Chapter XVI: Part 16

In Germany, as well as in Austria and Russia, similar reactionary measures were enforced. Frederick William IV. of Prussia for a while appeared anxious to undo the effects of his narrow policy of the previous year. A constitution had been adopted in Prussia on the last day of January, and on February 6 the King took the constitutional oath. Austria now began to edge her way back into the management of German affairs. Under her influence Hanover withdrew from the alliance of the three North German powers, Hanover, Saxony and Prussia. Later Saxony also withdrew. On February 27, the Kings of Bavaria, Wurtemberg and Saxony signed a joint agreement for a restoration of the German Confederation and a maintenance of the federal union. The Emperor of Austria gave to this scheme his full support. When the Bundestag met again at Frankfort, Austria insisted on her rights as a German State. Too late the Prussian representative advocated a German federal State, with Austria excluded. The disastrous failure of Prussian intervention in Schleswig-Holstein about this time brought Prussia into further disrepute with the rest of Germany. England, France and Sweden united to guarantee the integrity of Denmark. Prussia left the Duchies to their fate. On July 19, Austria called for another assembly of the old Confederation. Prussia and her adherents could not join. On August 17, the German sovereigns met on the call of Austria at Frankfort to consider a plan of federal union. The old Bundestag was reopened at Frankfort on September 2, under the auspices of Austria. Prussia clung to her rival federal union. A bone of contention was furnished by the little State of Hesse. The Archduke of Hesse, the most reactionary of German princes, had resumed his rule with the help of his hated Prime Minister, Hassenpflug. The financial budget of this Minister was disapproved by the Hessian Estates. Hassenpflug now dissolved the Assembly and proceeded to levy taxes without its sanction. The people refused to pay. The courts decided against the government. Even the soldiers and their officers declined to lift a finger against the people. In the face of this resolute attitude the Prince and his Minister fled the country, on September 12, and appealed to the new Bundestag at Frankfort for help. The restoration of the Archduke to his throne was decreed.

[Sidenote: Prussians intervene]

[Sidenote: Austria prepares for war]

[Sidenote: Prussia cowed]

[Sidenote: Hessia ground under]

Prussia now took a decided stand. On September 26, General von Radowitz, the originator of the North German Union, was placed at the head of Prussia's foreign affairs. He declared for the cause of the people in Hesse. The Prussian troops were withdrawn from Baden over the military roads leading through Hesse. To meet this situation, Francis Joseph of Austria, in October, had a personal interview with the Kings of Bavaria and of Wurtemberg at Bregenz. It was decided to crowd the Prussians out of Baden and Hesse by moving Bavarian and Austrian troops into those countries. Another personal conference between Francis Joseph and Czar Nicholas at Warsaw assured to Austria the support of Russia. In vain did Frederick William send his cousin, Count Brandenburg, to win over the Czar to his side. Count Brandenburg met with so haughty a reception that he returned chagrined, and, falling ill, died soon afterward. Both Austria and Prussia mobilized their armies. At Vienna the Austrian Prime Minister avowed to the Ambassador of France that it was his policy to "avilir la Prussie, puis la demolir." On November 8, the vanguards of the Prussian and Austrian troops exchanged shots. The single casualty of a bugler's horse served only to tickle the German sense of humor. The Prussians retired without further encounters. Radowitz resigned his Ministry. Otto von Manteuffel was put in charge. On November 21, the Austrian Ambassador at Berlin, Prince Schwarzenberg, demanded the evacuation of Hesse within forty-eight hours. Prussia gave in. Manteuffel requested the favor of a personal interview at Olmuetz. Without awaiting Austria's reply he posted thither. In a treaty signed at Olmuetz late in the year, Prussia agreed to withdraw her troops from Baden and Hesse, and to annul her military conventions with Baden, Anhalt, Mecklenburg and Brunswick. Thus miserably ended Prussia's first attempt to exclude Austria from the affairs of Germany. As heretofore, the Prussian-Polish provinces of Posen and Silesia were excluded from the Confederation. Austria, on the other hand, tried to bring her subjected provinces in Italy and Hungary into the Germanic Confederation. Against this proposition, repugnant to most Germans, France and England lodged so vigorous a protest that the plan was abandoned. The Elector of Hesse-Cassel returned to his capital. Under the protection of the federal bayonets he was able to bring his wretched subjects to complete subjection.

[Sidenote: Gervinus]

[Sidenote: Richard Wagner]

[Sidenote: Lenau]

[Sidenote: Lenau's pessimism]

The profound disappointment of the German patriots at the downfall of their political ideals found its counterpart in German letters and music. Georg Gottfried Gervinus, the historian, who had taken so active a part in the attempted reorganization of Germany, turned from history to purely literary studies. It was then that he wrote his celebrated "Study of Shakespeare." Richard Wagner, who had escaped arrest only by fleeing from Dresden, gave up active composition to write pamphlets and essays, and published his remarkable essay on "The Revolution and the Fine Arts." In the meanwhile, Franz Liszt at Weimar brought out Wagner's new operas "Lohengrin" and "Tannhaeuser." Nicolas Lenau, the most melodious of the German lyric poets after Heine, died insane. Lenau, whose true name was Niembsch von Strehlenau, was a Hungarian by birth. He joined the group of German poets among whom were Uhland, Gustav Schwab and Count Alexander von Wurtemberg, whose literary aspirations were ridiculed by Heine as "la Romantique defroquee." Stimulated by his fellow poet Chamisso's voyage to Bering Strait, Lenau sought new inspiration in America. On his return he wrote a number of poems on America, which were published under the title of "Atlantica." In later years Lenau's verses, like those of Leopardi in Italy, became ever more melancholy, owing partly to inherited tendencies. In the early forties the poet's pessimism turned into absolute melancholia.

[Sidenote: Uhland]

[Sidenote: Heyse]

After the death of Lenau the mantle of German poetry fell upon Uhland. One of the younger poets, Paul Heyse, at the same time made his first appearance with the poetic drama "Francesca da Rimini."

