Chapter XI

HISTORY OF SEPARATION AND DIVORCE UNDER ENGLISH AND ECCLESIASTICAL LAW

[BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE XI.--For divorce among the Athenians
Meier and Schömann's _Der attische Process_ (Berlin, 1883-87)
is important. Assistance has also been given by Hruza,
_Ehebegründung nach att. Rechte_ (Leipzig, 1892); _idem_,
_Polygamie und Pellikat_ (Leipzig, 1894); and Müller and
Bauer, "Die griech. Privat- und Kriegsalterthümer" (1893), in
Müller's _Handbuch_. The Hebrew law on the subject is well
treated by Mielziner, _The Jewish Law of Marriage and Divorce_
(Cincinnati, 1884); and especially by Amram, in his excellent
_Jewish Law of Divorce_ (Philadelphia, 1896). In his "Divorce
on Condition," in the _Green Bag_, III, August, 1891, the
last-named writer has described a curious device for escaping
marriage with a brother-in-law and employed also in cases of
long absence. Besides the works of Stubbe, Duschak, Döllinger,
and Lichtschein, elsewhere noticed, see Selden, _Uxor ebraica_
(Frankfort, 1673), or the same in his _Opera_, II (London,
1726); Fraenkel, _Grundlinien des mosaisch-talmud. Eherechts_
(Breslau, 1860); Saalschuetz, _Das mosaische Recht_ (2d ed.,
Berlin, 1853); and Meyer, _Die Rechte der Israeliten, Athener,
und Römer_ (Leipzig, 1862-66).

The leading work on Roman divorce is Wächter's _Ueber die
Ehescheidungen_ (Stuttgart, 1821). There is also a good account
in the seventh and eighth chapters of Hasse's _Das Gütterrecht
der Ehegatten nach röm. Recht_ (Berlin, 1824). Savigny has an
article on "Die erste Ehescheidung in Rom," in _Abhandlungen der
könig. Akad. der Wiss. in Berlin, 1814-16_ (Berlin, 1818). Very
important also is Rein, _Das röm. Privatrecht_ (Leipzig, 1836);
and on divorce in connection with the alleged depravation of
morals at the close of the republic there is a fine passage in
Lecky, _European Morals_ (3d ed., New York, 1881). The subject
is treated by Marche, _Historia juris civilis de divortiis_
(Leipzig, 1764); Langeron, _Du divorce en droit romain_ (Paris,
1857); Morael, _Droit romain: du divorce_ (Paris, 1888); and
Combier, _Du divorce en droit romain_ (Paris, 1880). Esmein,
_Mélanges_ (Paris, 1886), has a chapter dealing in part with
Roman divorce; and in the same volume may be found the best
existing treatment of adultery in connection with the _Lex Julia
de adulteriis_. With other matter this law is also considered by
Gessert, _Ad leg. Jul. de adult. coerc._ (Würtemberg, 1795);
Haupt, _De poena adulterii ex leg. Jul._ (Leipzig, 1797); Jörs,
_Die Ehegesetze des Augustus_ (Marburg, 1894); and Bennecke in
his able monograph _Die strafrechtliche Lehre vom Ehebruch_
(Marburg, 1884), bringing the general history of his subject
down to the middle of the fifteenth century. In this connection
have likewise been of service Sohm's _Institutes_ and the works
of Fustel de Coulanges, Hölder, Rossbach, Karlowa, Unger, Maine,
Marquardt, and Zhishman elsewhere described. The ground of the
chapter is mainly covered by Woolsey, _Divorce and Divorce
Legislation_ (2d ed., New York, 1882); and Glasson, _Le mariage
civil et le divorce_ (2d ed., Paris, 1880); as also by the
general works of Popp, _Ehescheidung_ (Amberg and Sulzbach,
1800); Tissot, _Le mariage, la séparation et le divorce_ (Paris,
1868); Thwing, _The Family_ (Boston, 1887); Gide, _La femme_
(2d ed., Paris, 1885); Scheurl, _Das gemeine deutsche Eherecht_
(Erlangen, 1882); and there is a concise historical account by
Friedericus, _De divortio meditationes_ (Leipzig, 1842).

