Chapter XV: Part 15

=Development of the Art-Song Idea=.—A most significant phase of musical activity is that centred around the art-song for solo voice. In the period before the opera, choral singing was the principal medium for vocal music. With the Opera came a style of composition from which was developed the principle of the Aria, the latter dominating both Opera and Oratorio for many years, as the form for an art-song for a solo voice. In this form, as we have seen, the production of vocal effects, the making of attractive melody, and the opportunity for virtuosic display were sought first of all. It was not until the beginning of the 19th century, when Schubert’s peculiar genius asserted itself, that we meet what can be truly called the art-song, a form of composition without the artificiality of the operatic aria and with higher musicianly and artistic qualities than those that mark the people’s song. Several tendencies contributed to bring this about. Gluck’s theories and practice led both composers and people to pay closer attention to the text and to its delivery. The development of instrumental music, particularly the principles of thematic treatment, led composers to the inventing of new melodic and rhythmic figures that should serve as the basis of accompaniments of higher artistic quality than those founded on some variation of the Alberti bass figure. Piano technic had greatly improved, and so had the instrument. And it may also be said that the verse of this period was better suited for a dramatic musical setting than the formal, often stilted and artificial lyrics of earlier days, with their shepherds and shepherdesses and constant reference to pastoral and classical life.

=Italian, French and English Forms=.—A study of musical conditions in Italy, France, Germany and England shows a different style of the solo song in each country, each having some distinctive feature that maintains today, and one that may be said to characterize the song-idea of that people. The Italians were so taken with the opera and in the course of its development it so fully embodied the national love for sweet, graceful melody that a species of art-song apart from the opera had little or no chance to shape itself. The French _Chanson_ has never yielded place to the methods which distinguish the modern art-song. The French language has certain qualities which seem to call for a treatment that centres the attention in the voice part rather than on the song as a whole, according to the German idea. Yet French composers have produced and still make most beautiful and charming songs which unmistakably embody the national characteristics, clearness, polish and an effective singing melody. The old English Ballads are pieces of narrative verse; but the term has been used so freely and for almost every kind of verse that it is not possible to give it a precise definition. Thomas Morley, in a work on music, which he published in 1597, mentions “songs which, being sung to a dittie may likewise be danced”; in 1636, in a book called “The Principles of Musicke,” the author, Butler, refers to “the infinite multitude of Ballads set to sundry pleasant and delightful tunes by cunning and witty composers, with country dances fitted to them.” The principles of musical construction and the character of the text are such that we do not find in the English ballad the true germ of the art-song.

=The German “Lied”=, a poem intended for singing, as it came from the hands of the great poets, such as Goethe and Heine, seems to have afforded to composers the inspiration to the making of a style of song that should have the value of a musical setting in full consonance with the character of the text. As instrumental music developed, the _Volkslied_, the people’s song, the natural medium for expression, gradually disappeared. Yet composers made use of it as a medium, such masters as Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven and Weber giving attention to it, although the demand for a simple, clear melody, due to the dominance of the Italian opera, and for an accompaniment that was always much subordinated, prevented the art-song (_Kunstlied_) from taking a high place. Since then the accompaniment has been given more and more prominence, less attention being paid to pure melody and more to the value of harmony and rhythm as the means for characteristic color and expression. Melody, which is made up of a succession of phrases, cannot furnish a sequence of sharp effects so readily as can well contrasted chords; hence the old idea of tune changed as harmony became better understood. The methods of song composers vary, and a classification is made by German writers: A song that has simple form and tune akin to that of the Folk-song is called “_Volksthümlich_”; one that has the same tune to the different stanzas is called strophic; one that is carefully worked out, the music illustrating every shade of meaning and emotion is called “_Durchcomponirt_”; a narrative song is called a “Ballad” or “Ballade.” The great masters in song composition are Schubert, Schumann, Franz and Brahms.

=Schubert as a Song Writer=.—A consideration of Schubert’s education and his general make-up shows clearly why he should seek outlet for self-expression in song rather than in the large instrumental forms. We find that he was not systematically educated in musical science, like Mozart, Beethoven or Weber, and that he was by nature very spontaneous and amenable to external influences. Such a composer is particularly open to the effect of a poem and will turn to the small song form rather than to the elaborate instrumental forms. Many of Schubert’s songs were written on the spur of the moment in response to an impulse from reading a chance bit of verse. The first reading of the poem usually gave the complete idea, both tune and accompaniment; whether it should have the simple folk-song character, a more declamatory style, strophic or the more elaborate form, depended upon the character of the text. It is fortunate for music that he was brought into contact with some of the finest lyrics in the field of poetry, such as called forth his highest powers in melody, harmony, rhythm, modulation, declamation and recitative, for he aimed to the very fullest extent possible to heighten the thought of the text by the emotional power of music. It is a phase of Schubert’s genius that some of his finest songs were written before he had reached his majority.

=Schumann and His Songs=.—Schumann brought to song writing a different type of mind from that of Schubert, more poetic, more gloomy, more emotional, a fine literary training, a faculty for expression in word as well as in tone, a fund of new forms of expression in instrumental music, particularly the piano, so that we find in his songs certain elements that indicate development toward a more highly organized structure. Schumann was highly intellectual, hence we find in his songs a close union of voice and instrumental parts in working out the fundamental conception of the poet’s meaning; and so deeply does he carry out this plan that the accompanist must enter most thoroughly into the singer’s part, and _vice versa_, that the full effect be brought out; as compared with the songs of Schubert and Mendelssohn we can say that the latter are the “verses set to tunes, while Schumann’s songs are poems in music.” The piano part of a Schumann song contains the atmosphere of the poem, is an attempt to heighten the meaning by suggesting thoughts and feelings which the words, spoken or sung, cannot express; sometimes it is an entirely independent composition, and carries out to a final close the thought left unfinished by the voice, thus avoiding the conventional ending, by the singer, on the tonic chord. Schumann’s effort was to express his own reading of the poet’s lines by the musical means that seemed to him best suited to the purpose. To this end he refused to allow himself to be bound by conventional treatment, either of voice or instrument.

