Chapter X (2)

As to many words which we have in common with the Germans, it is
doubtful whether the old Teutons borrowed them from the Latins, or the
Latins from the Teutons, or both had them from some common original; as
wine, vinum; wind, ventus; went, veni; way, via, wall, vallum; wallow,
volvo; wool, vellus; will, volo; worm, vermis; worth, virtus; wasp,
vespa; day, dies; draw, traho; tame, domo, [Greek: damaô]; yoke, jugum,
[Greek: zeugos]; over, upper, super, [Greek: hyper]; am, sum, [Greek:
eimi]; break, frango; fly, volo; blow, flo. I make no doubt but the
Teutonick is more ancient than the Latin: and it is no less certain,
that the Latin, which borrowed a great number of words not only from
the Greek, especially the Æolick, but from other neighbouring
languages, as the Oscan and others, which have long become obsolete,
received not a few from the Teutonick. It is certain, that the English,
German, and other Teutonick languages, retained some derived from the
Greek, which the Latin has not; as, ax, achs, mit, ford, pfurd,
daughter, tochter, mickle, mingle, moon, sear, oar, grave, graff, to
grave, to scrape, whole, from [Greek: axinê], [Greek: meta], [Greek:
porthmos], [Greek: thygatêr], [Greek: megalos], [Greek: mignyô],
[Greek: mênê], [Greek: xêros], [Greek: graphô], [Greek: holos]. Since
they received these immediately from the Greeks, without the
intervention of the Latin language, why may not other words be derived
immediately from the same fountain, though they be likewise found among
the Latins?

Our ancestors were studious to form borrowed words, however long, into monosyllables; and not only cut off the formative terminations, but cropped the first syllable, especially in words beginning with a vowel; and rejected not only vowels in the middle, but likewise consonants of a weaker sound, retaining the stronger, which seem the bones of words, or changing them for others of the same organ, in order that the sound might become the softer; but especially transposing their order, that they might the more readily be pronounced without the intermediate vowels. For example in expendo, spend; exemplum, sample; excipio, scape; extraneus, strange; extractum, stretch'd; excrucio, to screw; exscorio, to scour; excorio, to scourge; excortico, to scratch; and others beginning with ex: as also, emendo, to mend; episcopus, bishop, in Danish bisp; epistola, epistle; hospitale, spittle; Hispania, Spain; historia, story.

Many of these etymologies are doubtful, and some evidently mistaken.

The following are somewhat harder, Alexander, Sander; Elisabetha,
Betty; apis, bee; aper, bar; p passing into b, as in bishop; and by
cutting off a from the beginning, which is restored in the middle; but
for the old bar or bare, we now say boar; as for lang, long, for bain,
bane; for stane, stone; aprugna, brawn, p, being changed into b and a
transposed, as in aper, and g changed into w, as in pignus, pawn; lege,
law; [Greek: alôpêx], fox, cutting off the beginning, and changing p
into f, as in pellis, a fell; pullus, a foal; pater, father; pavor,
fear; polio, file; pleo, impleo, fill, full; piscis, fish; and
transposing o into the middle, which was taken from the beginning;
apex, a piece; peak, pike; zophorus, freese; mustum, stum; defensio,
fence; dispensator, spencer; asculto, escouter, Fr. scout; exscalpo,
scrape; restoring l instead of r, and hence scrap, scrabble, scrawl;
exculpo, scoop; exterritus, start; extonitus, attonitus, stonn'd;
stomachus, maw; offendo, fined; obstipo, stop; audere, dare; cavere,
ware; whence, a-ware, beware, wary, warn, warning; for the Latin v
consonant formerly sounded like our w, and the modern sound of the v
consonant was formerly that of the letter f, that is, the Æolick
digamma, which had the sound of [Greek: ph], and the modern sound of
the letter f was that of the Greek [Greek: ph] or ph; ulcus, ulcere,
ulcer, sore, and hence sorry, sorrow, sorrowful; ingenium, engine, gin,
scalenus, leaning, unless you would rather derive it from [Greek:
klinô], whence inclino; infundibulum, funnel; gagates, jett, projectum,
to jett forth, a jetty; cucullus, a cowl.