For the origin and early development of the Christian doctrine,
besides the Scriptures, the principle sources are, of course,
the writings of the Fathers and the provisions of the first
ecclesiastical councils. The most important monograph is
Geffcken's _Zur Geschichte der Ehescheidung vor Gratian_
(Leipzig, 1894). The subject is treated in Moy, _Das Eherecht
der Christen_ (Regensburg, 1833). There is a good account by
Loening, _Geschichte des deutschen Kirchenrechts_ (Strassburg,
1878); and another by Meyrick in his article "Marriage," in
the second volume of the _Dict. of Christ. Antiquities_. The
rigid theological point of view is taken by Watkins, _Holy
Matrimony_ (London, 1895); and Luckock, _History of Marriage_
(London, 1894). Among similar works, mainly controversial,
may be consulted Ap Richard, _Marriage and Divorce_ (London,
1888); Caverno, _Treatise on Divorce_ (Madison, 1889); Hovey,
_The Scriptural Law of Divorce_ (Philadelphia, 1866); Greve,
_Die Ehescheidung nach der Lehre des Neuen Testamentes_
(Leipzig, 1873); and the anonymous _Ueber den einzig wahren
Ehescheidungsgrund in der christ. Kirche_ (Bayreuth, 1838).
Standard Catholic treatises are Cigoi, _Die Unauflösbarkeit
der christ. Ehe_ (Paderborn, 1895); Didon, _Indissolubilité
et divorce_ (4th ed., Paris, 1880); or the German translation
of the same by Schneider (Regensburg, 1893); Roskovány, _De
matrimonio in eccle. cath._ (Augustae Vindelicorum, 1837);
Scheicher-Binder, _Praktisches Handbuch des kath. Eherechts_
(4th ed., Freiburg, 1891); and especially Perrone, _De
matrimonio christ._ (Leodii, 1861). Pompen has a special
_Tractatus de dispensationibus et de revalidatione mat._ (2d
ed., Amsterdam, 1897).

On Germanic law and custom see Tacitus's _Germania_; the
_Monumenta Germaniae Historica_; and the collections of Thorpe,
Schmid, and Liebermann. Heussler's _Institutionen_, Weinhold's
_Deutsche Frauen_, Grimm's _Rechtsalterthümer_, Brunner's
_Rechtsgeschichte_, and the similar works of Schroeder,
Zoepfl, and Walter have all been consulted. The penitentials,
containing evidence of compromise between Teutonic usage and
the strict dogmas of the church, may be found in Thorpe,
_Ancient Laws_; Haddan and Stubbs, _Councils_; Wasserschleben,
_Bussordnungen_ (Halle, 1851); and Schmitz, _Bussbücher_
(Mayence, 1883). These have largely superseded the older
works of Kuntsmann, _Die lateinischen Poenitentialbücher der
Angelsachsen_ (Mayence, 1844); and Hildebrand, _Untersuchungen
über die germ. Poenitentialbücher_ (Würzburg, 1851). The
penitentials are analyzed by Bennecke, Esmein, and Freisen; also
by Hinschius, "Das Ehescheidungsrecht nach den angelsäch. und
frank. Bussordnungen," in _Zeitschrift für deutsches Recht_,
XX; and Rosenthal, _Die Rechtsfolgen des Ehebruchs nach kan.
und deutsch. Recht_ (Würzburg, 1880). In this connection may
also be read Heller, _Ueber die Strafe des Ehebruchs_ (Ulm,
1773); Wächter, _Abhandlungen aus dem Strafrechte_ (Leipzig,
1835), I, dealing with _Entführung_ and _Nothzucht_; Wilda,
_Strafrecht_ (Halle, 1842); and Pollen, _Fatal Consequences of
Adultery_ (London, 1772), giving literary and other curiosities
of the subject. A useful book is Boehmer's _Ueber die Ehegesetze
im Zeitalter Karls des Grossen_ (Göttingen, 1826), discussing
the inconsistency of temporal and ecclesiastical legislation
regarding divorce; as is also Sdralek's _Hinkmars Gutachten über
die Ehescheidung des Königs Lothar II._ (Freiburg, 1881).