[Sidenote: Babism in Persia]

In this year, Mirza Ali Mohamad, the great founder of the new Bab religion in Persia, with his disciples Aka Mohamad Ali and Sayyid Husayn of Yezd, suffered martyrdom. Sayyid Husayn recanted under torture, but the Bab and Aka went firmly to the place of execution. Condemned to be shot, the Bab escaped death by an apparent miracle. The bullets only cut the cords that held him bound. He was afterward slain by a soldier. His body was recovered by his disciples. Thus, in the words of Denison Ross, the Persian scholar, "died the great Prophet-Martyr of the Nineteenth Century, at the age of twenty-seven, having during a period of six brief years, of which three were spent in prison, attracted to his person and won for his faith thousands of devoted men and women throughout Persia, and having laid the foundation to a new religion destined to become a formidable rival to Islam." Further persecution of the Babis during this same year did much to forward the new religion.

1851

[Sidenote: Louis Napoleon's measures]

President Louis Napoleon's growing mastery of France was revealed early in the year. On January 3, as the result of his restrictions of the liberty of the press, the Ministry had to resign. The President deprived General Changarnier, a pronounced Republican, of the command of the Paris garrison, and dissolved the Assembly, which might have objected to these measures.

[Sidenote: Death of Spontini]

[Sidenote: Spontini's career]

Gasparo Spontini, the celebrated Italian composer, died on January 24, at his birthplace in Ancona province. Born in 1774, Spontini was intended for the priesthood, but while still a lad ran away and took up music. A sympathetic uncle sent him to the musical conservatory at Naples, where he studied under Sala Tritto. Spontini began his career as a dramatic composer at the opening of the century while acting as orchestral conductor at Palermo. In 1800 he brought out three operas, and wrote others for Rome and Venice, so that by the time he went to Paris in 1803 he had sixteen operas to his credit. His study of Mozart's music served to bring about a complete change in his style. Thus his one-act opera "Milton," dedicated to Empress Josephine, may be regarded as the first of his truly original works. Empress Josephine appointed him her chamber composer, and secured a hearing for his new opera "The Vestal," produced at the Grand Opera. Napoleon awarded to him the prize for the best dramatic work of that year. In 1810, Spontini became the director of the Italian opera, and there staged Mozart's "Don Giovanni." Dismissed in 1812, on charges of financial irregularity, he was reappointed as court composer by Louis XVIII. His stage pieces in glorification of the Restoration only achieved a _succes d'estime_. He was glad to accept an appointment to Berlin as court composer for Frederick William III. There he brought out "Lalla Rookh," "Alcidor," and "Agnes Hohenstauffen," none of which found currency in other cities. His overweening conduct gradually made his position at Berlin untenable. He was finally driven out by the hostile demonstrations of his audiences, and retired, in 1841, a broken man. After a few years spent in Paris he returned to Italy, where the Pope created him a count. Spontini returned to his birthplace of Magolati village only to die.

[Sidenote: Prussian events]

[Sidenote: Schleswig-Holstein again]

[Sidenote: Metternich returns]

[Sidenote: Bismarck]

[Sidenote: The Dreibund]

[Sidenote: Austrian-Turkish agreement]

In Germany, King William IV. at Berlin celebrated the 150th anniversary of the Prussian monarchy on January 18. A colossal statue of Frederick the Great was made for this occasion by the sculptor Christian Rauch. At the same time a further humiliation upon Prussia was inflicted by the military occupation of Schleswig-Holstein by Austria. The Austrian troops, who came to put a definite stop to hostilities in those provinces, marched into Schleswig-Holstein over a pontoon bridge laid by the retreating columns of the Prussians. As a concession to outraged German feeling, representatives from Schleswig-Holstein were to be readmitted to the Diet of the Germanic Confederation. This superannuated Diet met again at Frankfort as in the days of the Holy Alliance. Before this a conference of Ministers had been held at Dresden, at which Prussia was represented by Baron Lamsikell, while Prince Felix Schwarzenberg appeared for Austria. With the powerful backing of Russia, Austria could force the hand of Prussia into reacceptance of the old order of things. As if to emphasize this, old Prince Metternich made his reappearance in Vienna as if nothing had happened. On May 30, the Confederate Diet met again at Frankfort. Baron Bismarck was appointed as a delegate from Prussia. On the day after the opening of the Diet, the sovereigns of Russia, Austria, and Prussia met at Olmuetz to renew the former alliance of these countries. A period of reaction set in. The Prussian Constitution was modified. The Emperor of Austria began to undo the reforms granted by the Liberal Constitution of 1849. On August 20, he arrogated to himself absolute powers in a series of Cabinet letters, in which he declared that his Ministers were "responsible to no other political authority than the throne," while the Reichsrath was to be merely "considered as the council of the throne." Before this the Austrian and Turkish Governments had come to a settlement respecting Hungarian and Polish refugees in Turkey. With the exception of Kossuth and seven others of the foremost leaders of the Hungarian revolution, a so-called amnesty was extended to all refugees, provided they did not set foot in Hungary. About this time another popular rising occurred in Bosnia. A Turkish army was sent to suppress it, and Austrian troops took up their station on the frontier. Many of the exiled Hungarians betook themselves to America. Kossuth first went to England. A magnificent reception awaited him there.

[Sidenote: Palmerston rebuked]

[Sidenote: Boers lose Orange Colony]

Lord Palmerston, the British Foreign Secretary, in the meanwhile had compromised himself with his colleagues in the Cabinet by his independent threats of interference in regard to the Hungarian refugees in Turkey. Queen Victoria sent a letter to Prime Minister Russell containing these significant words: "The Queen expects to be kept informed by Lord Palmerston of what passes between him and the foreign Ministers, before important decisions are taken based upon that intercourse; to receive the foreign despatches in good time; and to have the drafts for her approval sent to her in sufficient time to make herself acquainted with their contents before they be sent off." Lord Palmerston replied: "I have taken a copy of this memorandum of the Queen, and will not fail to attend to the directions which it contains." Some of the most troublesome foreign complications, as often before, first came up for settlement in the Colonial Office. Thus, in March a British force under Sir Harry Smith defeated a commando of Boers at Boomplaatz. Other Boer forces were dispersed. The British flag was hoisted beyond the Orange River and the annexation of that territory to Great Britain was accomplished.

