk as it comes into the city is better than it is when
delivered to the consumer. I cite a few instances:

_Table showing composition of milk as received by milkmen and as
delivered to consumers._

+-----------------------+-----------------------+
| As received by | As delivered to |
| milkman. | consumer. |
+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
| Fats. | Solids. | Fats. | Solids. |
+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
|_Per cent._|_Per cent._|_Per cent._|_Per cent._|
| 3.9 | 12.69 | 3.3 | 12.02 |
| 4.1 | 12.77 | 3.4 | 12.17 |
| 4.2 | 13.05 | 3.2 | 11.59 |
| 3.8 | 12.62 | 2.7 | 10.55 |
| 3.8 | 12.77 | 3.1 | 11.18 |
| 4.0 | 13.21 | 3.2 | 12.20 |
+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+

The examination for the presence of preservatives consists in
carrying along a test for formaldehyde with all samples taken. We
are particularly free from this preservative in Cleveland, but
six samples having been found treated with formaldehyde in 1905
and four in 1906. The offenders were immediately prosecuted, but
in addition to prosecution the board of health uses an effective
weapon in the revocation of licenses. The present policy is to
revoke the license of any man who is found to have on sale an
adulterated milk. Tests for the presence of sodium carbonate,
borax, colors, etc., are carried on from time to time as is found
necessary. In the past two years we found one sample containing
carbonate and one to which annatto had been added as an enriching
color.

* * * * *

D. C. HALE, milk producer: In the past milk delivered to the
Cleveland trade has been looked upon simply as milk, with no
thought of the conditions under which it was produced. Whether
it came from sanitary or insanitary stables it was all sold as
one grade and for the same price. But now, since the question has
been agitated and brought to the attention of the consumer, we
producers look for more definite rules and regulations governing
the city milk traffic whereby the dairyman may be rightfully
compensated for his painstaking labor.

There is no reason why milk produced in a well-kept dairy of
healthy cows where sanitary methods are practiced should not
bring more money than that produced by the careless dairyman. It
has long been a puzzling problem to many of us why it was that
other farm products could be placed in the city market strictly
on their merits, while milk, which enters into more foodstuffs
than any other product, has to be sold simply as milk and usually
for one common price regardless of what has entered into the
production of that product. We who profess to have produced
sanitary milk in the past have an opportunity at this time to
take an advance step in the way of adopting more rigid sanitary
rules that may be recommended for the good of the consumer and
that may prove practical and, we hope, beneficial to the producer
in returning him a more remunerative price for his extra care and
attention.

I believe that it is injurious to the general health of a cow
to be turned out of a warm stable and allowed to remain out and
get chilled, as is the practice with many dairymen. If cows must
be turned out of the stable in winter to get water, they should
be put in the stable just as soon as they return from water.
Keeping the cows comfortable will save hay and grain, increase
the milk production, and keep the herd in better health. The
kind of feedstuff to be used is a matter of choice, economy, and
convenience. If there is one domestic animal more than another
that is deserving of sunshine in her home during the winter
months it is the cow, not only for her enjoyment, but for her
health.

Milk should be handled in such a way, after it leaves the milk
room, as to lower the temperature rather than raise it. It should
not be exposed to the hot sun. We should urge the importance of
transportation companies doing their part toward taking care of
the temperature of the milk after it has been delivered to them
and until they have delivered it to the city milk dealer.

CLEVELAND’S EXPERIENCE WITH THE TUBERCULIN TEST.

Cleveland was one of the first cities to incorporate in its ordinances a requirement that no milk should be sold in the city except from dairies holding certificates that their cows are free from tuberculosis as shown by the tuberculin test. The experience of this city is therefore of interest and value in connection with the subject of a wholesome milk supply for cities. Following are the sections of the Cleveland ordinance relating to the tuberculin test:

PART ONE, TITLE V.

SEC. 4. On and after the ---- day of ----, 1906, no milk will be
allowed to be sold or offered for sale or brought into the city
from any cow or cows unless the owner of said cow or cows holds a
certificate of this board’s veterinarian, or other veterinarian
acceptable to this board, that said cow or cows are free from
tuberculosis as shown by the tuberculin test.

SEC. 5. Any person selling or offering for sale any milk from
uninspected cows as above shall be subject to having his license
revoked.