=Robert Franz= (1815-1892) combined in his songs the romanticism and general methods of Schumann, with a polyphonic treatment inspired by his deep study of Bach. He wrote to various styles of verse, hymns, love-songs, lyrics of the field, the forest, the hunter, the soldier, and though his songs lack the tender, passionate, melodious quality of Schubert’s and the deep poetic feeling of Schumann’s, they are nevertheless models of perfect, even elaborate workmanship in which the composer follows with great faithfulness the mood of the poet; Schumann, on the contrary, seems to project his own interpretation of the poem into his music, while Schubert seems to grasp the emotion at its highest moment and the song pours out as the spontaneous expression of the singer.

=Three Modern Writers=.—Of modern writers, those who contributed most to the development of the art-song are Wagner, Brahms and Richard Strauss, the first-named by his style and treatment of the voice and the instrumental part rather than by his songs, which are few in number. =Brahms= wrote nearly two hundred songs, varying in character and quality, and using a highly-developed accompaniment, often intricate in its construction, complicated in rhythm and restless in harmonic support, employing all the resources which his mastery of chromatic harmony placed at his disposal. He frequently wrote in the style of the Folk-song, making use of its simple melodic quality, enriching it, however, by his great skill in elaboration in the accompaniment. Brahms’ songs are great favorites on concert programs. =Richard Strauss= (b. 1864) is the leading composer of today, and has used in his songs the principles that distinguish his large works. These songs are very difficult, both for voice and accompaniment, and are full of tonal coloring, for Strauss has adapted to the miniature form of the song the means of harmonic and rhythmic effects which he uses so powerfully in his orchestral scores. When well sung and well played, the hearer cannot but be absorbed by the wealth of musical effects of the highest emotional and picturesque quality displayed in Richard Strauss’ songs. In a full study of songs and song writers, many more names would be mentioned; those selected for consideration in this lesson represent those who have contributed most significantly to the development of the modern art-song.

=Oratorio Composers after Mendelssohn=.—The later history of the Oratorio requires some consideration at this point. After Mendelssohn, many of the leading composers of Europe turned their attention to this form of composition, influenced, in many instances, by the splendid opportunities for production offered by the strong choral organizations and festival associations of Germany and England, as well as by the great advances made in orchestral playing, which gave to composers resources far beyond those at the hand of Mendelssohn and his predecessors. We may mention, among the Germans, =Schumann=, whose “Paradise and the Peri” was produced in 1843; =Liszt=, who was much attracted to sacred subjects, wrote two oratorios, “The Legend of St. Elizabeth” and “Christus”; =Rubinstein=, who used his great skill in tone painting with orchestral masses in “Paradise Lost” and in his sacred opera “The Tower of Babel”; =Brahms=, whose “German Requiem” is a standard work to be done well only by thoroughly disciplined vocal and instrumental forces; and =Dvořák=, who has shown great power in his “Stabat Mater.” Among the French writers most prominent in this form of composition are =Berlioz=, whose “Requiem” is a colossal work in which he drew upon all the resources of the orchestra to heighten the powerful, dramatic character of the text; =Gounod=, who wrote his remarkable works, “The Redemption” and “Mors et Vita” for English production; =Saint-Saëns=, whose “Noël,” a Christmas work, is oratorio in style and construction, although small in dimensions; and =César Franck=, the most modern of all, whose “Beatitudes” has been made the subject of much discussion. English composers, following the lead of Handel and Mendelssohn, have given great attention to this form. =Bennett=, the friend of Mendelssohn, produced a beautiful work, “The Woman of Samaria”; =Costa=, an Italian by birth, spent a great part of his professional life in England; hence his oratorio, “Eli,” may be classed with English works; =Sullivan= wrote two oratorios, “The Prodigal Son” and “The Light of the World”; =Macfarren’s= “St. John the Baptist” and =Mackenzie’s= “Rose of Sharon” can be classed among oratorios. The most eminent in this form at the present day is =Elgar=, “The Dream of Gerontius” and “The Apostles.” Young Italy has lately shown interest in this form, the most noteworthy being the =Abbé Perosi=, who is under the patronage of the Pope. In the United States the leading representatives are =J. K. Paine=, of Harvard University, with the oratorio “St. Peter,” =Dudley Buck=, “Golden Legend,” and =H. W. Parker=, “Hora Novissima.”

=The Cantata=.—More popular even than the Oratorio with choral societies is the Cantata, both sacred and secular, and the great increase in strong choral organizations, particularly in England, Germany, France and the United States, has resulted in the production of a number of splendid works which show dramatic power and the highest skill in handling voices and instruments. These works contain opportunities for the use of the finest quality of melody, variety of rhythm, solid harmonic or the more fluent polyphonic style, richness of harmonic coloring and every accessory in the way of tone painting by the orchestra, which such masters as Berlioz and Wagner pointed out. The important works are too many to be mentioned here; only the composers’ names can be given. In Germany, Brahms, Bruch, Dvořák, Gade, Goetz, Hiller, Hofmann, Rheinberger; in France, Berlioz and Massenet; in England, Bennett, Corder, Cowen, Macfarren, Mackenzie, Smart, Sullivan, Coleridge-Taylor among the younger men; in the United States, Buck, Foote, Chadwick, Gilchrist, Paine, H. W. Parker, and Carl Busch.

REFERENCES.

Finck.—Songs and Song Writers.

Grove’s and Riemann’s Dictionaries.—Articles on composers mentioned, on Song, Lied, Volkslied, Chanson, Oratorio and Cantata.

Parry.—Evolution of the Art of Music, Chapter XIII.

Upton.—Standard Oratorios. Standard Cantatas.

QUESTIONS.

Compare the Aria and the Song.

Mention the characteristics of the Italian, French and English people’s songs.