[Sidenote: Second Burmese war]

[Sidenote: Fall of Rangoon]

In India, war was renewed with the King of Burma. As usual, the trouble started with complaints of the British merchants at Rangoon calling for the protection of their country. Lord Dalhousie sent Commodore Lambert to Rangoon on the "Fox." Lambert seized one of the ships of the Burmese king lying in the river, promising to restore it on receipt of ten thousand rupees as compensation for the injured merchants. In reply the Burmese opened fire on the "Fox." Now all Burmese ports were declared in a state of blockade. Lord Dalhousie sent nineteen steamers and 6,000 men to Rangoon under General Godwin. Rangoon was captured after a heavy cannonade. The three terraces of the great Pagoda there were carried by storm, and the British flag hoisted over the golden dome of the sacred Pagoda. The capture of Rangoon was followed by that of Bassie on the Irawaddy, and Prome. The whole of Pegu was annexed to the British Empire.

[Sidenote: Gold found in Australia]

In Australia great excitement was created by the discovery of gold in various places. As early as February, gold was found in New South Wales by returned gold seekers from California. A great number of immigrants rushed into that province. In July, a squatter on Meroo Creek found a mass of virgin gold weighing above a hundred pounds. Thereupon the famous gold fields of Ballarat were opened in Victoria. In October, gold discoveries were made near Melbourne surpassing all others. As a result of the great tide of immigration that swept into Victoria that province separated itself from New South Wales. Melbourne became the capital of Victoria.

[Sidenote: Crystal Palace show]

In England, throughout the summer, a great international exposition in the so-called "Crystal Palace" erected on Hyde Park attracted visitors from far and wide. A special ode by Alfred Tennyson was sang at the opening:

Uplift a thousand voices full and sweet,
In this wide hall with earth's invention stored,
And praise the invisible universal Lord,
Who lets once more in peace the nations meet,
Where Science, Art and Labor have outpoured
Their myriad horns of plenty at our feet.

The Exposition was the most ambitious affair of the kind held so far. The building, which covered an area of nineteen acres, cost about L180,000. The total receipts of the Exposition were more than a half million pounds. At one time it was calculated nearly a hundred thousand visitors were assembled under its roof. The difficult problem how to place the exhibits of various countries was settled by awarding the choice places in an arrangement according to Mercator's projection of the map of the world. Even then Spain refused to be represented at the Exposition unless she were provided with an entrance distinct from that of Portugal.

[Sidenote: Civil war in Portugal]

Portugal was scarcely in a condition to share in any exhibition of industrial progress. Another outbreak of the persistent conflict between the Septembrists and Cabralists broke out in April. An insurrection in Oporto declared for the fugitive Duke of Saldanha. On April 29, he arrived at Oporto. The movement assumed such threatening proportions that Queen Maria da Gloria dismissed Count Thomar de Costa Cabral, and made Saldanha Prime Minister.

[Sidenote: South American convulsions]

In Portugal's former colonial possessions a civil war, no less wearing, was maintained. On October 2, General Urquiza of the Argentine Republic, having joined forces with Brazil and Montevideo, compelled General Oribe to capitulate at Montevideo. This ended the nine years' investment of Montevideo. Later in the year General Urquiza overthrew General Rosas at Montevideo and proclaimed himself military dictator. In Chile, about the same time that a violent earthquake wrecked more than four hundred houses at Valparaiso, a military insurrection broke out under Colonel Ourriola. In a sharp engagement between the government troops and the insurgents Ourriola with three hundred of his followers was killed. The insurrection was prolonged by General Jose Maria de la Cruz. Between four and five thousand men were killed in the desultory engagements that followed. At last the revolt was crushed by the decisive defeat of General Cruz in the battle of Longamilla.

[Sidenote: Extension of railways]

In China, the threatening Taiping rebellion gathered force. In Siam, the unusual spectacle was beheld of the simultaneous enthronement of two kings as rulers of that country. The progress of modern civilization was attested by the opening of a steam railway in Egypt between the cities of Cairo and Alexandria. In Russia, too, a straight line of railroad was laid over the long stretch between St. Petersburg and Moscow, and work was begun on others no less ambitious.

[Sidenote: American filibusters pardoned]

[Sidenote: American yacht victory]

[Sidenote: Kossuth in America]

[Sidenote: Death of Fenimore Cooper]

[Sidenote: Cooper's novels]

The fears of unpleasant complications between the United States and Spain, by reason of Cuban filibustering expeditions, were allayed by a general pardon extended to the American filibusters on the part of the Queen of Spain. On August 11, Lopez had landed with more filibusters in Cuba. He was captured shortly after his landing and was shot. The same fate was shared by his Cuban followers. Only to the American adventurers who accompanied the expedition did the Spanish Queen's pardon apply. An event of joyful interest to Americans was the victory of the American schooner-yacht "America" over all her English competitors in the yacht races at Cowes on October 22. She carried off the trophy of an international cup, which, under the name of the America's Cup, was destined to remain beyond the reach of English racing yachts throughout the rest of the century. Not long after this the visit of two distinguished Europeans excited general interest in America. One was Lola Montez, the famous Spanish dancer, whose relations with King Louis I. of Bavaria had resulted in the loss of his crown. The other was Louis Kossuth, the Hungarian patriot, who had been brought from England on an American vessel. His reception in America surpassed even that which had been accorded to him in England. During this same year in America occurred the deaths of Audubon, the great naturalist; Gallaudet, the benefactor of deaf-mutes, and James Fenimore Cooper, the novelist. Cooper was born in Burlington, New Jersey, the son of a wealthy father, who settled on the shores of Lake Otsego in New York. After attending Yale College for three years, Cooper entered the United States navy as a common sailor. He was promoted after some time to the rank of midshipman and eventually to that of lieutenant. On his marriage in 1811 he left the service, and soon began his career as an author. His first novel, "Precaution," was not promising. In "The Spy," which appeared in 1821, he gave the first indications of his peculiar originality. It made Cooper's reputation as an American author. The knowledge that Cooper had acquired in his father's estate on the borders of the wilderness and later on the sea was turned to account in his many tales of Indian life and sea stories, which took his contemporaries by storm. Most famous among them are: "Deerslayer," "The Last of the Mohicans," "Pathfinder," "Pioneers," "Prairie," and the sea tales "The Pilot" and "Red Rover." His strictures on American customs in "Homeward Bound" and "Home as Found" brought upon him much newspaper abuse. About the time of Cooper's death, Francis Parkman published his "Conspiracy of Pontiac," Longfellow his "Golden Legend," while Nathaniel Hawthorne brought out "The House of the Seven Gables."