There are syncopes somewhat harder; from tempore, time; from nomine,
name, domina, dame; as the French homme, femme, nom, from homine,
foemina, nomine. Thus pagína, page; [Greek: potêrion], pot; [Greek:
kypella], cup; cantharus, can; tentorium, tent; precor, pray; preda,
prey; specio, speculor, spy; plico, ply; implico, imply; replico,
reply; complico, comply; sedes episcopalis, see.

A vowel is also cut off in the middle, that the number of the syllables
may be lessened; as amita, aunt; spiritus, spright; debitum, debt;
dubito, doubt; comes, comitis, count; clericus, clerk; quietus, quit,
quite; acquieto, to acquit; separo, to spare; stabilis, stable;
stabulum, stable; pallacium, palace, place; rabula, rail, rawl, wrawl,
brawl, rable, brable; quæsito, quest.

As also a consonant, or at least one of a softer sound, or even a whole
syllable, rotundus, round; fragilis, frail; securus, sure; regula,
rule; tegula, tile; subtilis, subtle; nomen, noun; decanus, dean;
computo, count; subitaneus, sudden, soon; superare, to soar; periculum,
peril; mirabile, marvel; as magnus, main; dignor, deign; tingo, stain;
tinctum, taint; pingo, paint; prædari, reach.

The contractions may seem harder, where many of them meet, as [Greek:
kyriakos], kyrk, church; presbyter, priest; sacristanus, sexton;
frango, fregi, break, breach; fagus, [Greek: phêga], beech, f changed
into b, and g into ch, which are letters near akin; frigesco, freeze,
frigesco, fresh, sc into sh, as above in bishop, fish, so in scapha,
skiff, skip, and refrigesco, refresh; but viresco, fresh; phlebotamus,
fleam; bovina, beef; vitulina, veal; scutifer, squire; poenitentia,
penance; sanctuarium, sanctuary, sentry; quæsitio, chase; perquisitio,
purchase; anguilla, eel; insula, isle, ile, island, iland; insuletta,
islet, ilet, eyght, and more contractedly ey, whence Owsney, Ruley,
Ely; examinare, to scan; namely, by rejecting from the beginning and
end e and o, according to the usual manner, the remainder xamin, which
the Saxons, who did not use x, writ csamen, or scamen, is contracted
into scan: as from dominus, don; nomine, noun; abomino, ban; and indeed
apum examen; they turned into sciame; for which we say swarme, by
inserting r to denote the murmuring; thesaurus, store; sedile, stool;
[Greek: hyetos], wet; sudo, sweat; gaudium, gay; jocus, joy; succus,
juice; catena, chain; caliga, calga; chause, chausse, French, hose;
extinguo, stand, squench, quench, stint; foras, forth; species, spice;
recito, read; adjuvo, aid; [Greek: aiôn], ævum, ay, age, ever; floccus,
lock; excerpo, scrape, scrabble, scrawl; extravagus, stray, straggle;
collectum, clot, clutch; colligo, coil: recolligo, recoil; severo,
swear; stridulus, shrill; procurator, proxy; pulso, to push; calamus, a
quill; impetere, to impeach; augeo, auxi, wax; and vanesco, vanui,
wane; syllabare, to spell; puteus, pit; granum, corn; comprimo, cramp,
crump, crumple, crinkle.

Some may seem harsher, yet may not be rejected, for it at least
appears, that some of them are derived from proper names, and there are
others whose etymology is acknowledged by every body; as, Alexander,
Elick, Scander, Sander, Sandy, Sanny; Elizabetha, Elizabeth, Elisabeth,
Betty, Bess; Margareta, Margaret, Marget, Meg, Peg; Maria, Mary, Mal,
Pal, Malkin, Mawkin, Mawkes; Mathæus, Mattha, Matthew; Martha, Mat,
Pat; Gulielmus, Wilhelmus, Girolamo, Guillaume, William, Will, Bill,
Wilkin, Wicken, Wicks, Weeks.