Primary sources for the settlement of the canon law on the
subject of divorce are the _Decretum_ of Gratian and the other
materials comprised in Richter-Friedberg's _Corpus juris
canonici_. For England Johnson's _Canons_ and Godolphin's
_Repartorium canonicum_ (3d ed., London, 1687) are serviceable.
The state of the law in the age of the decretalists may
be learned from Wunderlich's edition of Tancred's _Summa
de matrimonio_ (Göttingen, 1841); and for its historical
development the great works of Esmein and Freisen, elsewhere
mentioned, are indispensable. Schulte's _Lehrbuch_ and the
_Lehrbuch_ of Friedberg cover the subject. In connection with
the rise of the jurisdiction of the church should be read Sohm,
"Die geist. Gerichtsbarkeit im frank. Reich," in _ZKR._, IX
(Tübingen, 1870). For the matrimonial experiences of Margaret
of Scotland, illustrating the facility of divorce by indirect
methods under the canon law, see Tait's article in the _Dict. of
Nat. Biog._, XXXVI; and similar material in the _Reports of the
Historical Manuscripts Commission_. For the literature relating
to the Council of Trent consult Bibliographical Note VII.

The foundation of the Protestant doctrine of divorce was laid by
Martin Luther. His writings on the subject may, of course, be
found in his collected works mentioned in Bibliographical Note
IX; or in the source-book of Strampff, _Luther: Ueber die Ehe_
(Berlin, 1857); while the more important papers are reprinted
in Vol. II of the _Kleinere Schriften Dr. Martin Luthers: von
Ehe- und Klostersachen_ (Bielefeld and Leipzig, 1877). An
earlier book of a somewhat similar character is Froböse's _Dr.
Martin Luther's ernste, kräftige Worte über Ehe und eheliche
Verhältnisse_ (Hanover, 1825). In the sixteenth century Luther's
relatively conservative teaching regarding the scriptural
grounds of divorce is adopted in the main by the theologians
Brenz, _Wie yn Ehesachen ... zu Handeln_ (1530); Bugenhagen,
_Von Ehebruch und Weglaufen_ (1539); also in the collections
of Sarcerius, below mentioned; Chemnitz, _Examen concilii
tridentini_ (Frankfort, 1615); Beza, _Tractatio de repudiis et
divortiis_ (Geneva, 1569); the jurists Kling, _Matrimonialium
causarum tractatus_ (1st ed., Frankfort, 1553; 3d ed., here
cited, 1577), being a reprint of the title "De nuptiis" of his
_Enarrationes in Institutiones_ (1542); Beust, _Tractatus de
jure connubiorum_ (3d ed., Leipzig, 1592); _idem_, _Tractatus
de sponsalibus et matrimoniis_ (Wittenberg, 1586); Schneidewin,
_Commentarius in Institutiones_ (1st ed., Wittenberg, 1571); and
_idem_, _De nuptiis_ (Jena, 1585), being a part of the earlier
work published by the heirs after the author's death. In the
seventeenth century the more stringent tendency is represented
by the theologians Bidembach, _De causis matrimonialibus
tractatus_ (Frankfort, 1608); Mentzer, _De conjugio tractatus_
(Wittenberg, 1612); and by the jurists Cypräus, _De connubiorum
jure_ (Frankfort, 1605); Nicolai, _Tractatus de repudiis et
divortiis_ (Dresden, 1685); and Brouwer, _De jure connubiorum_
(Amsterdam, 1665), whose book has the distinction of being
placed on the _Index_. On the other hand, in the age of
Luther a more liberal direction is taken by Erasmus, _Annat.
in Nov. Testam._ (Basel, 1515); whose influence, according
to Richter, is felt by Zwingli, "Ordnung wie zu Zürich ...
über eelich sachen gericht soll werden" (1525): in Richter,
_Kirchordnungen_, I, 21, 22; and his "Commentary on Matthew
xix, 9," in Richter, _Beiträge_, 7; and by Zwingli's disciple
Bullinger, _Der christlich Ehestand_ (1579). The laxer tendency
is also represented by Lambert of Avignon, _De sacro conjugio_
(Strasburg, 1524); Melanchthon, "De conjugio" (1551), in
_Opera_, I (Erlangen, 1828); Bucer, whose work is mentioned in
connection with the English Reformation; the jurist Monner,
_Tract. de matrimonio et clandestinis conjugiis_ (Jena, 1561);
and in the seventeenth century especially by Hülsemann,
_Extensio breviarii theologici_ (3d ed., Leipzig, 1655); and
the jurist Forster, _De nuptiis_ (Wittenberg, 1617). The more
essential parts of the works of Luther, Brenz, Bugenhagen,
Bullinger, and Melanchthon may also be found in that remarkable
treasury of materials gathered by Sarcerius, _Ein Buch vom
heiligen Ehestande_ (1553); enlarged under title _Corpus juris
matrimonialis_ (Frankfort, 1569).