[Sidenote: Tennyson, poet laureate]

In England, Alfred Tennyson had been selected as the worthiest successor of William Wordsworth in the office of Poet Laureate. He showed his appreciation of the honor by his famous dedication to Queen Victoria in "The Keepsake."

Revered, beloved--O you that hold
A nobler office upon earth
Than arms, or power of brain, or birth
Could give the warrior kings of old,

Victoria--since your Royal grace
To one of less desert allows
This laurel greener from the brows
Of him that utter'd nothing base:

And should your greatness, and the care
That yokes with empire, yield you time
To make demand of modern rhyme
If aught of ancient worth be there;

Then--while a sweeter music wakes,
And thro' wild March the throstle calls,
Where all about your palace walls
The sunlit almond-blossom shakes--

Take, Madam, this poor book of song;
For tho' the faults were thick as dust
In vacant chambers, I could trust
Your kindness. May you rule us long,

And leave us rulers of your blood
As noble till the latest day!
May children of our children say,
"She wrought her people lasting good;

"Her court was pure; her life serene;
God gave her peace; her land reposed;
A thousand claims to reverence closed
In her as Mother, Wife, and Queen;

"And statesmen at her council met
Who knew the seasons when to take
Occasion by the hand, and make
The bounds of freedom wider yet

"By shaping some august decree,
Which kept her throne unshaken still,
Broad-based upon her people's will,
And compass'd by the inviolate sea."

[Sidenote: Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley]

Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley, daughter of Godwin and wife of the poet Shelley, died during this year. She wrote some half dozen novels and stories, the best of which was "Frankenstein, or the Modern Prometheus." The weird story, which was written in 1816 in a spirit of friendly rivalry with Shelley and Byron, achieved great popularity. This was largely by reason of the originality of the author's conception of the artificial creation of a human monster which came to torment its maker. Mrs. Shelley's last book was an account of rambles in Germany and Italy. She also brought out a careful edition of her husband's complete works.

[Sidenote: Death of Turner]

[Sidenote: "The Slave Ship"]

Joseph M.W. Turner, the most celebrated English artist of the Nineteenth Century, died in this same year. Born in 1775, he displayed his artistic talents at an early age. At the outset of the Nineteenth Century he achieved a national reputation by his "Battle of the Nile," but did not reach the apotheosis of his fame until Ruskin sang his praises. One of his most discussed pictures was that of the "Slave Ship," which has in turn excited the most scathing ridicule and the most extravagant admiration. Thus George Inness, the American artist, wrote of him: "Turner's 'Slave Ship' is the most infernal piece of clap-trap ever painted. There is nothing in it." Thackeray confessed with delightful frankness: "I don't know whether it is sublime or ridiculous." Mark Twain, the American humorist, has voiced both of these views at once, whereas Ruskin has recorded:

[Sidenote: Ruskin's estimate]

"I believe if I were reduced to rest Turner's immortality upon any single work, I should choose 'The Slave Ship.' Its daring conception, ideal in the highest sense of the word, is based on the purest truth, and wrought out with the concentrated knowledge of a life. Its color is absolutely perfect, not one false or morbid hue in any part or line, and so modulated that every square inch of canvas is a perfect composition; its drawing as accurate as fearless; the ship buoyant, bending, and full of motion; its tones as true as they are wonderful; and the whole picture dedicated to the most sublime of subjects and impressions (completing thus the perfect system of all truth, which we have shown to be formed by Turner's works)--the power, majesty, and deathfulness of the open, deep, illimitable sea."

[Sidenote: Some Turner prices]

The picture, having first been acquired by Ruskin, finally went to America. About this time Turner's canvases began to command fabulous prices. "Van Goyen Looking for a Subject," sold in 1833 for a few hundred pounds, was resold in London thirty years later for 2,510 guineas. At a Turner sale in 1878 hitherto unsold canvases and unfinished sketches brought over L73,000, or about $365,000. Over a hundred of Turner's paintings and as many sketches and drawings, dating from 1790 to 1850, are now in the National Gallery of London.

[Sidenote: Death of Sebastiani]

[Sidenote: Corsican diplomacy]

[Sidenote: Death of Soult]

[Sidenote: Soult's early successes]

[Sidenote: First Peer of France]

[Sidenote: Foremost soldier of Empire]

