Chapter XVI: Part 16

=Natural and Physical Science.=--It is in the natural and physical sciences that our attempt to cover the ground will at once appear most hopeless. In some of these sciences, for example astronomy, physics, and geology, American scholars stand concededly among the foremost in the world; to practically all of them Americans have contributed noteworthy studies and discoveries. Lack of space prevents even the mention, with one or two exceptions, of living writers.

_John James Audubon._--Among the naturalists of America no name is more illustrious than that of the chief of our ornithologists, John James Audubon (1780-1851). His father was a French naval officer who had settled upon a plantation near New Orleans and married a lady of Spanish descent. When but a child Audubon used to draw pictures of birds; of those which were not satisfactory he made a bonfire at each birthday. When he was about eighteen, his father settled him on a farm near Philadelphia; here he gratified the naturalist’s passion to such an extent that he was good for nothing else. “For a period of twenty years,” he wrote later, “my life was a series of vicissitudes. I tried various branches of commerce, but they all proved unprofitable, doubtless because my whole mind was ever filled with my passion for rambling and admiring those objects of Nature from which alone I received the purest gratification.” He lived with his family successively in Kentucky, Ohio, Mississippi, and Louisiana; drawing and studying birds incessantly. Visiting England in 1826, he arranged for the publication of “The Birds of America” (1830-1839). It was to be published in numbers of five folio plates each, the whole to be in four volumes and to be sold for $1000 a copy. The work was to cost over $100,000; yet he had not money enough to pay for the first number. He supported himself by painting. He was elected (1830) a Fellow of the Royal Society. Audubon accompanied his “Birds” with “Ornithological Biographies” (five volumes, 1831-1839), the literary value of which is important; “it presents,” says one writer, “in language warm from his having been a part of the scenes, a virgin past of our country, and its forests and prairies, which can never be restored or so well described again.” “The Viviparous Quadrupeds of North America,” with 150 plates, appeared in three volumes in 1845-1848; in this undertaking he was assisted by his two sons and the Rev. John Bachman of Charleston, South Carolina. The last three years of his life were spent in mental darkness. His claim to honorable rank in American letters cannot be denied.

_Spencer Fullerton Baird._--No American naturalist exerted a wider and deeper influence than Spencer F. Baird (1823-1887). A native of Pennsylvania and a graduate of Dickinson College (1840), he was the friend and in some work the collaborator of Audubon, Agassiz, and other zoölogists. Appointed assistant secretary of the Smithsonian Institution in 1850, he directed much of the scientific exploration of the West; organised the National Museum (1857); succeeded Henry in 1878 as secretary of the Smithsonian and largely developed its work; and in 1874 became head of the Commission of Fish and Fisheries, and organised the science and practice of fish culture in America. He was besides a voluminous writer. His books and papers down to 1882 include 1063 titles. Of them we may mention “Catalogue of North American Reptiles” (1853), “The Birds of America” (with John Cassin, 1860), “The Mammals of North America” (1859), and “History of American Birds” (with Thomas M. Brewer and Robert Ridgway, 1874-1884).

_Alpheus Hyatt._--In zoölogy and palæontology one of the celebrated scholars of his day was Alpheus Hyatt (1838-1902). Born in Washington, D. C., he received his education at the Maryland Military Academy, Yale College, and under Agassiz at the Lawrence Scientific School of Harvard, from which he was graduated in 1862. After the Civil War, in which he rose to be a captain, he continued his studies in natural history and became active in fostering these studies in general. He helped to found _The American Naturalist_ in 1868, and was the principal founder of the American Society of Naturalists, organised in 1883. In 1881 he became professor of zoölogy and palæontology in the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and in Boston University. He was equally active in teaching, in popularising science, and in research. Some of his books are “Observations on Freshwater Polyzoa” (1866), “Revision of North American Poriferæ” (1875-1877), long the only work on North American commercial sponges, “The Genesis of the Tertiary Species of Planorbis at Steinheim,” a long and important monograph on the influence of gravity on certain shells, published by the Boston Society of Natural History in its “Memoirs” (1880), “Genera of Fossil Cephalopods” (1883), “The Larval Theory of the Origin of Cellular Tissue” (1884), giving his theory of the origin of sex, and “The Genesis of the Arietidæ” (1889). He also edited a series of “Guides for Science-Teaching,” of several of which he himself was also the author. Few Americans indeed have done so much to make natural science popular as did Hyatt. His work in research was immensely fruitful. He has been called the founder of the new school of invertebrate palæontology, while in systematic zoölogy he made several discoveries which led to important revisions in biological classification.

_Alpheus Spring Packard._--The son of a Bowdoin College professor of the same name, Alpheus S. Packard (1839-1905) naturally entered Bowdoin and there came under the influence of Dr. Paul Chadbourne, who encouraged his inclination toward zoölogical study. After graduating from Bowdoin in 1861 and from the Maine Medical School in 1864, he worked under Agassiz at Harvard, devoting himself largely to the study of insects. In 1867 he became curator of invertebrates and in 1876 director, of the Peabody Academy of Science in Salem, Massachusetts. In 1878 he was appointed professor of zoölogy and geology in Brown University, retaining this post till his death. He was one of the founders and for twenty years editor of _The American Naturalist_. Besides hundreds of papers, he wrote a “Guide to the Study of Insects” (1869); “The Mammoth Cave and Its Inhabitants,” jointly with F. W. Putnam (1872); “Life Histories of Animals” (1876), the first attempt since the Lowell Institute lectures of Agassiz to attempt a summary of embryological discoveries; “Insects Injurious to Forest and Shade Trees” (1890), “A Naturalist on the Labrador Coast” (1891), “A Text-Book of Entomology” (1898), and “Lamarck, the Founder of Evolution: His Life and Work” (1901). Apropos of the last book it will be remembered that Packard, Cope, and Hyatt were the founders and chief exponents of the Neo-Lamarckian school of evolution. Packard was an indefatigable investigator and his contributions to entomology and zoölogy immensely advanced those sciences.