What are the characteristics of the German _Lied_?

Give a sketch of Schubert as a song writer.

Give a sketch of Schumann as a song writer.

Compare the two.

Give a sketch of Franz as a song writer.

Compare him with Schubert and Schumann.

Who are eminent among modern song writers?

Mention the special characteristics of each.

Name the leading composers of Oratorio after Mendelssohn, and their works.

What is the difference between an oratorio and a cantata?

What composers have done successful work in this line?

Songs of the leading composers, classic and modern, should be studied. The lessons on Schubert, Schumann, Liszt, etc., mention notable songs. Analyze an oratorio by one of the composers mentioned in this lesson, also one or more cantatas.

RICHARD STRAUSS. SIEGMUND HAUSEGGER.]

LESSON L.

THE SYMPHONIC POEM IN GERMANY.

=Wagner’s Influence=.—The genius of Wagner produced and applied to Opera a far richer and more complicated orchestration than had existed before his day. Since then, in many periods and in many countries, composers have tried to adopt his style, and apply it to the symphonic as well as to the operatic stage. In the field of purely orchestral music, Liszt and Berlioz had already formulated a free style, and their symphonic poems, departing from the set form of the symphony, have also served as models for later composers. Almost the only recent exponent of the strict form was Johannes Brahms, for Anton Bruckner, working on similar lines, did not achieve great success with the public.

=Richard Strauss=.—For many years it was thought that Wagner’s orchestration would remain unrivalled in the field of music. But Richard Strauss (born at Munich, Germany, 1864) has made a further advance in this respect, and handles the full modern orchestra with the utmost skill. Son of a court horn-player, his musical genius showed itself in his earliest years, and his studies with the court capellmeister, F. W. Meyer, resulted in the publication of several works. At first he followed Brahms and the stricter school, and his F-minor symphony is a worthy production in that form. A meeting with von Bülow led to his appointment as assistant-conductor at Meiningen. To show his ability, Strauss had to conduct, without rehearsal, his Serenade, Op. 7, for thirteen wind instruments; and the excellence of this work brought him the desired position. It was at this time that he met Alexander Ritter, a man of broad intellect and radical ideas. Under the new influence, Strauss renounced his classical style, and began to compose the tone-pictures and symphonic poems that have made his name so important. As he is the chief modern representative of the new school, his works merit detailed examination.

=His Early Symphonic Poems=.—After an Italian trip in 1886, Strauss gave his impressions of that country in the form of the symphonic fantasie “Aus Italien,” his first work in the free style of subjective emotion-painting. It is in four movements, each a complete tone-picture. The first, “On the Campagna,” gives a vivid impression of spacious solitude, with a hint of the pageants and battles once witnessed by this great Roman field. The second movement, “Amid Rome’s Ruins,” aims also to give “fantastic pictures of vanished splendor, feelings of sadness in the midst of the sunlit present.” The third movement, “On the Shores of Sorrento,” resembles the symphonic scherzo, while the finale gives an animated picture of “Neapolitan Folk-Life,” introducing the air of “Funiculi” and other popular Italian tunes.

After four years of conducting at the Munich court theatre, Strauss settled in Weimar, where he produced three more important works. The first of these, “Macbeth,” showed that he had abandoned the old form in favor of the symphonic poem, in which the different movements are fused into one large whole, free in form. The picture of Macbeth, ambitious and cruel in spite of his timidity, is ably developed, but the portrayal of Lady Macbeth brings a still stronger climax of magnificent orchestral power.

“Don Juan,” the second of the three, is founded on Lenau’s poem. The hero is not a ruffian adventurer, as in Da Ponte’s libretto, but is depicted as an arch pessimist, hunting through the world for perfection in pleasure, but never finding it. There are restless and uncertain melodies at the opening, to illustrate the hero’s unsatisfied longing. A knightly theme follows, typical of Don Juan himself. Then come various episodes, full of attractive enthusiasm, but always ending with the same vague unrest. A wild carnival, followed by sudden silence and the cutting theme of a trumpet, announce the hero’s end.

“Tod und Verklärung” (Death and Transfiguration) is a work of great power and beauty. It depicts an exhausted sufferer, asleep in the quiet sick-room, dreaming of the beauty of his lost youth. Then follows a more discordant episode, which may well picture a fierce contest with the powers of disease, ending in defeated exhaustion. A third portion brings renewed memories of the morning of life; passages of joyous enthusiasm and noble aspiration suggest the high hope of youth and the glorious achievement of manhood; but again comes the struggle with the powers of Fate, ending in despair and death. The fourth part is an apotheosis, representing the triumph of man’s upward striving over death. This section contains some of the most impressive orchestral beauties in the range of Strauss’ works.

=Program Music=.—In the older symphonic form, it was not necessary for the composer to suggest a title for his work. Many have done so—Beethoven in his “Pastoral Symphony,” Mendelssohn in the “Scotch,” for example; but the exquisite beauty of Schubert, or the romantic charm of Schumann will impress the hearer without the use of extraneous suggestions. In the modern school of program music, founded by Liszt, the composer gives the audience a more or less detailed account of the subject that inspired him, and tries to paint in tones the events or moods suggested by the title. Much, therefore, depends on the choice of the subject. If it is well-known, and gives definite suggestions of certain moods which can find expression in the orchestra, then it may receive legitimate treatment by being set to music. But if the subject is not one that lends itself to broad emotional treatment, or if the composer aims to picture definite events or objects, he is departing from the true function of his art. Music deals with expression of emotion, and should not attempt something that belongs rather to other arts, such as Literature or Painting. Many persons think that Strauss has gone too far in this direction, especially in his later works.

=His Later Symphonic Poems=.—In “Till Eulenspiegel,” the hero is a mediæval rogue, whose adventures are found in an old German tale. He is a wandering mechanic, who does anything but tend to business. He is always indulging in madcap pranks, in which he manages to escape from his well-merited punishment. In the composition, Strauss has given free rein to his fancy, and portrayed, with rare orchestral skill, the fantastic jokes, the sly humor, and the rollicking disposition of the graceless rogue. The work is in rondo form, with definite themes to typify the hero. These themes form the basis of the music, and are varied and developed with infinite skill and remarkable orchestral irony.