In France, Marshal Horace Francois Sebastiani, one of the favorites of Napoleon the Great, died on July 21 at Paris. Sebastiani was a Corsican like Napoleon. He was identified with his great countryman's career from beginning to end. A soldier of fortune, like his illustrious chief, he distinguished himself chiefly by his Machiavellian talents for diplomacy. It was he who stirred up Napoleon's first war with England by his famous mission to the East to lay bare England's weakness in that quarter. After this, Sebastiani's name figured in many confidential missions. By his machinations at Constantinople, at one time he embroiled both England and Russia with Turkey, when such a diversion came most welcome to Napoleon, who was then fighting on the frontiers of Poland. On the downfall of Napoleon, Sebastiani was temporarily intrusted with the management of affairs at Paris. His conduct at this time as at all others laid him open to charges of double dealing and treachery. Napoleon showed his appreciation of Sebastiani's services by remembering him in his will. The famous old marshal's death gave to Prince Louis Napoleon a welcome opportunity to recall the lost glories of the First Empire. A still better chance was presently afforded. For, soon after Sebastiani, Marshal Soult died at chateau St. Amans, on November 26, in his eighty-second year. The death of this distinguished Marshal-General of France served to recall some of the brightest glories of Napoleonic days. Born in 1769 at St. Amans-la-Bastide, Nicolas Jean de Dieu Soult joined the royal army of France at the age of sixteen. He served as a sous-lieutenant under Marshals Lukner and Ustine, and so distinguished himself that he soon won his steps and was attached as adjutant-general to Marshal Lefebvre's staff. As a brigadier-general he turned the tide of victory at the battle of Fluress. After this he was intrusted with the command of a division, and took part in all the campaigns in Germany, and through the Swiss and Italian campaigns waged by Massena. In a sortie from Genoa he was taken prisoner. Set at liberty after the battle of Marengo, he returned to France at the peace of Amiens, and was made one of the four colonels of the guard of the consuls. Napoleon Bonaparte, though by no means fond of Soult, was quick to detect his great talents as a soldier. After this a prominent part was assigned to Soult in all of Napoleon's campaigns. He was one of the first of the generals selected for the new rank of marshal in 1804, and was the first of the marshals to be advanced to the dignity of a peer of France. In 1805, Soult led the main column of the Grand Army, which gained the Austrian rear, and thus brought about the disastrous capitulation of Ulm. On the field of Austerlitz he was charged with the execution of the brilliant manoeuvre which decided the fate of that battle. His share in the battle of Jena was scarcely less distinguished. After this victory, Soult defeated Kalkreuth, captured Magdeburg, and put to flight Bluecher and Lestocq. On the bloody field of Eylau, Soult's ardor helped to secure the semblance of victory for France. In 1808 he was sent to secure the French conquest of Spain. He defeated the Spaniards at Manuessa and fought the battle at Coruna where Sir John Moore lost his life. The English army having fled, Soult overran Galicia and the north of Portugal, where he stormed Oporto. On the landing of Wellington he retreated before that commander into Spain, but after the battle of Talavera once more drove the Spaniards and English before him into Portugal.

[Sidenote: Last stand at Toulouse]

[Sidenote: Minister of war]

[Sidenote: Marshal-General of France]

After the loss of Badajoz and Ciudad Rodrigo, Soult was recalled to aid Napoleon in Germany after the catastrophe of Moscow. He was the Emperor's chief-of-staff in the battles of Luetzen and Bautzen. On Wellington's invasion of France, Soult was sent against him. Marching through the passes of the Pyrenees, he succeeded in inflicting great losses on the English. His attempts to secure Pampeluna and San Sebastian having failed, Soult was compelled to face Wellington on the soil of France. His dispirited troops were driven back at Toulouse, where he held his ground tenaciously until the allies had lost 5,000 men. At the Peace of Paris he signed a separate suspension of arms, and was rewarded for this by Louis XVIII. with the cross of St. Louis and the portfolio of the Ministry of War, but during the Hundred Days he declared for Napoleon, and once more served as his chief-of-staff at Waterloo. On his return from exile in 1819 his marshal's baton was restored to him. Charles X. also confirmed him in his rank as peer. Louis Philippe twice made him Minister of War. At the coronation of Queen Victoria in 1838, Soult was elected to represent France. When he retired into private life, nearly ten years later, the King revived for him the ancient dignity of Marshal-General of France.

[Sidenote: Louis Napoleon's aspirations]

[Sidenote: Maupas]

[Sidenote: Emphatic disavowals]

By the time of Marshal Soult's death, the storm that arose over Louis Napoleon's abrupt removal of Changarnier had been suppressed with a firm hand. The majority in the Assembly who voted for a revision of the Constitution was found to be ninety-seven less than the three-fourths required, and all further opposition of the Assembly against Louis Napoleon's measures was denounced as factious. Maupas, the obsequious Chief of Police, discovered dangerous plots against the government and against the person of the President. Fears of possible Napoleonic aspirations had been silenced by Louis Napoleon's energetic protests. He himself stated publicly: "They think that I wish to revive Napoleon. What could I revive of Napoleon? One sole thing--a crime. I am not a genius--so I cannot copy Napoleon; but I am an honest man--so I will imitate Washington. My name, the name of Bonaparte, will be inscribed on two pages in the history of France. On the first there will be crime and glory; on the second propriety and honor. And the second, perhaps, will be worth the first. Why? Because, if Napoleon is the greater, Washington is a better man. Between the guilty hero and the good citizen I choose the good citizen. Such is my ambition."

[Sidenote: A last denial]

[Sidenote: The Coup d'Etat]

Later, after a caricaturist had been imprisoned and fined for depicting Louis Bonaparte in the act of shooting at the French Constitution as a target, Morigny, Minister of the Interior, declared in the Council that "a guardian of public power should never so violate the law, as otherwise he would be--" "A dishonest man," interposed President Napoleon. Such was the situation on the eve of December 2. As Victor Hugo put it, in the opening chapter of his "History of a Crime": "People had long suspected Louis Bonaparte; but long continued suspicion blunts the intellect and it wears itself out by fruitless alarms." On December 1, the session of the Assembly was devoted to a discussion on municipal law. It terminated with a peaceful tribunal vote. Prince Louis Napoleon held an informal reception at the Elysees. During that night, Louis Napoleon, in complicity with the bastard princes, De Morny, Valevsky, Saint-Arnaud, Persigny, Maupas and others, having made sure of the commanding officers of the troops on duty, caused the arrest before daylight of all the leading Republicans. It was alleged afterward that Colonel Espinasse, who was in charge of the soldiers stationed at the Legislative Palace, received 100,000 francs and the promise of a general's rank for his part in the affair.