_Edward Drinker Cope._--Another celebrated naturalist was Edward D. Cope (1840-1897) of Philadelphia, whose studies in fossil vertebrates were of epoch-making significance. He studied at the University of Pennsylvania. From 1864 till 1867 he was professor of natural sciences in Haverford College. For twenty-two years thereafter he was engaged in exploration, research, and editorial work. In 1889 he became professor of geology and palæontology in the University of Pennsylvania. Before he was thirty he had laid his foundations in five chief lines of research, ichthyology, amphibians, reptiles, mammals, and evolutionary philosophy. On all of these subjects he wrote much and wisely. He was the author of over four hundred volumes, papers, and memoirs, to say nothing of hundreds of editorial articles in _The American Naturalist_, which he edited from 1878 until his death. On the subject of evolution alone his most important works are “The Origin of Genera” (1868), “The Origin of the Fittest” (1886), and “The Primary Factors of Organic Evolution” (1896). His activity in research may be judged from the fact that he himself named and described 1115 out of some 3200 known species of North American fossil vertebrates. Naturally, in attempting so much, he fell short of perfection in some things.

His life-work, [says Professor Osborn,[24]] bears the marks of
great genius, of solid and accurate observation, and at times of
inaccuracy due to bad logic or haste and over-pressure of work. The
greater number of his Natural Orders and Natural Laws will remain
as permanent landmarks in our science. As a comparative anatomist
he ranks, both in the range and effectiveness of his knowledge
and his ideas, with Cuvier and Owen.... As a natural philosopher,
while far less logical than Huxley, he was more creative and
constructive, his metaphysics ending in theism rather than
agnosticism.

_Elliott Coues._--Distinguished as an ornithologist, Elliott Coues (1842-1899) became favourably known also for researches in biology and comparative anatomy. After taking degrees at the Columbian University in 1861-1863, he entered the Union Army as assistant surgeon, studying flora and fauna wherever he went. In 1873-1876 he was surgeon and naturalist to the United States Northern Boundary Commission and in 1876-1880 was connected with the United States Geological and Geographical Survey of the Territories. He helped found the American Ornithologists’ Union and edited its organ, The Auk. His “Key to North American Birds” (1872, rewritten 1884 and 1901) is of great significance. He wrote also on “Birds of the Northwest” (1874), “Birds of the Colorado Valley” (1878), and with Winfrid A. Stearns, “New England Bird Life” (1881).

_David Starr Jordan._--David Starr Jordan (born in 1851) has in recent years been regarded chiefly as an educator; he became known through his studies on fishes. Entering Cornell University in 1868, he was appointed instructor in botany in 1870 and graduated M.S. in 1872. After teaching and studying science for some years, he was made (1879) professor of zoölogy at Indiana University, of which he became president in 1885. Since 1891 he has been president of Stanford University. Some of his books are “A Manual of the Vertebrate Animals of the Northern United States” (1876), “Science Sketches” (1887), “Fishes of North and Middle America” (1896-1899), “Footnotes to Evolution” (1898), and “The Food and Game Fishes of North America” (1902). He is a leader both in his chosen scientific field and in educational thought.

_Asa Gray._--The best-known botanist of his epoch was Asa Gray (1810-1888) a native of Paris, Oneida County, New York. He graduated in medicine at Fairfield College in 1831, but soon gave up medicine for botany and in 1842 was elected to the Fisher professorship of natural history in Harvard University. Any adequate narrative of Gray’s tremendous activity as a writer and teacher is out of the question here; we can only say that his widely known and long standard text-books on botany (beginning with the “Elements of Botany,” 1836, which grew into the “Structural and Systematic Botany” of 1879, and including his “How Plants Grow,” 1858, and “How Plants Behave,” 1872) represent but a small part of his literary activity. With Dr. Torrey he began (1838) the “Flora of North America”; he wrote also valuable botanical memoirs and many valuable articles for _The North American Review_ and _The American Journal of Science_.

_Edward Hitchcock._--Edward Hitchcock (1793-1864), a Congregational clergyman, and for thirty-nine years a professor of science in Amherst College, was especially devoted to geological study. A large number of his books and papers relate to geological subjects, which he helped to make popular; among these books are “Economical Geology” (1832), “Geology of Massachusetts” (1841), “The Religion of Geology and Its Connected Sciences” (1851), and “Ichnology of New England” (1858). He was the first president of the Association of American Geologists, and was president of Amherst College from 1845 till 1854.

_Louis Agassiz._--The celebrated naturalist Jean Louis Rodolphe Agassiz (1807-1873) was of Swiss birth and did not come to America to live until he was forty-one years of age, and had already become famous for those studies of glacial phenomena set forth in “Études sur les glaciers” (1840) and “Système glaciaire” (with Guyot and Desor, 1847). For twenty-five years (1848-1873) he was professor of natural history at Harvard, and in that time, besides training some of the most eminent of living American scientists, he did much to arouse popular interest in science and scientific progress. Of the “Contributions to the Natural History of the United States” which he planned to publish in ten volumes, he lived to issue only four (1857-1862). For Agassiz Nature was “the expression of the thought of the Creator.” In opposing the Darwinians as to the origin of species, Agassiz unfortunately took the wrong side of the question of how the Creator expressed His thought; but he remains nevertheless distinguished both as a scientist and as an educator; a singularly great and gentle nature, strong and true.

_Arnold Henry Guyot._--Less distinguished than his compatriot Agassiz, but of enduring fame, was the geographer Arnold Guyot (1807-1884). Born near Neuchâtel, Switzerland, he studied there and in Germany, receiving the degree of Ph.D. from Berlin in 1835. Like Agassiz he became known for his glacial discoveries; and like Agassiz he came to America in the troubled year 1848. From 1854 until his death he was professor of geology and physical geography at Princeton. His text-books and maps revolutionised the teaching and study of geography. He wrote also many scientific papers and memoirs, among which may be noted especially those describing his studies in the Appalachian Mountains. American science owes much to his unselfish devotion.

_James Dwight Dana._--James D. Dana (1813-1895), born in Utica, New York, was attracted by the fame of the elder Silliman to Yale College, where he graduated in 1833. To the Sillimans he became allied by his marriage with Henrietta F. Silliman in 1844; and like them he had a long and notable career closely connected with Yale College, where he became (1835) Silliman professor of natural history and geology. He wrote many reports on geological, zoölogical, and mineralogical subjects, besides “A Manual of Mineralogy” (1851), “A Manual of Geology” (1862), “On Coral Reefs and Islands” (1853), “Science and the Bible” (_Bibliotheca Sacra_, 1856-1857), and “Corals and Coral Islands” (1872).