“Also Sprach Zarathustra” (Thus Spake Zarathustra) is based on Nietzsche’s mystic philosophy. Zarathustra, or Zoroaster, alms to teach the doctrine of the “Over-Man,” by which man is to become a sort of demigod who rises above good and evil into realms of joy. A picture of the “Hinterweltlern,” or dwellers in the Rear-World of common humanity, portrays their yearnings, their joys, and passions, while their sorrows find voice in a tender “Grave-Song.” Science and its futility are represented by a fugue replete with chromatics. A passage entitled, “The Convalescent,” shows the defeat of the spirit of sorrow and evil, and the triumph of joy. Then follows the wild, chaotic, but strangely-effective “Dance-Song,” the exultation of the “Over-Man.” Yet his triumph is not lasting, for at the close, after a sudden stroke of the bell, comes the weird “Song of the Night-Wanderer,” and the piece ends mystically in two different keys, as if representing eternal doubt. Strange as this work may seem, its effect is one of vast sublimity, and Nietzsche’s wild philosophy is translated into orchestral effects of remarkable grandeur.

With “Don Quixote” Strauss enters the more definite field of program music, and aims to picture events. It is cast in the variation form, but is much more free in style than that title would imply. There is a theme for the Don, clear at first, but becoming obscure and illogical, to show that he loses his sanity. He is represented by a solo ’cello, while his faithful squire Sancho, strange to say, appears mostly in viola passages. Each variation treats of one adventure. The windmills are attacked, with disastrous results. The flock of sheep are heard, bleating in full chorus until put to flight. The bands of pilgrims are dispersed as robbers. The blindfold ride through the air on the wooden horse is made realistic by the use of the theatrical wind-machine. Other adventures follow, and at the end the knightly theme recurs in a clarified form, to show Don Quixote’s return to reason and death. It will readily be seen that this work is more experimental than the earlier ones.

“Ein Heldenleben” represents the fight of Strauss with his adverse critics. There are six well-marked sections. First comes the hero himself, portrayed by definite themes that are woven into a strong climax. Then his enemies are depicted, with remarkable irony, by a medley of crackling, snarling figures for woodwind. The hero’s helpmate is represented by a solo violin, and in this section an instrumental love-duet is introduced. Then follows a picture of the hero’s battlefield, ending in a song of victory. The hero’s works of peace are then described, and the meaning of the composition is made clear by the introduction of themes from the earlier works of Strauss. The final section shows the hero’s departure from an ungrateful world. This piece is grandly planned, but like other orchestral works of Strauss, its themes are not melodic and lack musical charm.

The “Sinfonia Domestica” pictures a day in the composer’s family life. Here, again, the subject is one that the hearer cannot understand without an arbitrary explanation. Strauss has given no complete analysis, but has deigned to explain that the three themes in the early part represent father, mother and child, that the picture begins in the afternoon and lasts until the next morning, and that the final fugue represents the education of the child. The unmelodic style of Strauss is little suited to such a subject, and the effect is such as to make the work seem puzzling, at first, if not actually ridiculous.

=His Other Works=.—Of the two early operas by Strauss, “Guntram” and “Feuersnoth,” neither has had real success; nor does his third production, “Salome,” seem important. Guntram is a fighter for love, a member of a mystic fraternity. He rescues Freihild from the tyranny of Duke Robert, who loves her, and in the struggle he kills Robert. Freihild falls in love with him, but he must renounce her, as he knows that he killed Robert out of rivalry in love, an unworthy motive. “Feuersnoth,” lighter in style, is based on the old legend of a scornful maiden, whose pride meets punishment. All fire in the town goes out, and no light can be rekindled, save by a touch of her body; so that she finds herself exposed to the multitude. In this work, as in “Heldenleben,” Strauss has introduced veiled attacks on his critics. The music to both operas shows the usual richness of coloring and orchestral intricacy, but their themes lack the direct power of the guiding motives in Wagner’s works.

=The Songs of Strauss= are many in number, and include some with orchestral accompaniment. They show a modulatory style, combined with a rare melodic beauty that seems strange in a composer who indulges in so much orchestral ugliness. Some of these songs, such as “Traum durch die Dämmerung” or “Allerseelen,” are gems of purest water. The songs are often involved in style, but always possess unity and directness of effect. Their beauty shows that the discords in the composer’s orchestral works are intentional, and not due to lack of melodic invention. Yet it would seem as if his great mastery of instrumental coloring could have been employed as effectively in scoring beautiful themes, instead of the commonplace passages so often found in his larger works.

=Hausegger=.—Siegmund von Hausegger (Graz, Austria, 1872) is another master of the modern orchestra. His father was a musician of broad experience and sound learning, so that it is not strange that his son’s gifts developed quickly. After his regular studies at the gymnasium and the university, Siegmund took up music in earnest, under his father and Degener. His youthful works were now augmented by a piano quartet, a fantasia, the orchestral ballad “Odinsmeeresritt,” the one-act drama “Helfried,” and the opera “Zinnober,” based on a tale of Hofmann. These were followed by a number of songs and choruses, but Hausegger’s real greatness was first revealed by the “Dyonisiac Fantasie,” a symphonic poem for full orchestra. This was followed by a still greater work, “Barbarossa,” while in 1904, at the Frankfort festival, came “Wieland der Schmied.” “Barbarossa” is in three movements. The first shows the happiness of the people gradually fading into sorrow and pain, until the Barbarossa theme at last is heard; for tradition says that the great emperor is not dead, but sleeps in the mountain Kyffhäuser, waiting to arise when the need of his people is too great to be borne. The second movement is a weird, ghostly picture of the enchanted mountain and the sleeping emperor; while the last depicts his awakening, his coming forth at the head of his knights, their victory, and the rejoicing of the people. Wieland is the wonderful smith whose swords cut off a head so cleanly that it remains in place. The first movement shows his vision of the beautiful maid Schwanhilde, appearing from celestial regions; but when he would claim her, she retreats, terrified. A second part shows his sorrow and despair. In the third movement hope again triumphs, and he forges for himself a pair of wings. In the last movement the united lovers leave the dull world behind, and take their flight to regions of eternal sunlight.