The city did not attempt at the outset to require all dairymen to conform to this section, and it is not the intention to do so until the State laws on the subject are more efficient and provide prompt compensation for cattle destroyed. At present the tuberculin test is required only of dairies where tuberculosis is known to exist as determined by physical examination or by tracing cattle killed at abattoirs. If the owner does not consent to the test and to the slaughter of the reacting cattle, his milk is excluded from sale in the city, and in addition the State board of live stock commissioners is notified, which commissioners have the authority to enforce the test or to quarantine the suspected herd. If the owner consents, the test is made free of charge. After the test the reacting cattle are appraised by two disinterested persons, one selected by the board of health, the other by the owner. The average between the two values is taken as the true value, and the appraisal and report of the test is submitted to the State board of live stock commissioners. If this board approves the finding, an order is issued authorizing the health department to destroy the reacting cattle, which is done and promptly reported back to the State authorities. The approved appraisal is then submitted to the governor, approved by him, and submitted to the proper committee of the legislature, which finally instructs the State auditor to draw a warrant for the claim. The law allows from one-half to three-fifths of the appraised value, but so far all claims have been paid in full.

The attitude of the dairymen toward the test was somewhat hostile at first, which was natural, as it was a great surprise to them to find that tuberculosis existed to such an extent among their herds. Several instances were met, however, even at the first, of exceedingly public-spirited dairymen who did all in their power to assist the board of health, even where the losses were very severe. The hostile feeling manifest at first has since given way to a fair-minded conception of the situation, and the only objection to the general application of the test is the long delay in the payment of the claims. This is a very great hardship on a dairyman who is in debt and dependent upon his cattle for the support of his family, especially as in Ohio the legislature meets only every alternate year.

The following are the statistics of the work of the board of health for the eighteen months beginning with January, 1906:

Number of herds tested 20
Number of cattle tested 280
Number of reactions 89
Percentage of reactions 32

Tested by other veterinarians under direct supervision of the board of health:

Number of herds tested 13
Number of cattle tested 201
Number of reactions 29
Percentage of reactions 15

It is understood that within the same period about three times as many cows have been tested by private veterinarians, the reacting cattle being secretly sold and shipped to other States.

The greatest good accomplished has been in the dissemination of knowledge concerning bovine tuberculosis among not only the dairymen, but the people generally. The health office receives almost daily inquiries as to where milk from tuberculin-tested cows can be had for domestic purposes, and almost as many inquiries as to where tuberculin-tested cows can be purchased. Nearly one-half of the herds tested have been tested as the result of requests of owners who desired to know for themselves what condition their herds were in. This has been specially true in the last six months. It is expected that more cattle will be tested in the next year than in the preceding eighteen months, and if State laws can be passed that will be satisfactory and efficient and provide a fair compensation there will probably be more herds to test than the present force can handle.

The efforts of the Cleveland board of health to eradicate tuberculosis from dairy herds and to secure a safe milk supply for the city deserve commendation, and other cities may well profit by this experience and adopt similar measures to safeguard the health of the public.

IMPORTANCE OF THE TUBERCULIN TEST.

The public has become aroused and general interest is being manifested especially in measures for reducing the mortality from tuberculosis in human beings. This is shown by the formation of societies throughout the country for furthering these measures and by the general campaign of education which is now under way. It has been shown beyond question that human tuberculosis and animal tuberculosis are communicable between persons and animals, and that a considerable proportion of the cases of human tuberculosis are caused by infection from animal sources. The eradication of tuberculosis from dairy cows is therefore very desirable as a protection to human health.

The tuberculin test is recognized by sanitarians as an agency of the greatest value for detecting tuberculosis in dairy herds and for controlling and eradicating the disease. Without its assistance but a small percentage of the cases could be detected in the live animals. It is remarkably accurate, the records of thousands of cases in which the animals have afterwards been slaughtered showing a correct diagnosis in 97 per cent.

Unfortunately, in the early attempts to control tuberculosis in some States, measures were adopted which were so radical that they aroused the antagonism of the dairymen and cattle owners generally, and little was accomplished in the way of either benefiting the cattle owners or removing the dangers of the disease to the public. It is time that those interested in the dairy and live-stock industries of the country should give their support to all measures tending to check this widespread disease and to prevent the serious losses which it causes. It is to their interest to do so purely as a business proposition, regardless of any benefit to the public health.

A practice which is largely instrumental in the spread of tuberculosis is the sale of animals known to be diseased without transmitting this knowledge to the buyer. This is done not only in private sales, but at public auctions as well. This practice should be stopped. Where the tuberculin test is used under the direction of a board of health, the animals as a rule are properly marked (usually by placing metal disks in the ears), showing whether they are tuberculous or healthy. This plan is to be commended, as it renders difficult the deception of a purchaser.