_Alexander Winchell._--Another noted geologist was Alexander Winchell (1824-1891). Graduating from Wesleyan University in 1847, he became a teacher of science in various schools, and in 1853 professor of physics and civil engineering in the University of Michigan; being soon transferred to the chair of geology, zoölogy, and botany. He afterward taught at Syracuse and Vanderbilt Universities. From the latter institution in 1878 he was dismissed because his views on evolution were “contrary to the plan of redemption.” The next year he was recalled to Michigan. Besides being a leading spirit in forming the Geological Society of America, and in establishing _The American Geologist_, he was a voluminous writer, especially of scientific works for popular use, and endeavoured in these works to show the essential harmony between science and Christian dogma. Thus he did the work of a peacemaker in what has long been a heated conflict.

_Nathaniel Bowditch_ (1773-1838) was a pioneer in the study of astronomy and mathematics in America. At first a cooper and then a ship-chandler, he was studious, and learned Latin in order to read Newton’s “Principia.” As supercargo on a merchant vessel during several voyages, he became expert in the theory of navigation and published in 1802 “The New American Practical Navigator,” which in a revised form is published by the United States Hydrographic Office and is the standard compendium for navigators. In 1829 he translated Laplace’s “Méchanique céleste,” adding valuable notes.

_Benjamin Peirce._--In the annals of mathematics and astronomy the name of Benjamin Peirce (1809-1880) has a place of distinction. Born at Salem, Massachusetts, he became a pupil of Bowditch, and graduated at Harvard in 1829, in the class with Holmes. He became a tutor at Harvard in 1831, professor of mathematics and physics in 1833, and nine years later Perkins professor of mathematics and astronomy, holding this chair till his death. From 1867 till 1874, succeeding Dallas Bache, he was superintendent of the Coast Survey. He wrote an important series of mathematical text-books; “System of Analytical Mechanics” (1857); “Linear Associative Algebra” (communications to the National Academy of Sciences, collected in 1870); and Lowell Institute lectures on “Ideality in the Physical Sciences” (1881). He obtained eminence, it has been said, equally in mathematics, physics, astronomy, mechanics, and navigation.

_The Sillimans._--In the annals of American science no other name is so long and favourably known as that of the Sillimans. Benjamin Silliman (1779-1864) was for fifty years, beginning in 1802, professor of chemistry in Yale College and founded (1818) _The American Journal of Science and Arts_, which he edited for twenty-eight years. His son, Benjamin, Jr. (1816-1885), taught and studied chemistry, mineralogy, and geology in Yale, and was associate editor (1838-1846) of his father’s _Journal_. For the rest of his life he was a professor of chemistry, first in what is now the Sheffield Scientific School of Yale, then at Louisville University, and later in the Academic and Medical Departments at Yale. In 1858 he published “First Principles of Natural Philosophy or Physics”; and he was the author of many scientific memoirs, addresses, and reports. He was one of the pioneers in science-teaching in America, and his influence on scientific education was deep and abiding.

_Joseph Henry._--Joseph Henry (1797-1878) was one of the most illustrious physicists of his day. Born and educated at Albany, New York, he began (1827) researches which resulted in important discoveries in the field of electro-magnetism, one of which made the telegraph possible. From 1832 till 1846 he was professor of natural philosophy in the College of New Jersey (Princeton), and from 1846 till his death was secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, which he had helped to organise. He published “Contributions to Electricity and Magnetism” (1839) and many papers, especially in the Smithsonian reports. A brilliant and profound investigator, he did signally important service in organising great scientific enterprises. “To Henry,” says Dr. Woodward, “more than to any other man, must be attributed the rise and the growth in America of the present public appreciation of the scientific work carried on by governmental aid.”

_Alexander Dallas Bache._--Alexander Dallas Bache (1806-1867), a great-grandson of Benjamin Franklin, after graduating in 1825 at West Point, at the head of his class, at twenty-two resigned a lieutenant’s commission to become professor of natural philosophy and chemistry at the University of Pennsylvania. Having made a name for his researches on steam, magnetism, etc., he was called in 1843 to be superintendent of the United States Coast Survey, and performed his duties with marked efficiency. Gifted with quick apprehension and broad intelligence, he possessed great powers of leadership. He published nearly two hundred scientific papers, memoirs, and reports. “To him,” declared his eulogist Benjamin Gould, “the scientific progress of the nation was indebted more than to any other man who had trod her soil.”

_Matthew Fontaine Maury._--Matthew F. Maury (1806-1873) is well known to students of meteorological science and also to the educational world. He was a Virginian of Huguenot extraction, who went to sea at nineteen and became not only a good sailor but also an authority on navigation. His “Treatise on Navigation” (1835) was favourably received abroad and was used as a text-book in the United States Navy. As “Harry Bluff” he published in _The Southern Literary Messenger_, about 1840, under the title of “Scraps from the Lucky-Bag,” a series of papers on nautical matters, which brought him fame and resulted in placing him in charge of the Depot of Charts and Instruments at Washington, an office which later became the Naval Observatory and Hydrographical Department. One of his first tasks was to compile some charts of winds and currents. These charts proved immensely valuable by shortening voyages and lowering the expense of commerce. His “Physical Geography of the Sea and its Meteorology” (1855) at once took the highest rank in its field, and the geographical text-books which he wrote in his later years have done great service to education and in a revised form still satisfy the needs of many schools. He was the author also of many pamphlets and official papers.

_Josiah Parsons Cooke._--Josiah Parsons Cooke (1827-1894), a pioneer in chemical education, was born in Boston and graduated at Harvard in 1844. In 1851 he became professor of chemistry and mineralogy at Harvard. He did much to further the study of chemistry in colleges and was one of the first to urge the laboratory method of instruction. He published, among other things, “Chemical Problems and Reactions” (1853), “Religion and Chemistry” (1864), “The New Chemistry” (1871), and “The Credentials of Science the Warrant of Faith” (1888).