=Other Orchestral Composers=.—=Gustav Mahler= (Kalisht, Bohemia, 1860) gained his musical experience as a director in some of the lesser theatres, and is largely self-taught. Besides two operas and a number of beautiful songs, he has composed five symphonies. He has tried to enlarge the symphonic form without departing from it. His symphonies all aim to express some definite thought, such as pessimism finding its cure in simple faith, love of nature leading to a high idea of Pantheism, or doubt clearing in the joys of immortality. The movements are arranged in contrasting groups, and voices are introduced, at first solo, and then often in a final chorus of triumph. Mahler’s works are planned on a grand scale, but his music is often unclear and restless in effect. =Paul Felix Weingartner= (Zara, Dalmatia, 1863) is another musician who served his apprenticeship in the smaller theatres, and became one of the world’s great conductors. He is known by his two symphonic poems, “King Lear” and “The Elysian Fields,” as well as by two symphonies in strict form, and by several chamber works. His opera “Genesius” and his classical trilogy “Orestes” are other successful works. =Jean Louis Nicodé= (Jerczik, Posen, 1853) is somewhat older than the modern tone-poets, and if less important is still noteworthy as an exponent of the program tendency. His two greatest works are the “Symphonic Variations,” Op. 27, and “Das Meer,” for male chorus, soloists, orchestra, and organ. The latter is not a cantata, but rather a great suite, in which vocal movements are balanced against orchestral numbers. Among younger men, =Hugo Kaun= is familiar to Americans because of his long sojourn in Milwaukee. His symphonic poems based on Longfellow’s “Hiawatha” show much fluency and taste. Switzerland now has its set of young composers, with =Hans Huber= as their leader in the orchestral field.

=The Present Situation=.—The rich harmonies and free modulations of Wagner, combined with the setting aside of symphonic form by Liszt, have caused the more recent composers of Germany to give up almost wholly the writing of symphonies. The free style of tone-picturing has been widely adopted, in consequence of the example of Strauss. He has gone so far that some of his works seem merely colossal experiments in this direction, and it is not improbable that a revulsion from such extreme musical impressionism will take place some time in the future.

REFERENCES FOR LESSONS L TO LVI.

Baker.—Biographical Dictionary of Musicians.

Elson.—Modern Composers of Europe.

Hale, Philip, Editor.—Famous Composers and Their Works, new series.

Huneker, James.—Mezzotints in Modern Music.

Weingartner, Paul Felix.—The Symphony Since Beethoven.

QUESTIONS.

What was the influence of Wagner’s style on symphonic music?

What was the nature of Richard Strauss’ training and the direction of his early compositions?

Describe his early symphonic poems.

What is program music?

Describe Richard Strauss’ later symphonic poems.

In what other styles of composition has he written?

Give a sketch of Hausegger.

Give an account of the work of Gustav Mahler.

Give an account of the work of Felix Weingartner.

Give an account of the work of other German writers of symphonic poems.

LESSON LI.

GERMAN OPERA SINCE WAGNER.

=Goldmark=.—Among those opera composers who are not direct imitators of Wagner, Carl Goldmark (Keszthely, Hungary, 1830) is the most noted. Son of a cantor in a synagogue, he showed decided musical taste while still a child, and at twelve played the violin in public. After a few conservatory lessons at Vienna, he was forced to make his own way, and live on the small salary obtained in theatre orchestras. He taught himself piano and singing, and was soon able to teach others also. He trained himself by reading the scores of the great master-works. In purely orchestral composition, his first success came with the “Sakuntala” overture, inspired by the story of the Oriental nymph of that name, who is wooed, forgotten, and found again by the Indian king, Dushianta. Later overtures are “Penthesilea,” “Spring,” “Prometheus Bound,” and “Italy.” Goldmark wrote two symphonies, the first (“Rustic Wedding”) resembling a suite of tone-pictures, while the second is in stricter form. He has also published a violin concerto, some chamber works, and vocal pieces. His music is marked by richness of harmony and warmth of instrumental coloring.

=Goldmark’s Operas=.—His first opera was the “Queen of Sheba,” dealing with the infatuation of Assad for that queen, at the court of King Solomon. Its scenes of splendid festivity and dramatic power, and its delightful music, won it an immense success, and Goldmark was nicknamed “Court Composer to the Queen of Sheba.” “Merlin,” his next work, is based on that wizard’s love for Viviane, in the days of King Arthur. It contains much noble music, but the libretto is weak and confused. “Heimchen am Herd” is an example of the style of Folk-opera introduced by Humperdinck. It is a setting of Dickens’ “Cricket on the Hearth,” and its music shows a most delightful freshness and charm. “Die Kriegsgefangene” treats the story of Achilles and Briseis with much expressive power, while “Götz von Berlichingen” is a setting of Goethe’s novel of that title. “Der Fremdling” (The Stranger) is a manuscript work.

=Humperdinck=.—Engelbert Humperdinck (Bonn, Germany, 1854) won a remarkable success with his Folk-opera “Hänsel and Gretel,” a work which has almost founded a new school in Germany. Humperdinck studied architecture at first, but at Hiller’s advice took up music. “Hänsel and Gretel” is the story of two poor children who are left in the woods by their stepmother. They find a gingerbread house, inhabited by a witch who wishes to eat them; but Gretel pushes her into her own oven, and frees all the children previously under her spells. The greatness of this work, like that of Weber’s operas, in their day, lies in its union of the popular Folk-song style with the richness of modern orchestration. The music is fresh and tuneful, with an appealing sincerity that carries it directly to the heart. At a period when other composers seemed able to produce nothing but weak imitations of Wagner’s operas, this work won universal recognition. Humperdinck has produced several other fairy operas, such as “Dornröschen,” “Die Königskinder,” “Saint-Cyr,” and “Die Sieben Geislein,” but none of them has gained any lasting success.