Heading the modern literature is Richter's able _Beiträge
zur Geschichte des Ehescheidungsrechts in der evang. Kirche_
(Berlin, 1858), which has the special merit of first classifying
the post-Reformation writers on divorce according to their more
rigid or more liberal tendencies. The subject is also treated
with the usual precision and thoroughness in his _Lehrbuch
des kath. und evang. Kirchenrechts_ (8th ed., Leipzig, 1886).
Important likewise are Strippelmann, _Das Ehescheidungsrecht_
(Cassel, 1854); Goeschen, "Ehe," in Herzog's _Encyclopaedie_,
III, 666-707 (Stuttgart and Hamburg, 1855); Hauber,
"Ehescheidung im Reformations-Jahrhundert," in _Jahrbücher
für deutsche Theologie_ (1857), II; Hubrich, _Das Recht der
Ehescheidung_ (Berlin, 1891); Buchka, _Das mecklenburgische
Ehescheidungsrecht_ (Wismar, 1885); Gräbner, _Ueber Desertion
und Quasidesertion_ (Colberg, 1882); and Friedberg, "Beiträge
zur Geschichte des brand.-preuss. Eherechts," in _ZKR._, VIII
(Tübingen, 1886-87). Weydmann, _Luther_ (Hamburg and Gotha,
1850), has two chapters on Luther's views and his matrimonial
life. The second and third parts of Vol. III of Schulte's
_Geschichte der Quellen und Litteratur des can. Rechts_
(Stuttgart, 1880) provide a mass of valuable biographical and
bibliographical material for the whole post-Reformation period.

Richter's well-edited and now exceedingly scarce
_Kirchenordnungen des sechszehnten Jahrhunderts_ (Weimar,
1846) contains the legislation of the Evangelical churches on
marriage and divorce. Especially important for the seventeenth
century is the very rare _Des Herzogthums Wirtemberg ernuerte
Ehe- und Ehe-Gerichts-Ordnung_ (Stuttgart, 1687), marking the
beginning of a more liberal treatment of the divorce problem.
The ecclesiastical ordinances are analyzed by Goeschen,
_Doctrina de matrimonio_ (Halle, 1848); and by Dietrich,
_Evangelisches Ehescheidungsrecht_ (Erlangen, 1892). Original
divorce decrees and opinions are collected in Bruckner's
_Decisiones juris matrimonialis_, II (Gotha, 1724); and several
cases are published by Schleusner, "Anfänge des protest.
Eherechts," in _ZKG._, XIII (Gotha, 1892). The best monographs
on the evolution of jurisdiction and process in such causes,
aside from the work of Dietrich just mentioned, are Geffcken,
"Zur ältesten Geschichte und ehegericht. Praxis des Leipzig.
Konsist.," in _ZKR._, 3. Folge, IV (Freiburg and Leipzig, 1894);
Hinschius, "Beiträge zur Geschichte des Desertionsprocesses,"
_ibid._, II (Berlin, 1862); and especially Stölzel, _Ueber das
landesherrliche Ehescheidungsrecht_ (Berlin, 1891), the first
part of which having already appeared in _ZKR._, XVIII (Freiburg
and Tübingen, 1883). Stölzel holds that the authority of the
chief magistrate to grant divorce is originally a right of
episcopal dispensation, and that his authority is not superseded
by the imperial law of 1875. On the controversy growing
out of this dual question see Meurer, _Das landesherrliche
Ehescheidungsrecht_ (Freiburg, 1891); and compare Scheurl, "Die
Ablösung des Eherechts von dem Kirchenrecht," in _ZKR._, XIII
(Tübingen, 1876); Buchka, "Das Eheschliessungsrecht," _ibid._,
XVI; Sicherer, _Personnenstand und Eheschliessung_ (Erlangen,
1879); the two dissertations of Wasserschleben, each entitled
_Das Ehescheidungsrecht kraft landesh. Machtvollkommenheit_
(Giessen, 1877; Berlin, 1880); and Hinschius, _Das Reichsgesetz_
(3d ed., 1890). On the rise of the early consistorial courts
see especially Mejer, "Anfänge des Wittenberger Consistoriums,"
in _ZKR._, XIII (Tübingen, 1876); _idem_, "Zur Geschichte des
ältesten protest. Eherechts," _ibid._, XVI (Tübingen, 1881);
both articles being reprinted with other matter in his _Zum
Kirchenrecht des Reformationsjahrhunderts_ (Hanover, 1891).