_John William Draper._--John W. Draper (1811-1882) is known in the annals of science as a chemist and physiologist; he won eminence also as a historian. Born at St. Helens, near Liverpool, the son of a Wesleyan Methodist minister, he studied chemistry under Turner in London, and coming to America in 1833, graduated in medicine from the University of Pennsylvania in 1836. He now began investigating the chemical action of light, and published in 1844 a “Treatise on the Forces which Produce the Organisation of Plants.” His memoir “On the Production of Light by Heat” (1847), a valuable contribution to the subject of spectrum analysis, appeared thirteen years before Kirchoff’s celebrated memoir, which used to be thought of as marking the beginning of spectrum analysis. He was also the first to succeed (1839) in taking portraits of the human face by photography. In 1839 he became professor of chemistry, and in 1850 of physiology also, in the University of New York. His “Treatise on Human Physiology, Statical and Dynamical” (1856) at once took its place as a standard text-book. He wrote also a “Text-Book on Chemistry” (1846); a “Text-Book on Natural Philosophy” (1847); “History of the Conflict between Religion and Science” (1874), an able and comprehensive treatment of a vast subject; and “Scientific Memoirs” (1878), a collection of papers on radiant energy. Two of his sons, Henry and John Christopher, also became well known physiologists and chemists.

_Charles Augustus Young._--Of the more recent astronomers of America, Charles A. Young (1834-1908) was one of the foremost. Born in Hanover, New Hampshire, the son of Professor Ira Young of Dartmouth College, he graduated from Dartmouth in 1853. From 1856 till 1866 he was professor of mathematics, astronomy, and natural philosophy in Western Reserve University. In the latter year he returned to Dartmouth as professor of natural philosophy and astronomy, remaining there till 1877, when he became professor of astronomy at Princeton. He was prominently connected with several important astronomical expeditions and produced some notable inventions, among them an automatic spectroscope which has been widely used by astronomers. He made some significant observations on the sun, including a verification by experiment of Doppler’s principle as applied to light, by which he was able to measure the velocity of the sun’s rotation. He also discovered the thin solar shell of gaseous matter called “the reversing layer.” He wrote “The Sun” in “The International Scientific Series” (1882), “A General Astronomy” (1889), “Elements of Astronomy” (1890), and “A Manual of Astronomy” (1902).

_Robert Henry Thurston._--Distinguished as an educator, an inventor, and a writer on engineering subjects was Robert H. Thurston (1839-1903). He was born in Providence, Rhode Island, and graduated from Brown University in 1859. During the Civil War he served as an engineer in the Federal Navy; in 1865 he was appointed assistant professor of natural and experimental philosophy at the United States Naval Academy. In 1871 he became professor of engineering at the Stevens Institute of Technology, remaining here until 1885, when he was made director of Sibley College in Cornell University. His writings, always clear, exact, and authoritative, have circulated widely among engineers. They include “A History of the Growth of the Steam Engine” (1878, revised in 1901, and translated into French and German), “Materials of Engineering” (three volumes, 1882-1886), “Manual of the Steam Engine” (1890-1891), “Manual of Steam Boilers” (1890), with other valuable works, and about 250 scientific papers. Thurston served on several important government engineering commissions. Of him it has justly been said that “he made engineers better scientists, promoted engineering education, helped to put engineering upon a higher professional plane, and constantly was on the watch to dispel the fogs of prejudice by help of the truths of science.”

_The Youmans Brothers._--The life of Edward Livingston Youmans (1821-1887) was spent chiefly in popularising science. Born in Albany County, New York, he inherited a strong bent toward scientific study. For many years he wrestled with threatening blindness, and was never well. His “Class-Book of Chemistry” (1851) was remarkably successful. “There was,” Mr. Fiske says of it, “a firm grasp of the philosophical principles underlying chemical phenomena, and the meaning and functions of the science were set forth in such a way as to charm the student and make him wish for more.” He spent many years in delivering lyceum lectures, for which he was well fitted. His “Handbook of Household Science” (1857) was a carefully written treatise on the applications of science to the problems of food, light, heat, and sanitation. Its popularity led him to plan a comprehensive “Household Cyclopædia” which he did not live to finish. Besides editing “The Correlation and Conservation of Forces” (1864), a series of expositions by Grove, Helmholtz, Mayer, Faraday, Liebig, and Carpenter, and “The Culture Demanded by Modern Life” (1867), a collection of addresses and arguments in favour of scientific education, Youmans published several addresses and papers, and did much to give the views of Darwin and Spencer a favourable reception in America. He was the originator and general editor of “The International Scientific Series,” of which fifty-seven volumes appeared in his lifetime. It was a difficult but eminently useful task to secure popular scientific books by masters; and the series of seventy-nine volumes has done much for education. Youmans was also the founder of _The Popular Science Monthly_ (begun in 1872) and edited the first twenty-eight volumes.

While it was his main intent [to quote Mr. Fiske again] to give in
popular form an account of the progress of the several departments
of science, he never lost sight of the aim to show wherein the
scientific method was applicable to the larger questions of
life--of education, social relations, morals, government, and
religion.

William Jay Youmans (1838-1901) first studied chemistry at Columbia and Yale and privately with his brother Edward, then took a medical course at New York University. After practising medicine for some three years, he became connected with _The Popular Science Monthly_, which he edited from 1887 till 1900. He wrote “Pioneers of Science in America” (1895).

_Henry Carrington Bolton._--Henry Carrington Bolton (1843-1903) did much for the bibliography of chemistry; his “Select Bibliography of Chemistry, 1492-1892” (1893-1905) comprises over 12,000 titles in twenty-four languages. He also wrote many papers on the history of chemistry. His “Counting-out Rhymes of Children” (1888) gave him prominence as a folklorist, and he published also some important papers on various other subjects in folklore.

VII. THE PERIODICALS.

=Their Importance.=--No apology need be offered for including in this volume a section on the history of American periodicals. As Professor Smyth has well said, in speaking of the early magazines of Philadelphia, such a division “helps to exhibit the process of American literature as an evolution.” Much of our best literature made its first appearance in periodicals; and the remuneration received by authors from this source has great significance in the economics of literature. Likewise much of our best and most searching criticism, whether reprinted or not, appeared originally in newspapers and magazines, which have thus had a prominent part in the making of American literature. In 1810 there were only about thirty periodicals altogether; in 1900 there were 239 classed as general and literary, some of them having a considerable circulation on the other side of the Atlantic. In the brief space allotted to this section it will be impossible to do more than to mention a few of the most important literary periodicals; the full extent of the journalistic activity of the United States may be inferred from the fact that in 1900 over eight billion copies of periodicals were circulated, having a market value of nearly $225,000,000.