=Kienzl=.—Another composer of originality is =Wilhelm Kienzl= (Waizen-Kirchen, Austria, 1857). He studied at Graz, Prague, Leipzig, and, finally, with Liszt, at Weimar. He, too, served as conductor in small theatres. His first opera, “Urvasi,” is based on an East Indian subject. Its music is brilliant, but lacking in dramatic effect. “Heilmar der Narr” deals with the magic healing qualities of a seventh son, who forfeits his power if rewarded; he cures his sweetheart, but loses his gift because he wins her, whereupon she sacrifices herself to bring back his skill. Kienzl’s greatest work is “Der Evangelimann,” treating of a true story of two brothers in a small Austrian hamlet. Both love the same girl, Martha, but she prefers Mathias. Johannes, out of jealousy, sets fire to a house where the lovers are meeting, and denounces Mathias as the incendiary. Martha tries in vain to save him, and he is imprisoned for twenty years. At the end of this term, Johannes, who has been prosperous and respected, is confronted on his death-bed by Mathias, who forgives him. This opera has been given in many countries, and translated into several languages. Its music shows much dramatic force, and goes far to redeem those scenes in the libretto that are lacking in action. A fourth opera by Kienzl is the tragi-comedy “Don Quixote.”

=Schillings=.—Among the composers who have modelled their works on those of Wagner is Max Schillings (Düren, Germany, 1868). He studied law at first, like Schumann, but soon turned to music, and became one of Wagner’s active assistants at Bayreuth. His “Ingwelde” is one of the many Viking operas that have followed in the lead of “Tristan and Isolde,” and aimed at effects of dramatic power. Ingwelde is forced by a careless oath to follow Klause, enemy of her husband, Gest. Bran, Klause’s brother, loves her also, and kills Klause. She returns to Gest, but Bran follows and kills him too, after which the pair die together. “Der Pfeifertag,” a later work, is evidently inspired by “Die Meistersinger.” It is a confused account of various adventures on “Pipers’ Day,” a mediæval festival. The chief episodes are the reduction of an excessive toll paid by the pipers, the pretended death of one of that Guild, who thus obtains a eulogy from a rival, and the union of two pairs of lovers. The music, though worthy, can hardly stand comparison with that of the great work upon which the opera was modelled.

=Cyrill Kistler= (Augsburg, Germany, 1848) was at one time thought to be Wagner’s real successor, but nearly all his works are now laid aside. They show an evident striving after musical grandeur, but are not wholly successful in attaining that effect. Kistler studied with Lachner and others at Munich, but became a Wagner enthusiast in spite of their formal training. In his first opera, “Kunihild,” the heroine is wooed by one of three brothers, who is successful in the magic ride necessary to win her. But there has been a feud between the houses, and another brother, to prevent the marriage, kills the bridegroom. A comic opera, “Eulenspiegel,” preceded by ten years the symphonic poem of Strauss. “Baldurs Tod” is based on the beautiful Norse Saga of the Sun-God. “Im Honigmond” is a smaller work, in romantic style. A more important production in the same vein is “Röslein im Hag,” which bids fair to be successful. “Der Vogt von Mühlstein” is a work of still more recent date.

=August Bungert= (Mühlheim, Germany, 1846) studied at Cologne and Paris, taking up composition at Berlin under the renowned Fr. Kiel. He has produced a light opera, “Die Studenten von Salamanca,” a “Tasso” overture, and the symphonic poem “Auf der Wartburg.” But his life-work has been the composition of a Hexalogy, or set of six operas, on Homeric subjects. The first two, “Achilles” and “Klytemnestra,” are from the Iliad, while the Odyssey furnishes the material for “Kirke,” “Nausikaa,” “Odysseus Heimkehr,” and “Odysseus Tod.” The abiding beauty of the old Greek poems has been faithfully preserved in the librettos, and the music has reflected, to some degree, the noble dignity of these epics. The first three works of the Odyssey cycle have been given, and have produced an excellent impression on the critics.

=Siegfried Wagner= (Triebschen, Switzerland, 1869), son of the immortal Richard, has an undoubted right to carry on the family traditions. He studied with Kniese and Humperdinck, and became a very energetic conductor. His first opera, “Der Bärenhäuter,” is the story of a mediæval soldier who sells himself to the devil, but is redeemed by finding a sweetheart who will remain true during three years of absence. “Herzog Wildfang,” the next work, treats of a fiery duke who is made unpopular and supplanted by his crafty adviser, Mathias Blank. Mathias is afterward caught in trying to win the beautiful Osterlind by trickery, and his dishonesty in office is also exposed; whereupon the rightful duke comes to his own again, and Osterlind marries her real lover. “Der Kobold,” a third work, treats of the legend that the souls of murdered children wander about as kobolds until released by the sacrifice of the last of their race. “Bruder Lustig,” the fourth opera, is based on an Austrian subject.