[Sidenote: "Boxed up"]

At the stroke of five in the morning, columns of soldiery filed out of all the Paris barracks and occupied the commanding positions where barricades had been thrown up in former times. At the same time a score of detectives in closed carriages apprehended the leading members of the Assembly. Among them were Cavaignac, Changarnier, Thiers, Bedeau, General Lamorciere, the Acting-Secretary of War, and Charras. The government printing establishment and all the newspaper offices were occupied by troops. Soldiers were placed at the side of the printers, who were then ordered to set up a series of proclamations. Before six in the morning bands of bill stickers, hired for the occasion, posted them up all over Paris. At breakfast time, when sixteen deputies and seventy-eight citizens had been arrested and were held secure, the Duke of Morny reported the success of the undertaking to Louis Napoleon with the two words: "Boxed up." Louis Napoleon hereupon issued the following decree in the name of the French People:

[Sidenote: Louis Napoleon's manifesto]

"ARTICLE I.--The National Assembly is dissolved.

"II.--Universal suffrage is re-established. The law of May 31 is
abrogated.

"III.--The French People are convoked in their electoral districts
from the 14th December to the 21st December following.

"IV.--The State of Siege is decreed in the district of the first
Military Division.

"V.--The Council of State is dissolved.

"VI.--The Minister of the Interior is charged with the execution of
this decree.

"Given at the Palace of the Elysee, 2d December, 1851.

"LOUIS NAPOLEON BONAPARTE.

"DE MORNY, Minister of the Interior."

[Sidenote: A Napoleonic address]

Together with this decree Louis Napoleon issued this appeal to the people:

"FRENCHMEN! The present situation can last no longer. Every day which
passes enhances the dangers of the country. The Assembly, which ought
to be the firmest support of order, has become a focus of
conspiracies. The patriotism of three hundred of its members has been
unable to check its fatal tendencies. Instead of making laws in the
public interest it forges arms for civil war; it attacks the power
which I hold directly from the People, it encourages all bad passions,
it compromises the tranquillity of France; I have dissolved it, and I
constitute the whole People a judge between it and me. The men who
have ruined two monarchies wish to tie my hands in order to overthrow
the Republic; my duty is to frustrate their treacherous schemes, to
maintain the Republic, and to save the Country by appealing to the
solemn judgment of France.

"Such is my firm conviction. If you share it, declare it by your
votes. If, on the contrary, you prefer a government without strength,
Monarchical or Republican, borrowed I know not from what past, or from
what chimerical future, answer in the negative.

"But if you believe that the cause of which my name is the
symbol--that is to say, France regenerated by the Revolution of '89,
and organized by the Emperor, is to be still your own, proclaim it by
sanctioning the powers which I ask from you.

"Then France and Europe will be preserved from anarchy, obstacles will
be removed, rivalries will have disappeared, for all will respect, in
the decision of the People, the decree of Providence.

"Given at the Palace of the Elysee, 2d December,
1851. LOUIS NAPOLEON BONAPARTE."

[Sidenote: The Second December]

[Sidenote: Summary executions]

[Sidenote: Proscription]

During the same day the Assembly was dissolved by troops. Attempts at public protests were roughly suppressed. A few barricades were thrown up, but the crowds were quickly dispersed, and those agitators who were caught were hurried off to prison. On December 4, the troops were ordered out in force, and proceeded to clear the streets. Nearly a thousand persons were shot during the course of the day. The insurrection was stamped out. A few days later, when the National Assembly tried to meet again, a hundred and eighty members were arrested. Then appeared two parallel lists of names. One contained the names of those who could be counted on for the purposes of Prince Napoleon. They were all created members of a consultative committee, which was to sit "until the reorganization of the legislative party." The other list contained the names of those who were proscribed from French territory, from Algeria, and from the colonies "for the sake of public safety." Among them were Victor Hugo, Thiers, Baune, Laboulaye, Theodore Bac, and Lamarque. Many hundreds of compromised Republicans fled before they were proscribed. Others were transported across the borders without any publication of the fact. Still others were summarily shot in the barrack courtyards.

[Sidenote: The plebiscite]

[Sidenote: Foreign congratulations]

[Sidenote: Palmerston dismissed]

On December 21, the result of the so-called popular plebiscite was announced. Louis Napoleon had been elected President for ten years by an alleged vote of 7,473,431 ays against 641,341 nays. He was clothed with monarchical power and was authorized to issue a constitution for France. Outside of France the results of the _coup d'etat_ were received with equanimity. Pope Pius IX. went to a review held by General Gemeau in Rome and begged him to congratulate Prince Louis Napoleon for him. Lord Palmerston in London, it was stated, told the French Ambassador that he "entirely approved of what had been done, and thought the President of the French fully justified." The British Ambassador at Paris was instructed to make no change in his relations with the French Government, and to do nothing that might wear the appearance of English interference. It appeared that Lord Palmerston had once more acted on his own initiative. He was requested to resign. Before long the dismissed Minister had an opportunity of showing the government how formidable an adversary he could be.

1852

[Sidenote: Louis Napoleon in power]

[Sidenote: Empire foreshadowed]

On the first day of January, Louis Napoleon was reinstalled as President of France in the Cathedral of Notre Dame. The day was made a public holiday. On New Year's Eve the Diplomatic Corps had congratulated Prince Napoleon at the Palace of the Tuileries. A few days later some of the more prominent of the President's opponents, among them Changarnier and Lamorciere, were conducted to the Belgian frontier. On January 10, the President banished eighty-three members of the Legislative Assembly. Some six hundred persons who had been arrested for resisting the _coup d'etat_ at the same time were taken to Havre for transportation to Cayenne. On January 14, the new constitution was made public. All real powers were vested in the President. He had the initiative for all new measures, as well as the veto on deliberations of both Senate and Legislative Assembly. The Senators were to be appointed by him. The sessions of both bodies were to be held behind closed doors. The impotence of the legislators was offset by their princely salaries. Senators were to receive 30,000 francs per year, while the Deputies drew half that sum. The actual sessions of the Legislature were limited to three years. The President himself was to draw an annual salary of 12,000,000 francs. The money for these expenditures was raised by extraordinary means. A decree on January 22 confiscated all former crown lands and the estates of the Princes of Orleans. The press was gagged by a decree prohibiting the publication of any newspaper without the sanction of the government. All liberty poles were chopped down, and the motto of "Liberte, Fraternite, Egalite," was tabooed. On February 29, the elections for the Legislative Assembly were held. The government nominated all the candidates, and practically all were elected. Late in March, Prince Louis Napoleon opened the Senate and Corps Legislatif. His address throughout was couched in the language of a monarch. While he conceded the intention of the republican reforms to be harmless, he suggested the possibility that he might be called upon "to demand from France in the interest of peace a new title, by which the powers that have been conferred upon me may be confirmed once for all." A Cabinet was formed of the President's most devoted followers, under the nominal leadership of Persigny. One of the first votes of the Legislature, after fixing the President's salary, was a grant of 80,000,000 francs for public works wherewith to occupy the laboring classes. This done, the President made a triumphal tour of France. The government officials saw to it that he received a magnificent welcome wherever he appeared.