=The Eighteenth Century.=--The eighteenth century will not long detain us. Only ten years after Edward Cave had founded _The Gentleman’s Magazine_ in London (1731), Andrew Bradford and Benjamin Franklin founded in Philadelphia the first monthly magazines in America. Of Bradford’s venture, _The American Magazine_, edited by John Webbe, only three numbers appeared; while Franklin published only six numbers of _The General Magazine_. In the course of the century several others appeared, among them _The American Magazine and Historical Chronicle_ (Boston, 1743-1746); _The Independent Reflector_ (New York, 1752-1753), among whose contributors were Governor William Livingston, John Morin Scott, and Aaron Burr; _The American Magazine_ (Philadelphia, 1757-1758, revived in 1769), which Professor Tyler calls “by far the most admirable example of our literary periodicals in the colonial time,” edited by Rev. William Smith, first provost of the College of Philadelphia; _The New American Magazine_ (Woodbridge, New Jersey, 1758-1760), edited by S. Nevil; _The Royal American Magazine_ (Boston, 1774-1775); _The Pennsylvania Magazine_ (Philadelphia, 1775-1776), edited by Thomas Paine, to which articles were sent by Francis Hopkinson, John Witherspoon, and William Smith; _The Columbian Magazine_ (Philadelphia, 1786-1790), edited at first by Matthew Carey and later by Alexander J. Dallas, and changed in 1790 to _The Universal Asylum_ (1790-1792; to this Benjamin Rush was a faithful contributor); _The American Museum_ (Philadelphia, 1787-1792, 1798), for which Carey abandoned _The Columbian_ and which was “the first really successful literary undertaking of the kind in America”; _The Massachusetts Magazine_ (Boston, 1789-1796); _The New York Magazine_ (1790-1797); _The Farmers’ Museum_ (Walpole, New Hampshire, 1793-1799), of which Joseph Dennie, the editor from 1796 to 1799, boasted that “it is read by more than two thousand individuals, and has its patrons in Europe and on the banks of the Ohio”; and _The Monthly Magazine and American Review_ (New York, 1799-1800), founded by Charles Brockden Brown, and carried on in 1801-1802 as _The American Review and Literary Journal_. But the reading public of those days was small, and other conditions were unfavourable to publishers; in consequence, almost none of these publications lived into the next century.

=The Nineteenth Century.=--Of the literary magazines established before 1850, only one or two have survived. Yet we now begin to see the periodicals exhibiting greater vitality; and gradually they come to deal more and more with native literature and to exhibit a greater self-reliance on the part of American writers. The first half of the century was the period in which the national spirit took deep root and made rapid growth; and this national spirit is fully reflected in the literature of the time.

In 1801 Joseph Dennie and John Dickins began to publish, in Philadelphia, _The Port Folio_, which was destined to live for twenty-six years. Among its contributors were John Blair Linn, author of “The Powers of Genius,” “The Death of Washington,” etc.; Robert H. Rose, author of “Sketches in Verse”; John Sanderson, who wrote a book of Parisian sketches entitled “The American in Paris”; Alexander Graydon; Gouverneur Morris; Joseph Hopkinson, author of “Hail, Columbia,” and of articles on Shakespeare; and Alexander Wilson, poet and ornithologist, whose works were edited by Alexander B. Grosart (Paisley, Scotland, 1876).

From 1803 to 1811, the Anthology Club maintained in Boston a sprightly magazine called _The Anthology and Boston Review_. The best minds of Boston contributed to it; among them George Ticknor, William Tudor, Joseph Buckminster, John Quincy Adams, Dr. John Sylvester, Edward Everett, and John Gardiner. The magazine never paid expenses; but the contributors cheerfully paid for their pleasure. The club did much to give Boston its literary prestige, and was the forerunner of the famous Boston Athenæum.

_The Literary Magazine and American Register_ (Philadelphia, 1803-1808) was likewise founded by the novelist Brown, who published therein, among other things, his “Memoirs of Carwin, the Biloquist.”

Washington Irving began his literary career with the publication of _Salmagundi_, which he founded in New York in 1807, in conjunction with his brother William and James Kirke Paulding. The little sheet, in yellow covers, was issued by an eccentric publisher, David Longworth, the front of whose house was entirely hidden by a colossal painting of the crowning of Shakespeare. The magazine was modelled after Addison’s _Spectator_. Paulding was Launcelot Langstaff and Irving was Pindar Cockloft, the poet. “Our intention,” wrote the editors, “is simply to instruct the young, reform the old, correct the town, and castigate the age; this is an arduous task, and therefore we undertake it with confidence.” The work soon became popular throughout the United States for its clever reproductions of society foibles. After twenty numbers, however, it was discontinued, because, as Paulding said, “the publisher, with that liberality so characteristic of these modern Mæcenases, declined to concede to us a share of the profits, which had become considerable.” Twelve years later, Irving being then in Europe, Paulding attempted a second series (Philadelphia, May to August, 1820), which, though inferior to the first series, still contained some interesting pages.

_The Select Reviews and Spirit of the Foreign Magazines_, begun by Samuel Ewing in Philadelphia (1809), later became _The Analectic Magazine_ (1812-1821). In 1813-1814 Irving was its editor and contributed to it some biographies of heroes of the War of 1812 and some of the essays afterwards collected in “The Sketch Book.” Other contributors were Gulian C. Verplanck, James K. Paulding, Alexander Wilson, and William Darlington. _The Analectic_ published in July, 1819, the first lithograph made in America.

_The Portico_ (Baltimore, 1815-1819) numbered among its contributors John Neal, whose lengthy review of Byron appeared as a serial. Neal continued to write for _The Portico_ “until he knocked it on the head, it is thought, by an article on Free Agency.”

_The Idle Man_ (New York, 1821-1822) was edited by Richard H. Dana the elder; in it were printed his novels “Tom Thornton” and “Paul Felton” and some contributions from Bryant and from Washington Allston.