Since the Reformation the questions of the proper grounds
of divorce and of the remarriage of divorced persons have
given rise to perennial discussion. Among the many writings
so produced may be mentioned Gerlach, _Kirchenrechtliche
Untersuchung_ (Erlangen, 1839); Savigny, "Darstellung der
in den preuss. Gesetzen über die Ehescheidung unternommenen
Reform," in _Vermischte Schriften_, V (Berlin, 1850); Müller,
_Ueber Ehescheidung und Wiederverehlichung geschiedener Gatten_
(Berlin, 1855); Hundrich, _Ueber Ehen und Scheidungen_ (Breslau,
1855); Seidler, _Beiträge zur Reform der preuss. Gesetzgebung_
(Nordhausen, 1861); Hoyer, _Die Ehescheidungsfrage_ (Berlin,
1859); Scheurl, _Zur praktischen Lösung der Ehescheidungsfrage_
(Nürnberg, 1861); Harless, _Die Ehescheidungsfrage_ (Stuttgart,
1861); Bräunig, _Das Recht der Ehescheidung_ (Zwickau, 1861);
Huschke, _Was lehrt Gottes Wort über die Ehescheidung?_ (Leipzig
and Dresden, 1860); _idem_, _Beleuchtung der Einwürfe gegen
meine Schrift_ (Leipzig and Dresden, 1861). Among the many
Latin dissertations on the subject are Majer, _De separatione
cohabitationis_ (Tübingen, 1675); Eckstein, _De divortio ex
causa desertionis_ (Tübingen, 1675); Wagner, _De divortio,
et convictus conjugalis separatione_ (Magdeburg, 1723);
Memminger, _De divortio propter insidias vitae structas_
(Halle, 1738); Struvvius, _De jure divortiorum_ (Jena, 1735);
Seiff, _De divortio totali_ (Giessen, 1740); Mossheim, _De
divortio_ (Jena, 1737, 1773); Scopp, _Tractatus, de jure
divortiorum_ (Frankfort and Leipzig, 1756); Wunderlich, _De
separatione a thoro et mensa_ (Jena, 1774); and especially
the _Controversiae circa jura divortiorum_ (2d ed., Halle,
1729), being a reprint of tracts of Kayser, Lange, and
Michaelis. For the more recent development of the law in
German lands see Schilling, _Der Ehescheidungsprocess in den
sächsischen Gerichten_ (Leipzig, 1831); _Ehegerichts-Ordnung
für den Kanton Basel-Stadtheil_ (Basel, 1857); Lauenstein,
_Hannoverisches Eherecht und Process-Verfahren_ (Hanover, 1869);
Peters, _Die Ehescheidung_ (Berlin, 1881); Wasserschleben,
_Das Ehescheidungsrecht_ (Berlin, 1887); Hergenhahn, _Das
Eheschliessungs- und Ehescheidungs-Recht_ (Hanover, 1890-93);
Ney, _Das Kirchenrecht_ (Berlin, 1895); Part II of Lehr, _Le
mariage, le divorce, et la séparation_ (Paris, 1899); Erles,
_Ehescheidungsrecht und Ehescheidungsprozess_ (2d ed., Berlin,
1900); and Dedekind, _Das protest. Ehescheidungsrecht und
Verwandtes_ (Braunschweig, 1872), containing decisions extending
over many years with full bibliographical citations.