Thus cariophyllus, flos; gerofilo, Italian, giriflee, gilofer, French,
gilliflower, which the vulgar call julyflower, as if derived from the
month July; petroselinum, parsley; portulaca, purslain; cydonium,
quince; cydoniatum, quiddeny; persicum, peach; eruca, eruke, which they
corrupt to earwig, as if it took its name from the ear; annulus
geminus, a gimmal, or gimbal-ring; and thus the word gimbal or jumbal
is transferred to other things thus interwoven; quelques choses,
kickshaws. Since the origin of these, and many others, however forced,
is evident, it ought to appear no wonder to any one if the ancients
have thus disfigured many, especially as they so much affected
monosyllables; and, to make the sound the softer, took this liberty of
maiming, taking away, changing, transposing, and softening them.

But while we derive these from the Latin, I do not mean to say, that
many of them did not immediately come to us from the Saxon, Danish,
Dutch, and Teutonick languages, and other dialects; and some taken more
lately from the French or Italians, or Spaniards.

The same word, according to its different significations, often has a
different origin; as, to bear a burden, from fero; but to bear, whence
birth, born, bairn, comes from pario; and a bear, at least if it be of
Latin original, from fera. Thus perch, a fish, from perca; but perch, a
measure, from pertica, and likewise to perch. To spell is from syllaba;
but spell, an inchantment, by which it is believed that the boundaries
are so fixed in lands that none can pass them against the master's
will, from expello; and spell, a messenger, from epistola; whence
gospel, good-spell, or god-spell. Thus freese, or freeze, from
frigesco; but freeze, an architectonick word, from zophorus; but
freeze, for cloth, from Frisia, or perhaps from frigesco, as being more
fit than any other for keeping out the cold.

There are many words among us, even monosyllables, compounded of two or
more words, at least serving instead of compounds, and comprising the
signification of more words that one; as, from scrip and roll comes
scroll; from proud and dance, prance; from st of the verb stay or stand
and out, is made stout; from stout and hardy, sturdy; from sp of spit
or spew, and out, comes spout; from the same sp with the termination
in, is spin; and adding out, spin out: and from the same sp, with it,
is spit, which only differs from spout in that it is smaller, and with
less noise and force; but sputter is, because of the obscure u,
something between spit and spout: and by reason of adding r, it
intimates a frequent iteration and noise, but obscurely confused;
whereas spatter, on account of the sharper and clearer vowel a,
intimates a more distinct poise, in which it chiefly differs from
sputter. From the same sp and the termination ark, comes spark,
signifying a single emission of fire with a noise; namely sp, the
emission, ar, the more acute noise, and k, the mute consonant,
intimates its being suddenly terminated; but adding l, is made the
frequentative sparkle. The same sp, by adding r, that is spr, implies a
more lively impetus of diffusing or expanding itself; to which adding
the termination ing, it becomes spring: its vigour spr imports; its
sharpness the termination ing; and lastly in acute and tremulous,
ending in the mute consonant g, denotes the sudden ending of any
motion, that it is meant in its primary signification, of a single, not
a complicated exilition. Hence we call spring whatever has an elastick
force; as also a fountain of water, and thence the origin of any thing:
and to spring, to germinate, and spring, one of the four seasons. From
the same spr and out, is formed sprout, and wit the termination ig,
sprig; of which the following, for the most part, is the difference:
sprout, of a grosser sound, imports a fatter or grosser bud; sprig, of
a slenderer sound, denotes a smaller shoot. In like manner, from str of
the verb strive, and out, comes strout, and strut. From the same str,
and the termination uggle, is made struggle; and this gl imports, but
without any great noise, by reason of the obscure sound of the vowel u.
In like manner, from throw and roll is made troll, and almost in the
same sense is trundle, from throw or thrust, and rundle. Thus graff or
grough is compounded of grave and rough; and trudge from tread or trot,
and drudge.

In these observations it is easy to discover great sagacity and great extravagance, an ability to do much defeated by the desire of doing more than enough. It may be remarked,

1. That Wallis's derivations are often so made, that by the same license any language may be deduced from any other.

2. That he makes no distinction between words immediately derived by us from the Latin, and those which being copied from other languages, can therefore afford no example of the genius of the English language, or its laws of derivation.

3. That he derives from the Latin, often with great harshness and violence, words apparently Teutonick; and therefore, according to his own declaration, probably older than the tongue to which he refers them.

4. That some of his derivations are apparently erroneous.

* * * * *

SYNTAX.