_The New York Mirror_, a weekly, was begun in 1823 by General George P. Morris and Samuel Woodworth, the author of “The Old Oaken Bucket.” Woodworth soon gave way to Theodore S. Fay and he in turn (1831) to Nathaniel P. Willis. Morris and Willis conducted it with great success until 1842. Fay contributed “The Little Genius,” satirical letters on New York society, and “The Minute Book,” letters from Europe. Willis spent some years abroad as foreign correspondent of the paper (1832-1836), his letters being eagerly read and widely copied. Morris and Willis subsequently conducted _The New Mirror_ (New York, 1843-1844), which in October, 1844, became a daily, and _The Home Journal_ (New York, from 1846 on), which as _Town and Country_ still continues.

_The Atlantic Magazine_ (New York, 1824-1825), edited by Robert C. Sands, was continued till 1826 as _The New York Review and Athenæum Magazine_. In its later form it was edited by Henry J. Anderson and William Cullen Bryant. In it appeared many of Bryant’s poems and some of his prose, as well as contributions by Longfellow, Dana, Willis, Bancroft, and Caleb Cushing. In March, 1826, the _Review_ was merged with _The New York Literary Gazette_. In July this was in turn combined with _The United States Literary Gazette_, which had been founded in Boston in 1825 and edited by Theophilus Parsons, the new title being _The United States Review and Literary Gazette_. James G. Carter, and later Charles Folsom, were the Boston editors, and Bryant was the New York editor. The periodical did not long survive.

_The American Monthly Magazine_ (New York, 1829-1831) was established and edited by Nathaniel P. Willis, who enlisted a number of younger writers, such as Richard Hildreth, Park Benjamin, Isaac McLellan, Albert Pike (“Hymns to the Gods”), Rufus Dawes, and Mrs. Sigourney. In 1831 the _Magazine_ was absorbed by _The New York Mirror_, of which Willis now became an associate editor.

_The Illinois Monthly Magazine_ (Vandalia, Illinois, 1830-1832), edited and mainly written by James Hall, was the earliest literary publication in the West; it was superseded by _The Western Monthly Magazine_ (Cincinnati, 1833-1836), edited by Timothy Flint.

One of the most popular of the Philadelphia magazines was _Godey’s Lady’s Book_ (1830-1877), which as early as 1859 circulated 98,500 copies, and which published compositions by Paulding, Park Benjamin, Holmes, Irving, Poe, Bayard Taylor, Longfellow, Harriet Beecher Stowe, Simms, Willis, Buchanan Read, Thomas Dunn English, and Lydia H. Sigourney. Poe’s contribution on “The Literati of New York,” published in its columns in 1846, created a great sensation at the time. For more than thirty years _Godey’s_ was edited by Mrs. Sarah J. Hale, who is also famous as the author of “Mary had a little lamb,” and through whose exertions our national Thanksgiving Day was secured.

_The New England Magazine_, established in Boston in 1831 by Joseph T. and Edwin Buckingham, published contributions from Hildreth, Park Benjamin, Whittier, Holmes (who published here the first two papers, never by authority reprinted, of his “Autocrat” series), Longfellow, William and Andrew Peabody, George S. Hillard (“Literary Portraits” and “Selections from the Papers of an Idler”), and other eminent writers. In 1835 Park Benjamin took it to New York and continued it till 1838 as _The American Monthly Magazine_.

_The North American Quarterly Magazine_ (Philadelphia, 1833-1838) was conducted by Sumner Lincoln Fairfield, author of “The Cities of the Plain,” and of an unpublished poem, “The Last Night of Pompeii” (finished in 1830), from which he alleged that Bulwer, to whom he sent the manuscript, stole the plot of his “Last Days of Pompeii.”

Much more successful was _The Knickerbacker or New-York Monthly Magazine_, founded in the same year and quietly changed with the seventh number to _The Knickerbocker_. The founder was Charles Fenno Hoffman, who edited three numbers. Some contributors were Harry Franco, Bryant, Irving (“Crayon Papers”), Longfellow, Lewis Gaylord Clark (for a time the editor), William L. Stone, the brothers Duyckinck, Frederick S. Cozzens, Simms, Park Benjamin, John L. Stephens (letters from Egypt), and Parkman (“The Oregon Trail”). With some exceptions it must be said that the contents of _The Knickerbocker_ were not of very great merit; and in its later years there were too many stories on the order of “Carl Almendinger’s Office, or, The Mysteries of Chicago,” which ran as a serial in 1862. In 1864 the title was _The American Monthly Knickerbocker_, and from July till October, 1865, when publication was suspended, the title was _The Fœderal American_.

_The Southern Literary Messenger_, published monthly at Richmond, Virginia, between 1834 and 1864, exerted a marked influence upon the literary taste of the whole South. In it were first published many of Poe’s stories and criticisms, and he was the editor of the second volume. Other contributors were Paulding, Park Benjamin, John W. Draper, Willis, Henry C. Lea, R. H. Stoddard, Simms, John B. Dabney, Matthew F. Maury, Philip Pendleton, and John Esten Cooke, Henry Timrod, Paul H. Hayne, Aldrich, Moncure D. Conway, Thomas Dunn English, John P. Kennedy, James Barron Hope (“Henry Ellen”), and W. Gordon McCabe.

In 1837 William E. Burton, the comedian, established in Philadelphia _The Gentleman’s Magazine_ to do for his sex what _Godey’s_ was doing for the ladies. Beginning with July, 1839, Poe became joint editor. The next year Burton sold out to George R. Graham, who combined the magazine with _The Casket_ (begun by Samuel Coate Atkinson in 1827) to form _Graham’s Lady’s and Gentleman’s Magazine_. For years _Graham’s_ was the most famous and truly national periodical in America. Graham understood the reading public as did few other men. He paid contributors liberally for those days, and collected a brilliant list of writers, including every name well known in letters at the time except Irving, who confined himself to _The Knickerbocker_. To _Graham’s_ Longfellow contributed his “Spanish Student,” “Childhood,” “The Builders,” “The Belfry of Bruges,” “The Arsenal at Springfield,” “Nuremberg,” etc. Poe contributed “The Mask of the Red Death,” “The Murders in the Rue Morgue,” “The Conqueror Worm,” “Life in Death,” and some minor pieces. Here were first published also many of Hawthorne’s “Twice-Told Tales.” Simms, Paulding, Geo. H. Boker, Henry W. Herbert, Robert T. Conrad, E. P. Whipple, and John G. Saxe were “principal contributors.” Lowell and Bayard Taylor were editorial writers. Cooper received $1800, then a very high price, for “The Islets of the Gulf, or Rose Budd,” later republished as “Jack Tier, or The Florida Reefs,” and $1000 for a series of biographies of distinguished naval commanders. Nathaniel P. Willis wrote much between 1843 and 1851. In 1852, Graham boasted that in the decade previous he had paid American contributors between eighty and ninety thousand dollars. The circulation of the magazine for a long time was 40,000 copies. About 1854 Graham sold out. In competition with _Harper’s_ and _Putnam’s_, _Graham’s_ soon declined. In 1859 its name was changed to _The American Monthly_, and it quickly disappeared.