=D’Albert=.—In Eugen d’Albert (Glasgow, Scotland, 1864), we find a man of real musical gifts. He studied under such men as Stainer and Prout in England, but he claims that his true musical education began only in later days, under Richter and Liszt. He has won international fame as a pianist, and has shown real musicianship in his purely orchestral works. These include two concertos for piano, one for violoncello, the “Esther” and “Hyperion” overtures, and a worthy symphony; all showing harmonic beauty and richness of color, without any inflation or exaggerated effects. His first opera, “The Ruby,” tells of a princess imprisoned in the form of that magic gem, but released by a poor young man who wins her. “Ghismonda” deals with the love of a princess for a young man of low degree, but noble character. On being surprised with the princess, he dies rather than reveal her love for him, but she proclaims his chivalry to the world. “Gernot” is an elfin opera, with much delicate music. “Die Abreise” shows the reconciliation of a married couple who have begun to drift apart, and the departure of the over-amorous cavalier who tried to widen the breach for his own purposes. “Kain” is a weirdly effective one-act drama, of the realistic school. “Der Improvisator” has for its libretto a rather weak arrangement of Hugo’s “Angelo, Tyrant of Padua,” while “Tiefland” is founded on a Spanish tale, in which true love triumphs over the schemes of a wicked Alcalde.

=Hugo Wolf= (Vienna, Austria, 1860—Vienna, 1902) had a constant struggle with poverty, and enjoyed but a short period of fame before yielding to insanity and death. His opera, “Der Corregidor,” is a delightful work, in comic vein, and the humorous scenes on the stage are treated with remarkable animation and skill in the orchestra. The Corregidor is a Spanish magistrate, who is too much smitten with Frasquita, the beautiful wife of the miller, Tio Lucas. The pair play him many tricks, and the opera ends with his discomfiture before his own consort. Wolf’s fame is much increased by the rare power and beauty of his many songs. Especially worthy of note are the “Feuerreiter,” “Gebet,” “Gesang Weylas,” and the “_Italienisches Liederbuch_.” His symphonic poem, “Penthesilea,” is another important work. His style is sometimes bizarre and involved, but his themes are always effective and significant.

=Other Composers=.—=Max Bruch= (Cologne, Germany, 1838) studied under Hiller, Reinecke, and Breuning. His chief opera, “Hermione,” is not important, but he has won lasting fame by the breadth and nobility of his epic cantatas, such as “Frithjof,” “Odysseus,” “Arminius,” and others. His concertos and serenade for violin are favorite works with soloists. =Ludwig Thuille=, a friend of Strauss, is given high praise by musicians, and his new opera “Gugeline” has been well received. =Heinrich Zollner= has won a popular success by his setting of Hauptmann’s delicate play, “The Sunken Bell.” =Hans Pfitzner= has produced an excellent work in his romantic forest-opera, “Die Rose vom Liebesgarten.” =Leo Blech’s= “Alpenkönig und Menschenfeind” has received numerous performances, while =E. Klose’s= fairy opera, “Ilsebill,” is a worthy example of its school.

=Opera in Germany=.—Since Wagner’s time, there has been no striking development in German opera, and his works still remain by far the most important in that field. None can rival him in the power, variety, and expressive qualities of his music. Strauss surpasses him in intricacy and novelty of instrumental effects, but Wagner himself first cleared the path in which Strauss was to follow. The greatest successes of Goldmark are those of twenty and thirty years ago. Humperdinck’s one chief work is frankly popular in style, and its attractiveness cannot fairly be compared with the grandeur of the music-dramas, even though it should found a school of its own. Bungert’s works, though well received, have not been given many performances, while many of those who have tried to imitate Wagner have echoed merely his outward mannerisms, and not the inward greatness of his works. It must be remembered, however, that a world-genius like that of Wagner does not appear in every country or every century, and that his importance prevents his successors from gaining their full meed of appreciation.

REFERENCES.

Maitland, J. A. Fuller.—Masters of German Music.

Elson, Arthur.—Modern Composers of Europe.

QUESTIONS.

Give a sketch of Carl Goldmark and his works.

In what style of opera has Humperdinck been most successful?

Give an account of Kienzl and his most important works.

Whose works seem to have furnished models for Max Schillings’ operas?

Give an account of the works of Kistler.

What is the great work of August Bungert?

Give the stories of Siegfried Wagner’s operas.

Give an account of Eugen d’Albert and his works.

Give an account of Hugo Wolf’s works.

What other composers have done important work in this field?

Summarize the work of the leading composers mentioned in this lesson.

CAMILLE SAINT-SAËNS. JULES MASSENET.]

LESSON LII.

OLD AND NEW SCHOOLS IN FRANCE.

=Saint-Saëns=.—The end of the 19th century in France has been marked by a decided contrast between the old and the new, Saint-Saëns and Massenet writing in the older style, while the pupils of Franck have striven after novelty in effect. Charles-Camille Saint-Saëns (Paris, France, 1835) witnessed the rise and fall of Meyerbeer, and the triumphs of Gounod, and was himself famous before the influence of Wagner reached France. His style is marked by great diversity, and displays equal skill in many different veins; but his music always shows the utmost facility of expression, a mastery of the technic of composing, and a remarkable ease and fluency. His has been a true musical development, founded on rational lines. He was always a warm admirer of Bach, Beethoven, and the Classical school, and while he appreciated Liszt, Wagner and other modern masters, he did not abandon the old ideas of form and melody. His works show the most exquisite symmetry of detail, like that of a finely-carved monument enriched by delicate tracery.

=His Works=.—Saint-Saëns studied at the _Conservatoire_, under Stamaty, Halévy, and Benoist. Though he failed in trying for the _Prix de Rome_, he produced a worthy symphony when only sixteen. In opera, his first success was the Biblical “Samson and Dalila,” a work of expressive power and vivid coloring. “Le Timbre d’Argent” and “La Princesse Jaune” are of earlier date. “Le Deluge,” is an operatic cantata. “Etienne-Marcel” won some success in Paris, while “Henry VIII” is a skilful blending of old and new styles. “Proserpine” and “Ascanio” followed, while “Phryne” is a dainty example of opéra comique. “Parysatis,” “Déjanire,” and “Les Barbares” introduce grandiose effects for open-air performances. “Helène” is a shorter work, again on a Grecian subject. The composer’s versatility and smoothness of style prevent him from obtaining the highest dramatic intensity, but his music is always excellent. In the orchestral field, he has produced four later symphonies, five piano concertos (that in G minor being the favorite), and two suites. His symphonic poems include “Le Rouet d’Omphale,” a delicious orchestral spinning-song; “Phaeton” and “La Jeunesse d’Hercule,” also on mythical subjects; and the weird “Danse Macabre.” His violin concerto in B minor is a great favorite.