[Sidenote: Death of Schwarzenberg]

[Sidenote: Buol Schauenstein, Austrian Minister]

In the neighboring countries the progress of events in France created less misgivings than had the doings of the Republic. In Austria, Emperor Francis Joseph further undid the work of the recent revolution by his total abolition of the rights of trial by jury on January 15. Shortly afterward, Prince Felix Schwarzenberg, the Prime Minister, died in Vienna. He was a nephew of Charles Philippe, the famous Prince of Schwarzenberg who negotiated the marriage of Napoleon and Marie Louise, and later led the allied armies against Napoleon. In 1848, Prince Felix Schwarzenberg commanded a division in Italy. Later he joined Windischgraetz in the military occupation of Jena, and soon took charge of the civil administration of the empire, in which he continued until his death. He was succeeded by Count Buol von Schauenstein.

[Sidenote: German affairs]

[Sidenote: The Danish succession]

[Sidenote: German fleet sold]

Throughout the year the affairs in Germany were tranquil. Shortly after the death of the old King of Hanover, a tariff union was established with Russia, while a postal and telegraph union was extended to all the German States. Early in the year the King of Prussia revived the old Council of State as it was before 1848. The Constitution underwent new modifications. In May, a conference of the great Powers met at London to treat of certain German affairs. An agreement was signed practically assuring the independence of the Swiss district of Neuchatel, which had revolted from Prussia in 1848. Three days later, on May 8, a protocol was signed concerning the Danish succession. This intricate problem continued to vex the souls of diplomats. Lord Palmerston, when interrogated about it, said that there were only three persons who understood the Danish succession. One was the Queen Dowager of Denmark, the second was God Almighty, and the third was a German professor, but he had gone mad. While attempting to settle the terms of the succession the five great Powers and Sweden signed a treaty guaranteeing the integrity of the Danish monarchy. The throne was granted to Christian of Sonderburg-Gluecksburg. Christian, Duke of Augustenburg-Holstein, consented to surrender his rights for a money consideration. The treaty was not recognized by the German Confederation, but was accepted by Hanover, Saxony and Wurtemberg. In June, Germans had the humiliating experience of seeing their fleet, the formation of which was undertaken in 1848, sold at public auction. All aspirations for sea power had been abandoned by the Bund. In July, Prussia's representative at the Bund meetings, Baron Bismarck, was sent as envoy to Austria. Through his efforts at Vienna the Austrian Government was prevailed upon to join the German Zollverein and to sign commercial treaties.

[Sidenote: Death of Froebel]

During this year in Germany, Friedrich Wilhelm Froebel, the German educator, died at Marienthal on July 21, in his seventieth year. After an unsettled and aimless youth, he started teaching, and soon developed a system which has become famous under the name of Kindergarten (children's garden). It was intended to convert schooling into play, which, according to Froebel, is the child's most serious business. The first Kindergarten was opened in 1840 at Blankenburg, Prussia. Meeting at first with little encouragement, it gradually gained a footing in most civilized countries. Froebel was largely assisted in the propagation of his ideas by the Baroness Marenholz-Buelow. He was the author of "Die Menschenerziehung" (Human Education) and "Mutter und Koselieder," a book of nursery songs and pictures for children.

[Sidenote: "Prometheus" affair]

In England, the dismissal of Lord Palmerston left the Foreign Office in an embarrassing position as regarded Louis Napoleon's government. Other embarrassments were likewise bequeathed. Thus, on January 10, Lord Palmerston's successor, Lord Granville, had to disavow to the American Minister the act of the British man-of-war "Empress," which had fired into the American steamer "Prometheus." England offered an apology which was accepted.

[Sidenote: "The Third of February"]

The caustic comments of the English press on French affairs, together with the free utterances of Victor Hugo and other French exiles on English soil, gave great offence to Louis Napoleon. Count Valevski's diplomatic protests found support in the British House of Lords. It was then that Alfred Tennyson, undeterred by the supposed reserve of his Poet Laureateship, wrote the invective lines entitled "The Third of February."

[Sidenote: "Henry Esmond"]

About the same time Thackeray brought out his "History of Henry Esmond," a masterpiece of English historical fiction. In the dedication to Lord Ashburton, Thackeray thus announced his departure for America. "My volume will reach you when the author is on his voyage to a country where your name is as well known as here."

[Sidenote: Transvaal's independence recognized]

In South Africa, at the Sand River Convention on January 17, the British virtually accepted the independence of the Transvaal. In the meanwhile the fifth war with the Kaffirs was begun by Sir George Cathcart. Incidentally a crushing defeat was inflicted on the Basutos at Guerea. Toward the close of the year the situation grew so alarming that martial law was proclaimed by the Governor of Cape Colony. All inhabitants were bidden to the frontier for the defence of the colonies.