In 1839 Willis began, in connection with Dr. T. O. Porter, to issue a weekly, _The Corsair_, from the basement of the Astor House, New York. Willis was the chief writer, contributing romantic stories, dramatic criticism, letters from Europe entitled “Jottings Down in London,” and gossip. While in England he met Thackeray, whom he induced to contribute eight letters. In all, fifty-two numbers were printed, the last dated March 7, 1840.

The Transcendental Movement, which will be discussed elsewhere, found expression in 1840 in a Boston quarterly called _The Dial_, which flourished till 1844, and which was edited successively by George Ripley, Margaret Fuller, and Emerson. The last contributed more than thirty prose articles and poems, among them “The Conservative,” “Chardon Street and Bible Convention,” “The Transcendentalist,” and in verse “The Problem,” “The Sphinx,” and “Woodnotes.” Bronson Alcott sent his “Orphic Sayings,” the mystery of some of which has never been fathomed. Other writers were Theodore Parker, George Ripley, Thoreau, James Freeman Clarke, William H. and William Ellery Channing, Eliot Cabot, John S. Dwight, Christopher P. Cranch, Mrs. Ellen Hooper, and Charles A. Dana. “Conceived and carried on in a spirit of boundless hope and enthusiasm,” the magazine encountered much ridicule among the Philistines. _The Knickerbocker_ said of the first number:

It is to be devoted to that refinement upon common-sense
literature, just now so much in vogue at the East; which, like the
memorable science of Sir Piercie Shafton, shall indoctrinate the
dull in intellectuality, the vulgar in nobility, and give that
“unutterable perfection of human utterance”; that eloquence which
no other eloquence is sufficient to praise; that art which, in
fine, when we call it _literary Euphuism_, we bestow upon it its
richest panegyric.

Yet in spite of such strictures, the contents of _The Dial_ are now immensely significant of the social agitation then going on in New England; and much of its matter has become a part of our permanent literature.

_The New World_, a large weekly established in New York by Park Benjamin (1840-1845), reprinted much from the English magazines, but included also contributions from Epes and John Osborne Sargent, James Aldrich, Herbert, Charles Lanman, Edward S. Gould, Charles Eames (editor for a time), and John Jay. George P. Putnam, the publisher, was for some years its London correspondent.

It was in _Peterson’s Ladies’ National Magazine_ (a fashion journal begun in Philadelphia in 1841) that Frances Hodgson Burnett published her first story, “Ethel’s Sir Lancelot” (November, 1868). The magazine, long popular among readers of light literature, was a few years since merged with _The Argosy_.

_The Union Magazine_ (New York, 1847-1848), edited by Mrs. Caroline M. Kirkland, was bought by John Sartain, the engraver, and William Sloanaker, who had withdrawn from the managership of _Graham’s_, and reappeared in Philadelphia (1849-1852) as _Sartain’s Union Magazine of Literature and Art_, attaining great popularity. It published works by Longfellow (“The Blind Girl of Castel Cuillé,” “Resignation”), Boker, Mrs. Sigourney, Lucy Larcom, Henry T. Tuckerman, Poe (“The Bells”), Park Benjamin, R. H. Stoddard, and Charles G. Leland.

_Harper’s New Monthly Magazine_ (New York), established by the Messrs. Harper in June, 1850, has long enjoyed a deservedly large circulation. For a considerable time it contained chiefly articles, especially fiction, reprinted from English periodicals. In later years it has included much more from American writers, and its contents have in general been of a high order of merit. Its records of travel and of scientific progress have been valuable. For many years the “Easy Chair,” conducted by George William Curtis, and later by William D. Howells, has been an interesting feature. In _Harper’s_ first appeared Howells’ “Annie Kilburn” and “Their Silver Wedding Journey,” Warner’s “Studies of the Great West” and “A Little Journey in the World,” Constance F. Woolson’s “Jupiter Lights,” “East Angels,” and “Anne,” Poulteney Bigelow’s “White Man’s Africa,” Stockton’s “Bicycle of Cathay” and “The Great Stone of Sardis,” John Fox, Jr.’s “Kentuckians,” Stephen Crane’s “Whilomville Stories,” Mark Twain’s “Personal Recollections of Joan of Arc,” Woodrow Wilson’s “Colonies and Nation,” Mary E. Wilkins’ “Portion of Labor,” Mary Johnston’s “Sir Mortimer,” and Margaret Deland’s “Awakening of Helena Richie.” _The International Magazine_, founded by Rufus W. Griswold in New York in 1850, was two years later merged with _Harper’s_.

_Putnam’s Monthly Magazine_ began publication in New York in 1853. Its earlier editors were Charles F. Briggs (whose pen name was “Harry Franco”), Parke Godwin, George W. Curtis, and George P. Putnam. Among the more important of the early contributions may be mentioned “Shakespeare’s Scholar” by Richard Grant White, “Early Years in Europe” by George H. Calvert, “The Potiphar Papers” and “Prue and I” by George W. Curtis, a series of political essays by Parke Godwin, “Fireside Travels” and “A Moosehead Journal” by James Russell Lowell, the “Sparrowgrass Papers” by Frederick S. Cozzens, “Cape Cod” by Henry W. Thoreau, “Wensley” by Edmund Quincy, and “Israel Potter” by Herman Melville. _Putnam’s_ was one of the first of American magazines which restricted its pages to original contributions, and which gave special attention to the encouragement of the work of American writers. Published till 1857 and from 1868 till 1870, it was revived in 1906 as _Putnam’s Monthly_, under the editorial direction of Joseph B. Gilder and George H. Putnam. _Putnam’s_ is still to be described as a literary magazine, although space is given also to illustrated articles on popular topics. _Putnam’s_ arranges with certain of the English magazines, such as _The Cornhill Magazine_ and _The Fortnightly Review_, to share contributors, English as well as American. The essays of Mrs. Richmond Ritchie (Thackeray’s daughter) and of Mr. Arthur C. Benson, for instance, have, under such an arrangement, been published simultaneously in _The Cornhill_ and in _Putnam’s_.