Of primary importance for the Reformation in England are the
writings of Becon, Hooper, Tyndale, and Whitgift, all, with
the _Original Letters_, comprised in the publications of the
Parker Society and described in Bibliographical Note IX. The
radical doctrines of Bucer's _De regno Christi_ (1557) were
supported by Milton, who published an English version under
title of "The Judgment of Martin Bucer," in _Prose Works_, III.
Pocock's _Records of the Reformation: The Divorce, 1527-1533_
(Oxford, 1870), has placed within easy reach a fine collection
of original materials relating to Henry VIII.'s famous cause;
and Huth, _The Marriage of Near Kin_ (2d ed., London, 1887), has
provided a bibliography of the extensive literature to which it
has given rise. For the whole period Burnet's _History of the
Reformation_ (London, 1850) is of service. The state of public
sentiment is reflected in Raynold's _Defence of the Judgment
of the Reformed Churches_ (1609, 1610); the opposing work of
Bunny, _Of Divorce for Adultery, And Marrying againe: that there
is no sufficient warrant so to do_ (Oxford, 1610; prepared for
publication in 1595); and the curious _Lawes Resolutions of
Womens Rights_ (London, 1632). The corruption and injustice
often attending the proceedings of the old spiritual courts in
actions for annulment of wedlock are revealed in Archbishop
Abbot's _The Case of Impotency As Debated in England, In that
Remarkable Tryal An. 1613, between Robert, Earl of Essex, and
the Lady Frances Howard_ (London, 1715), in which King James
I. appears in the rôle of pander to the lust of his guilty
favorite. The publication of this book, a century after it
was written, appears to have been suggested by the similar
_Pleadings for the Marquis de Gesvres against the Marchioness_
(London, 1714). In this connection may also be mentioned as
illustrative material the _Cases of Divorce for Several Causes_
(London, 1715); and the _Crim. Con. Actions and Trials and other
Legal Proceedings relating to Marriage before the passing of the
present Divorce Act_ (London, n. d.). With these may be compared
the modern case _Ehescheidungs-Process Colin-Campbell_ (London,
1886). For the Stuart period have also been used Barrington,
_Observations Upon the Statutes_ (2d ed., London, 1766); Hale,
_History of the Pleas of the Crown_ (London, 1800); Coke,
_Reports_ (London, 1826); his _Institutes_; and the _Reports_ of
Croke, Kelyng, and Marche.

Milton's "Doctrine and Discipline of Divorce," "Tetrachordon,"
and "Colasterion" may be found in Vols. III and IV of his
_Prose Works_ (London, 1889-90). The only special work on
parliamentary divorce is that contained in Macqueen's _Practical
Treatise on the Appellate Jurisdiction of the House of Lords
and Privy Council_ (London, 1842). There are a number of papers
relating to the early cases in the _Reports of the Historical
Manuscripts Commission_. Morgan, _Marriage, Adultery, and
Divorce_ (Oxford, 1826), has a long account; and the Lord Roos
suit gave rise to _The Case of Divorce and Re-Marriage_ (London,
1673). The proceedings in the Northampton case may be found in
Howell's _State Trials_, XII.

The _Statutes at Large_ and Hansard's _Parliamentary Debates_
are, of course, in frequent requisition. For the reform of the
laws relating to affinity and divorce important sources are
the "First Report of the Commissioners" (affinity), in _Brit.
Documents, 1847-8_, XXVIII (London, 1848); "First Report of the
Commissioners" (divorce), _ibid._, _1852-3_, XL (London, 1853);
"Evidence before the Select Committee of the House of Lords,
1844" (divorce), reprinted _ibid._; _A Return giving an Outline
of Marriage Laws, and the State of the Law of Divorce_, in
three parts (London, 1894); _Return of the Number of Divorces_,