=Massenet=.—Jules Emile Frederic Massenet (Montreaux, France, 1842) is another _Conservatoire_ pupil. Rejected at first by Bazin, as lacking talent, he worked steadily onward, and from a player in small cafés became one of the foremost figures in French music. His first great triumph came with “Marie Madeleine” and “Eve,” which are not strictly oratorios, but are more properly called sacred dramas. “La Vierge” and “La Terre Promise” are of later date. These works treat their subjects with modern spirit and passion, instead of the more classic oratorio style. Massenet is hardly the equal of Saint-Saëns in orchestral work, but his “Phedre” overture and his suites of tone-pictures are remarkably attractive. In opera, he won his spurs with “Le Roi de Lahore,” a spectacular Oriental subject. “Herodiade” is a sacred work, while “Manon” is a graceful setting of Prevost’s novel of that name. “Le Cid” is not so strong a work, for Massenet’s style is sentimental and passionate rather than heroic. “Esclairmonde,” with a romantic and legendary plot, displays remarkable beauty and richness of effect. “Werther,” based on Goethe’s novel, is another success. “Le Mage,” an Oriental subject, and “Thais,” with an Egyptian plot, were comparative failures. “La Navarraise,” with its love amid battles, is an echo of Italian realism. Massenet’s tender feeling and vivid emotion show at their best in his later works for the stage—“Le Portrait de Manon,” a delightful love-idyl, “Cendrillon,” a fairy opera, “Griselidis,” an old legend of wifely constancy, and “Le Jongleur de Notre-Dame.” The last is a touching story of a despised minstrel who wins favor with the Holy Virgin by his earnest desire to do something in her name, even if it be only to amuse her with his juggling tricks.

=French Opera=.—Among other French composers for the stage, Meyerbeer, Gounod and Bizet belong to a previous generation. =Delibes= won some notice with “Le Roi l’a Dit” and “Sylvia,” but his best work is “Lakmé,” another example of rich Oriental warmth and color. =Ambroise Thomas= is known chiefly as the composer of “Mignon,” a remarkably graceful setting of a libretto from Goethe’s “Wilhelm Meister.” “Le Songe d’un Nuit d’Été,” an earlier work, has also met with deserved success, but “Hamlet” is a ridiculous perversion of Shakespeare, and “Françoise de Rimini” failed to attain real tragic grandeur. =Guiraud= is known by his comic opera “Piccolino”; =Poise= set many of Molière’s plays; =Lalo’s= only notable work is “Le Roi d’Ys”; =Godard’s= dainty “Vivandière” is frankly light in style; while =Salvayre’s= ambitious “Dame de Monsoreau” is not a great success. =Reyer’s= “Erostrate” and “La Statue” were praised in their day, but he is better known by two later works—“Sigurd,” on the subject of “Die Götterdämmerung,” and “Salammbô,” a setting of Flaubert’s story of Carthage.

=Franck and His Influence=.—The new French school is almost wholly due to the work of one man, César Auguste Franck (Liége, Belgium, 1822—Paris, 1890). He settled in Paris, and studied at the _Conservatoire_. Modest and retiring by nature, “le bon père Franck,” as he was called, divided his time between teaching, composing, and playing the organ of the Ste. Clotilde Church. His simple faith and earnest work recall the spirit of the old mediæval artists, who devoted their lives and their music to the glory of the Lord. Franck’s works show a mastery and power that his pupils are scarcely able to equal, and his compositions have fairly won the esteem that was denied to them during the composer’s lifetime. Among them are the great D minor Symphony, the oratorios “Ruth,” “Rebecca,” and “The Redemption,” the opera “Hulda,” and the symphonic poems “Psyche” (with voices), “Les Djinns,” “Les Eolides,” and “Le Chasseur Maudit.” But Franck’s most notable work is “Les Beatitudes,” an eight-part oratorio treating the Sermon on the Mount. Franck’s style is radically different from that of Saint-Saëns or Massenet. It is harmonic rather than melodic, and extremely modulatory in effect. His progressions remind the hearer of Wagner; but they do not always possess the broad simplicity that underlies Wagner’s most intricate passages. Franck’s pupils have often fallen into the error of imitating his weakest points, and have brought about a style of harmonic vagueness that seems meaningless to many modern critics.

=D’Indy=.—Vincent d’Indy (Paris, France, 1852) is the greatest of Franck’s pupils, and the leader of the modern French school. As conductor, he has been an ardent champion of new and little-known works. His own compositions include many forms, and have all attracted attention. His first great work to reach the public was the “Piccolomini” overture, a part of his orchestral trilogy based on Schiller’s “Wallenstein.” Two important vocal compositions are “La Chevauchée du Cid,” for baritone, chorus, and orchestra, and “Le Chant de la Cloche,” a dramatic legend that won the prize given by the city of Paris. In the orchestral field, “Antony and Cleopatra” is an early work, as is also the “Jean Hunyadi” symphony. Of d’Indy’s two later symphonies, the first, based on a mountain air, contains many passages of sweetness and purity, while the second is more involved and modulatory in style. His earliest symphonic poem, “La Forêt Enchantée” is a delicate tone-picture based on a ballad of Uhland; “Saugefleurie” is founded on a story by de Bonnières; while “Istar” is inspired by parts of the old Assyrian epic “Idzubar.” D’Indy’s music is hardly popular in style, for its themes are not definitely melodic; but his skill in weaving them into an orchestral tissue is admired by all musicians. In opera, “Les Burgraves” and the lighter “Attendez-Moi Sous l’Orme” are youthful works, while “Fervaal” is a music-drama (_action musicale_) on a Druidic subject, and “L’Etranger” is symbolic in style. He has written some important works in musical literature and theory.