The established practice of grammarians requires that I should here
treat of the Syntax; but our language has so little inflection, or
variety of terminations, that its construction neither requires nor
admits many rules. Wallis, therefore, has totally neglected it; and
Jonson, whose desire of following the writers upon the learned
languages made him think a syntax indispensably necessary, has
published such petty observations as were better omitted.

The verb, as in other languages, agrees with the nominative in number and person; as, Thou fliest from good; He runs to death.

Our adjectives and pronouns are invariable.

Of two substantives the noun possessive is in the genitive; as, His father's glory; The sun's heat.

Verbs transitive require an oblique case; as, He loves me; You fear him.

All prepositions require an oblique case: as, He gave this to me; He took this from me; He says this of me; He came with me.

* * * * *

PROSODY.

It is common for those that deliver the grammar of modern languages, to
omit the Prosody. So that of the Italians is neglected by Buomattei;
that of the French by Desmarais; aad that of the English by Wallis,
Cooper, and even by Jonson, though a poet. But as the laws of metre are
included in the idea of grammar, I have thought proper to insert them.

PROSODY comprises orthoepy, or the rules of pronunciation; and orthometry, or the laws of versification.

Pronunciation is just, when every letter has its proper sound, and every syllable has its proper accent, or, which in English versification is the same, its proper quantity.

The sounds of the letters have been already explained; and rules for
the accent or quantity are not easily to be given, being subject to
innumerable exceptions. Such, however, as I have read or formed, I
shall here propose.

1. Of dissyllables, formed by affixing a termination, the former syllable is commonly accented, as chíldish, kíngdom, áctest, ácted, tóilsome, lóver, scóffer, faírer, fóremost, zéalous, fúlness, gódly, meékly, ártist.

2. Dissyllables formed by prefixing a syllable to the radical word, have commonly the accent on the latter; as to begét, to beseém, to bestów.

3. Of dissyllables, which are at once nouns and verbs, the verb has commonly the accent on the latter, and the noun on the former syllable; as, to descánt, a déscant; to cemént, a cément; to contráct, a cóntract.

This rule has many exceptions. Though verbs seldom have their accent on
the former, yet nouns often have it on the latter syllable; as delíght,
perfúme.

4. All dissyllables ending in y, as cránny; in our, as lábour, fávour; in ow, as wíllow, wállow, except allów; in le, as báttle, bíble; in ish, as bánish; in ck, as cámbrick, cássock; in ter, as to bátter; in age, as coúrage, in en, as fásten; in et, as quíet; accent the former syllable.

5. Dissyllable nouns in er, as cánker, bútter, have the accent on the former syllable.

6. Dissyllable verbs terminating in a consonant and e final, as compríse, escápe; or having a diphthong in the last syllable, as appéase, revéal; or ending in two consonants, as atténd; have the accent on the latter syllable.

7. Dissyllable nouns having a diphthong in the latter syllable, have commonly their accent on the latter syllable, as appláuse; except words in ain, cértain, moúntain.

8. Trissyllables formed by adding a termination, or prefixing a syllable, retain the accent of the radical word; as, lóveliness, ténderness, contémner, wágonner, phýsical, bespátter, cómmenting, comménding, assúrance.

9. Trissyllables ending in ous, as grácious, árduous; in al, as cápital; in ion, as méntion; accent the first.

10. Trissyllables ending in ce, ent, and ate, accent the first syllable, as cóuntenance, cóntinence, ármament, ímminent, élegant, própagate, except they be derived from words having the accent on the last, as connívance, acquáintance; or the middle syllable hath a vowel before two consonants, as promúlgate.

11. Trissyllables ending in y, as éntity, spécify, líberty, víctory, súbsidy, commonly accent the first syllable.

12. Trissyllables in re or le accent the first syllable, as légible, théatre, except discíple, and some words which have a position, as exámple, epístle.

13. Trissyllables in ude commonly accent the first syllable, as plénitude.

14. Trissyllables ending in ator or atour, as creátour; or having in the middle syllable a diphthong, as endeávour; or a vowel before two consonants, as doméstick; accent the middle syllable.

15. Trissyllables that have their accent on the last syllable are commonly French, as acquiésce, repartée, magazíne, or words formed by prefixing one or two syllables to an acute syllable, as immatúre, overchárge.