While some States have laws prohibiting the importation of cattle without the certificate of a veterinarian showing that they have passed the test, other States have no such laws, and the transfer of animals from one State to another goes on without molestation. This shows the necessity of the Federal Government taking some action in the near future to prevent the interstate shipment of diseased animals. The work of the Government might also be extended still further in a cooperative way, so that, when the disease is discovered, the information will be communicated both to the owners of the animals and to the proper State authorities.

The Bureau of Animal Industry furnishes tuberculin free of charge to public officials for making tests under certain conditions.

METHODS FOR ERADICATING TUBERCULOSIS.

This subject has been discussed at some length by Dr. D. E. Salmon in Bulletin 38 of the Bureau of Animal Industry. Because of its important bearing on the improvement of the milk supply, the following extract from that publication is appended:

ERADICATION OF TUBERCULOSIS FROM THE FARM.

If there is any reason to suspect the existence of tuberculosis
in a herd, an effort should be made at once to determine
definitely whether it is present and which animals are affected
by it.

The general condition of the animal should furnish some
indication. If any of the animals are not doing well, are losing
flesh, and fail to yield the amount of milk which is to be
reasonably expected, a careful examination should be made of
them to determine whether their temperature is normal, whether
there are signs of enlargement of the external lymphatic glands,
and whether abnormal sounds can be detected in the lungs. The
examination of the carcasses of any animals which may have died
or are slaughtered is a valuable indication as to the existence
of the disease in the herd.

The most reliable means of determining this question is, however,
the tuberculin test. While this may occasionally fail to reveal
tuberculosis in an individual animal, it may be relied upon with
certainty to reveal the existence of the disease in a herd. If
this test indicates that some of the animals are tuberculous,
measures should be at once adopted to eradicate the disease from
the herd, or at least to prevent its further spread. In case
there are only one or two animals affected, and these are not
especially valuable, the best plan is to slaughter them at once
and thoroughly disinfect the stable in which they have been kept.
If a large proportion of a herd is affected, and the animals
are not especially valuable, the best and cheapest plan would
be to separate the reacting animals from the healthy ones, and
to have the former slaughtered under inspection as soon as they
can be put in proper condition. It is probable that the flesh of
most of these animals would be found fit for food, and the loss,
therefore, would not be very great. In case the herd has been
long affected and many of the animals are in an advanced stage of
the disease, they are unfit for milk production, and the sooner
they are slaughtered the less will be the loss.

If the herd contains animals which are valuable for breeding
purposes, the Bang system of management or some modification of
it may be profitably adopted.

STATE AID FOR THE ERADICATION OF TUBERCULOSIS.

In the eradication of a disease so widely disseminated, and one
which causes such serious losses to the animal industry of the
country, there should be assistance offered by the State in order
to relieve the burdens which fall upon the owners of live stock.
A considerable number of States have shown a disposition to come
to the assistance of farmers whose stock is affected, but the
assistance has sometimes been coupled with conditions which made
it unwelcome. In some States compulsory testing and the slaughter
of reacting animals have been required, but this has not been a
popular measure. It is essential that a plan should be devised
which will meet with the approval of the stock owners and which
will aid them without being too burdensome in its conditions.
There are certain measures which have been adopted by individual
States which have accomplished satisfactory results but which
would be far more successful if adjoining States would adopt
the same or similar regulations. Among the reasonable measures
which a State may adopt for the repression of tuberculosis the
following may be mentioned:

1. Cattle which are brought into a State for breeding or dairy
purposes may be tested with tuberculin, and those which react
may be refused admission to the State. In connection with this
measure it should be provided that cattle which have been tested
by the authorities of another State or of the Federal Government
and found free from disease should be allowed admission without
being retested. The testing of animals coming into a State is
essential in any effort to control this disease and is one of
the first measures which should be enforced in any effort to
eradicate it.

2. There should be an inspection of all slaughtered animals
coming from breeding or dairy herds within the State in order
to discover in what herds the disease exists. Animals from the
greater part of the milk-producing herds are being continually
sold for slaughter as their usefulness in the dairy is over,
and an examination of the carcasses of these cows would serve
to locate the existence of the disease in many herds where its
presence is unsuspected. Unfortunately, few of the animals killed
in the small slaughterhouses are inspected, and in those cases
where there is an inspection and tuberculosis is discovered it
is seldom that the herds from which they came are traced and the
owners informed of the discovery of this disease. In any effort
to suppress tuberculosis it is almost essential that information
of this kind should be obtained and an attempt made to persuade
the owner to adopt proper measures for getting rid of the
contagion.