[Sidenote: Progress of Taiping rebellion]

In China, the Taiping rebellion grew ever more threatening. Early in the year Tien Wang decided to march out of Kmaysi to invade the vast untouched provinces of Central China. He averred that he had "the divine commission to possess the Empire as its true sovereign." The rebels now became known as Taipings, after a town of that name in Kwangsi province. Tien Wang began his northern march in April. Irritated by the conduct of Tien Wang's lieutenants, the Triads took a secret departure and made peace with the Imperialists. Their secession put an end to the purpose of attacking Canton which Tien Wang had cherished, and he made an assault on Kweisling. The Imperial Commissioners at that place having beaten them back failed to pursue and conquer them, and they advanced unopposed across the vast province of Hoonan. At Changsha they encountered strong resistance. After a siege of eighty days they abandoned the attack and marched northward. They captured Yoochow, which was an important arsenal, and soon afterward Hankow, Manchong and How-Kong were taken.

[Sidenote: South American struggles]

In the Argentine Republic, the civil war and its consequent upheavals were continued. On February 3, General Urquiza, commanding the combined army of Entre Rios and Brazil, defeated General Rosas at Monte Cazeros, "the gate of Buenos Ayres." The city capitulated and the civil war seemed ended. Urquiza announced himself as provisional dictator. On May 31, he was elected Provisional President, while Vincente Lopez was elected Governor of Buenos Ayres. One month later, Urquiza, having won over the army by a sudden _coup d'etat_, seized the reins of government as dictator. His first measure was to acknowledge the independence of Paraguay. In September, Urquiza's refusal to recognize the political and commercial pre-eminence of Buenos Ayres produced another revolt. On September 11, the people of Buenos Ayres, under the leadership of Bartholomay Mitre, seceded from the confederacy. Urquiza was compelled to leave Buenos Ayres and proceeded to Santa Fe, where he was acknowledged as President by the thirteen other provinces. They bound themselves by a treaty to secure the free navigation of all rivers flowing into the La Plata. On November 20, the Congress of the Confederation met at Santa Fe and invested Urquiza with full powers to suppress the revolution in Buenos Ayres. Urquiza's blockade of the city by sea led to another revolution within the walls of Buenos Ayres. General Pintos assumed charge and Urquiza withdrew.

[Sidenote: Death of Gogol]

[Sidenote: "Dead Souls"]

Nicholas Vasilievitch Gogol died on March 4 at Moscow. Born in 1810, at Soroczince, in the district of Poltava, he began his career as a writer with poems and a metrical tragedy, written in the dialect of Little Russia. To this period belongs his ballad "Two Fishes." After travelling in Germany, he was called to a professorship at the patriotic institute of St. Petersburg, where he wrote his famous prose romances in Greater Russian dialect. His "Evenings at a Farm" admitted him to the literary circles of the capital and brought him the friendship of his fellow poet, Pushkin. He wrote a series of short stories, treating of life in the Russian provinces, and among the middle class, which were subsequently published in the collection of four volumes, entitled "Mirgorod." In 1833, Gogol brought out his satirical comedy, "The Commissioner," in which he laid bare the all-pervading corruption of Russian official life. After prolonged travels through Germany, France, Italy and Palestine, Gogol returned to Russia and settled near St. Petersburg. He wrote more short stories and descriptions of travel, and finally published the incomplete satirical novel, "Dead Souls," which is the best of his works. In this novel he handled Russian life fearlessly, with satirical comments on the weak points of Russian society. It is stated that he finished the story before his death, but burned the manuscript. When he died he was acknowledged as the best writer of satirical prose in Russia.

[Sidenote: Palmerston's revenge]

[Sidenote: Earl of Derby Premier]

On February 20, Lord Palmerston was enabled to make his former colleagues in the Cabinet feel his power. Owing to general vague apprehensions that Prince Louis Napoleon might revive his illustrious namesake's projects against England, a cry had arisen for the strengthening of the national defences. To satisfy this demand, Lord John Russell brought in a local militia bill. Lord Palmerston promptly moved an amendment for a general volunteer force instead of local militia, thus totally altering the nature of the bill. The amendment was sustained by a majority of eleven votes. Lord John Russell's Ministry thereupon resigned, and the Earl of Derby was called in. The most conspicuous member of the new Cabinet was Benjamin Disraeli, who took the portfolio of the Exchequer. Disraeli by this time had already achieved popularity as an author. Some idea of his personality may be gathered from a contemporary's description of his outward appearance in those days:

[Sidenote: Disraeli's appearance]

"Usually he wore a slate-colored velvet coat lined with satin, purple trousers with a gold band down the outside seam, a scarlet waistcoat, long lace ruffles falling down to the tips of his fingers, white gloves with brilliant rings outside them, and long black ringlets rippling down over his shoulders. When he rose in the House, he wore a bottle-green frock coat, with a white waistcoat, collarless, and a needless display of gold chains."

[Sidenote: American fisheries dispute]

The new Ministry was so distinctly protectionist that the Anti-Corn Law League was reorganized to resume the agitation for free trade. Soon the perennial troubles with America about the fisheries of Newfoundland broke out afresh. The new Foreign Secretary, the Earl of Malmesbury, insisted upon a strict fulfilment of the terms agreed upon in the convention of 1818. Armed vessels were sent to the coast of British North America. The United States likewise sent a war steamer to the disputed fishing-grounds. Many vessels were boarded for information, but both sides abstained from giving serious grounds for complaint.

[Sidenote: Franklin Pierce elected]

In the United States, the Whigs, encouraged by their success with Taylor, put forth another military officer, General Scott, as their Presidential candidate. At the convention held in Baltimore in June, Webster, Fillmore and Scott were put in nomination. Fifty-two ballots were cast before Scott was nominated. The candidates before the Democratic Convention in Baltimore were Buchanan, Cass, Marcy and Douglas. Franklin Pierce was chosen after more than forty ballots. The Free Democrats selected John P. Hale and Julian of Indiana. Pierce carried twenty-seven States, to Scott's four, receiving 254 votes to Scott's 42.

[Sidenote: Death of Clay]

[Sidenote: Death of Webster]

[Sidenote: Webster's oratory]

[Sidenote: The Concord speech]

[Sidenote: Webster in Congress]