16. Polysyllables, or words of more than three syllables, follow the accent of the words from which they are derived, as árrogating, cóntinency, incóntinently, comméndable, commúnicableness. We should therefore say dispútable, indispútable; rather than dísputable, indísputable; and advertísement, rather than advértisement.

17. Words in ion have the accent upon the antepenult, as salvátion, perturbátion, concóction; words in atour or ator on the penult, as dedicátor.

18. Words ending in le commonly have the accent on the first syllable, as ámicable, unless the second syllable have a vowel before two consonants, as combústible.

19. Words ending in ous have the accents on the antepenult, as uxórious, volúptuous.

20. Words ending in ty have their accent on the antepenult, as pusillanímity, actívity.

These rules are not advanced as complete or infallible, but proposed as
useful. Almost every rule of every language has its exceptions; and in
English, as in other tongues, much must be learned by example and
authority. Perhaps more and better rules may be given that have escaped
my observation.

VERSIFICATION is the arrangement of a certain number of syllables according to certain laws.

The feet of our verses are either iambick, as alóft, creáte; or trochaick, as hóly, lófty.

Our iambick measure comprises verses

Of four syllables,

Most good, most fair,
Or things as rare,
To call you's lost;
For all the cost
Words can bestow,
So poorly show
Upon your praise,
That all the ways
Sense hath, come short. Drayton.

With ravish'd ears
The monarch hears. Dryden.

Of six,

This while we are abroad,
Shall we not touch our lyre?
Shall we not sing an ode?
Or shall that holy fire,
In us that strongly glow'd,
In this cold air expire?

Though in the utmost peak,
A while we do remain,
Amongst the mountains bleak,
Expos'd to sleet and rain,
No sport our hours shall break,
To exercise our vein.

What though bright Phoebus' beams
Refresh the southern ground,
And though the princely Thames
With beauteous nymphs abound,
And by old Camber's streams
Be many wonders found:

Yet many rivers clear
Here glide in silver swathes,
And what of all most dear,
Buxton's delicious baths,
Strong ale and noble chear,
T' asswage breem winters scathes.

In places far or near,
Or famous, or obscure,
Where wholsom is the air,
Or where the most impure,
All times, and every where,
The muse is still in ure. Drayton.

Of eight, which is the usual measure for short poems,

And may at last my weary age
Find out the peaceful hermitage,
The hairy gown, and mossy cell,
Where I may sit, and nightly spell
Of ev'ry star the sky doth shew,
And ev'ry herb that sips the dew. Milton.

Of ten, which is the common measure of heroick and tragick poetry,

Full in the midst of this created space,
Betwixt heav'n, earth, and skies, there stands a place
Confining on all three; with triple bound;
Whence all things, though remote, are view'd around,
And thither bring their undulating sound.
The palace of loud Fame, her seat of pow'r,
Plac'd on the summit of a lofty tow'r;
A thousand winding entries long and wide
Receive of fresh reports a flowing tide.
A thousand crannies in the walls are made;
Nor gate nor bars exclude the busy trade.
Tis built of brass, the better to diffuse
The spreading sounds, and multiply the news;
Where echoes in repeated echoes play:
A mart for ever full; and open night and day.
Nor silence is within, nor voice express,
But a deaf noise of sounds that never cease;
Confus'd and chiding, like the hollow roar
Of tides, receding from th' insulted shore;
Or like the broken thunder heard from far,
When Jove to distance drives the rolling war.
The courts are fill'd with a tumultuous din,
Of crouds, or issuing forth, or ent'ring in:
A thorough-fare of news; where some devise
Things never heard, some mingle truth with lies:
The troubled air with empty sounds they beat,
Intent to hear, and eager to repeat. Dryden.

In all these measures the accents are to be placed on even syllables; and every line considered by itself is more harmonious, as this rule is more strictly observed. The variations necessary to pleasure belong to the art of poetry, not the rules of grammar.

Our trochaick measures are Of three syllables,

Here we may
Think and pray,
Before death
Stops our breath:
Other joys
Are but toys. Walton's Angler.

Of five,

In the days of old,
Stories plainly told,
Lovers felt annoy. Old Ballad.

Of seven,

Fairest piece of well form'd earth,
Urge not thus your haughty birth. Waller.