3. Measures should be adopted for testing herds with tuberculin
without expense to the owners. In the beginning of the work,
at least, this should not be compulsory, but it should be made
to the interest of the owner of a tuberculous herd to have it
tested under the auspices of the State. Apparently, it would
also be wise and a great aid to stockmen for the State to test
herds with tuberculin and certify to the healthfulness of animals
from all those herds where no reactions occur. At present it is
a difficult matter in most States for the breeder or dairyman
to purchase cattle for his herd with any assurance that they
are healthy. He may have them tested, but there is always a
possibility that they have been treated with tuberculin a short
time before and that for this reason they have not reacted.
The loss which has fallen upon the breeders of the country
through the introduction of tuberculosis in their herds has been
tremendous, and it appears that it would be only a proper aid
and encouragement to agricultural interests to assist breeders
in obtaining animals free from disease. Not only would this
encourage farmers to enter into breeding operations and increase
the value of the industry within the State, but the certification
of breeding animals would help to build up a market in other
States for breeding animals.

4. In order to encourage the owners of cattle to eradicate
tuberculosis, States should allow a reasonable compensation
for the animals which it is necessary to slaughter on account
of being affected with this disease. It is certainly a matter
of great importance to any State to have its herds free from
tuberculosis and its animals and animal products above suspicion.
With the recent demonstration of the communicability of animal
tuberculosis to man, a demonstration which has been made by so
many investigators and on such competent authority that the
fact can no longer be questioned, there is a disposition on
the part of sanitary authorities to scrutinize more carefully
those animal products which are liable to be infected. It is,
therefore, becoming every day more important for every State
to repress tuberculosis within its borders and in that manner
to maintain the reputation of its animal products. Where it
is not deemed advisable to provide for slaughtering of all
reacting animals with sufficient compensation from the State
to make this measure satisfactory to the stockmen, the State
may provide for the supervision of herds handled according to
the Bang method or some modification of it. For the protection
of its own citizens who consume dairy products, if not for the
protection of its customers in other States, every State should
make some arrangement which would lead to the removal of cows
with tuberculous udders and those suffering from generalized
tuberculosis from herds which supply milk, cream, and butter for
human food. This much is essential for the public health, but
it would be wise to go further and provide for the slaughter of
all cows which show evidence on physical examination of being
affected with tuberculosis.

5. In cases where cattle owners are to have their tuberculous
animals slaughtered in an effort to free their herds from
disease the State should further assist them by disinfecting
or at least supervising the disinfection of the contaminated
stables. It is a somewhat difficult matter for persons not
acquainted with the practical operations of disinfection to carry
out this measure successfully, even after they have been given
explicit instructions. It is impossible to impress sufficiently
the importance of thoroughness upon persons who are lacking in
experience in this line of work. As a consequence the majority of
the premises disinfected by stockmen without the assistance of
experts are imperfectly disinfected, and the disease breaks out
again among the animals which are subsequently introduced. This
is discouraging to the owner and serves to fix the impression
that it is impossible to eradicate tuberculosis. This impression
is already widespread, but it is essentially wrong, though it
can only be removed by object lessons in the eradication of
the disease under State supervision. There is no reason why
tuberculosis should not be eradicated as pleuro-pneumonia was
eradicated. The contagion is more widespread and the expense
would be greater, but there are no inherent difficulties to
prevent the success of such an undertaking.

6. When a herd has been freed from tuberculosis by the slaughter
of all reacting animals, and the premises have been properly
disinfected, the State should give further aid to the stock
owner by testing without expense the animals which he desires to
purchase for renewing his herd. This measure is essential to the
success of any plan for lessening the prevalence of this disease
or eradicating it. The expense of testing such animals is almost
too great to be borne by the individual, and, moreover, private
tests are often unsatisfactory and unreliable.

Transcriber’s Notes

Obvious typographical errors and punctuation errors have been silently corrected after careful comparison with other occurrences within the text and consultation of external sources. Some hyphens in words have been silently added when a predominant preference was found in the original book. Except for those changes noted below, all misspellings and inconsistent spellings have been retained.

On the table on page 13, footnote b was changed to footnote d, and footnote c was changed to footnote e.

New original cover art included with this eBook is granted to the public domain.

Italicized text is surrounded by underscores: _italics_.