In these measures the accent is to be placed on the odd syllables.

These are the measures which are now in use, and above the rest those of seven, eight, and ten syllables. Our ancient poets wrote verses sometimes of twelve syllables, as Drayton's Polyolbion.

Of all the Cambrian shires their heads that bear so high,
And farth'st survey their soils with an ambitious eye,
Mervinia for her hills, as for their matchless crouds,
The nearest that are said to kiss the wand'ring clouds,
Especial audience craves, offended with the throng,
That she of all the rest neglected was so long;
Alledging for herself, when, through the Saxons' pride,
The godlike race of Brute to Severn's setting side
Were cruelly inforc'd, her mountains did relieve
Those whom devouring war else every where did grieve.
And when all Wales beside (by fortune or by might)
Unto her ancient foe resign'd her ancient right,
A constant maiden still she only did remain,
The last her genuine laws which stoutly did retain.
And as each one is prais'd for her peculiar things;
So only she is rich, in mountains, meres and springs,
And holds herself as great in her superfluous waste,
As others by their towns, and fruitful tillage grac'd.

And of fourteen, as Chapman's Homer.

And as the mind of such a man, that hath a long way gone,
And either knoweth not his way, or else would let alone,
His purpos'd journey, is distract.

The measures of twelve and fourteen syllables were often mingled by our old poets, sometimes in alternate lines, and sometimes in alternate couplets.

The verse of twelve syllables, called an Alexandrine, is now only used to diversify heroick lines.

Waller was smooth, but Dryden taught to join
The varying verse, the full resounding line,
The long majestick march, and energy divine. Pope.

The pause in the Alexandrine must be at the sixth syllable.

The verse of fourteen syllables is now broken into a soft lyrick measure of verses, consisting alternately of eight syllables and six.

She to receive thy radiant name,
Selects a whiter space. Fenton.

When all shall praise, and ev'ry lay
Devote a wreath to thee,
That day, for come it will, that day
Shall I lament to see. Lewis to Pope.

Beneath this tomb an infant lies
To earth whose body lent,
Hereafter shall more glorious rise,
But not more innocent.
When the Archangel's trump shall blow,
And souls to bodies join,
What crowds shall wish their lives below
Had been as short as thine! Wesley.

We have another measure very quick and lively, and therefore much used in songs, which may be called the anapestick, in which the accent rests upon every third syllable.

May I góvern my pássions with ábsolute swáy,
And grow wíser and bétter as lífe wears awáy. Dr. Pope.

In this measure a syllable is often retrenched from the first foot, as

Diógenes súrly and próud. Dr. Pope.

When présent, we lóve, and when ábsent agrée,
I thínk not of Íris, nor Íris of me. Dryden.

These measures are varied by many combinations, and sometimes by double endings, either with or without rhyme, as in the heroick measure.

'Tis the divinity that stirs within us,
'Tis heaven itself that points out an hereafter,
And intimates eternity to man. Addison.

So in that of eight syllables,

They neither added nor confounded,
They neither wanted nor abounded. Prior.

In that of seven,

For resistance I could fear none,
But with twenty ships had done,
What thou, brave and happy Vernon,
Hast atchiev'd with six alone. Glover.

In that of six,

'Twas when the seas were roaring,
With hollow blasts of wind,
A damsel lay deploring,
All on a rock reclin'd. Gay.

In the anapestick,

When terrible tempests assail us.
And mountainous billows affright,
Nor power nor wealth can avail us,
But skilful industry steers right. Ballad.

To these measures and their laws, may be reduced every species of English verse.

Our versification admits of few licences, except a synaloepha, or elision of e in the before a vowel, as th' eternal; and more rarely of o in to, as t' accept; and a synaresis, by which two short vowels coalesce into one syllable, as question, special; or a word is contracted by the expulsion of a short vowel before a liquid, as av'rice, temp'rance.

Thus have I collected rules and examples, by which the English language may be learned, if the reader be already acquainted with grammatical terms, or taught by a master to those that are more ignorant. To have written a grammar for such as are not yet initiated in the schools, would have been tedious, and perhaps at last ineffectual.

End of Project Gutenberg's A Grammar of the English Tongue, by Samuel Johnson