The year 1857 is memorable for the founding of _The Atlantic Monthly_ by the publishing firm of Phillips & Sampson of Boston. James Russell Lowell became the first editor, accepting the post on condition that Dr. Holmes, who suggested the name, should be engaged as the first contributor. Among those who wrote for the first number were Longfellow, Lowell, Emerson, Motley, Holmes (who began “The Autocrat”), Whittier, Charles Eliot Norton, J. T. Trowbridge, Harriet Beecher Stowe, and Parke Godwin. Most of these were already well known authors. The list of contributors to _The Atlantic_ during the half-century of its life includes all of the most illustrious of American writers--not only of New England, but of all parts of the country. In religious thought its attitude has been reverent but liberal. The achievements of science have been set forth by men like Agassiz, Percival Lowell, Simon Newcomb, John Trowbridge, George F. Wright, and George H. Darwin. The new political and economic questions have been discussed by such men as President Roosevelt, former President Cleveland, Richard Olney, Woodrow Wilson, Carl Schurz, John W. Foster, Henry Loomis Nelson, Edward M. Shepard, Benjamin Kidd, John Jay Chapman, and Thomas Nelson Page. The fiction of _The Atlantic_ has been produced mainly by American writers--Hawthorne (“Septimius Felton”), Henry James, Jr. (“Roderick Hudson,” “The Portrait of a Lady”), Aldrich (“The Stillwater Tragedy,” “Prudence Palfrey”), Bret Harte, Howells (“Their Wedding Journey,” “A Chance Acquaintance,” “The Lady of the Aroostook”), Mark Twain, Marion Crawford (“A Roman Singer,” “Paul Patoff,” “Don Orsino”), Stockton (“The House of Martha”), S. Weir Mitchell (“In War Time”), Hopkinson Smith (“Caleb West”), Cable (“Bylow Hill”), Paul Leicester Ford (“The Story of an Untold Love”), Mary Johnston (“To Have and to Hold,” “Audrey”), Sarah Orne Jewett (“The Tory Lover”), Margaret Deland (“Sidney,” “Philip and His Wife”), Kate Douglas Wiggin (“Penelope’s Progress”), and many others. An equally brilliant list might be made of the essayists whose best work has made its initial appearance in the form of _Atlantic_ articles. The editors have been Lowell (1857-1861), James T. Fields, of the firm of Ticknor & Fields, then the publishers (1861-1871), William Dean Howells (1871-1880), Thomas Bailey Aldrich (1880-1890), Horace E. Scudder (1890-1897), Walter H. Page (1897-1899), and Bliss Perry--an illustrious roll. _The Atlantic_ has never changed its original purpose.

It is still [to quote a recent writer] an American magazine for
American readers.... It holds that the most important service
which an American magazine can perform is the interpretation of
this country to itself, by the promotion of sympathy between the
different sections of our varied population, the frank examination
of our national characteristics, the study of our perplexing
problems, the encouragement of our art and literature, and the
reinforcement of those moral and religious beliefs upon which
depends the success of our experiment in self-government.

These ideals largely explain the success and permanence of _The Atlantic_. _The Galaxy_, founded in New York in 1866, after furnishing for several years an entertaining literary and scientific miscellany, was in 1878 incorporated with _The Atlantic_.

_Lippincott’s Magazine_, established in Philadelphia in 1868, continues to devote its chief energies to fiction, though it has also published some notable poetry. Here appeared Lanier’s “Corn,” Edward Kearsley’s “CampFire Lyrics,” and some of the verse of Emma Lazarus, Maurice Thompson, Paul H. Hayne, Celia Thaxter, and Philip Bourke Marston.

_The Overland Monthly_ (San Francisco, 1868-1875, 1883 to the present time) has faithfully mirrored the picturesque and stirring life of the Far West. It absorbed _The Californian_ (1880-1882). The first five volumes were edited by Bret Harte, and a large number of his stories, probably forming his best literary work, first appeared in its columns.

_Old and New_ (Boston, 1870-1875) was conducted by Edward Everett Hale with the intention of “squeezing from the Old its lessons for the New” and of combining amusing with instructive literature after the manner of the _Revue des Deux Mondes_.

In 1870, Dr. Josiah G. Holland and Roswell B. Smith projected _Scribner’s Monthly_ (New York), and for eleven years Dr. Holland was its editor. In 1881 it was changed to _The Century Magazine_ and under the editorship of Richard Watson Gilder has taken high rank as a distinctively popular magazine. It has given special attention to popular history, and its literary, historical, and scientific articles, generally substantial and meritorious, have appealed to a wide range of readers. Like _Harper’s_, it has drawn upon all of the leading writers, for example Harte (“Gabriel Conroy”), Cable (“The Grandissimes,” “Dr. Sevier”), Howells (“A Modern Instance,” “A Woman’s Reason,” “Silas Lapham”), Stockton (“Rudder Grange,” “The Merry Chanter,” “The Hundredth Man”), Boyesen (“Falconberg”), John Hay (“The Bread-Winners”), Henry James, Jr. (“Confidence,” “The Bostonians”), Eugene Schuyler (“Peter the Great”), Joel Chandler Harris (“Uncle Remus”), Hamlin Garland (“Her Mountain Lover”), Mary Hallock Foote (“The Led-Horse Claim,” “Cœur d’Alene”), Marion Crawford (“Via Crucis”), Mark Twain (“Pudd’nhead Wilson”), S. Weir Mitchell (“Characteristics,” “Hugh Wynne”). Many poems of merit have also been printed in _The Century_.

In 1887, _Scribner’s Magazine_ was established by Charles Scribner’s Sons, and has since taken rank as among the first of American monthlies. It devotes proportionately more space to literature than is given by its competitor, _The Century Magazine_, and pays less attention to so-called popular subjects. Like _The Century_, it contains illustrations, which are characterised by a high artistic standard. _Scribner’s_ is under the editorial management of Mr. Edward L. Burlingame. Like _The Century_, it is published in London as well as in New York.

Among the other literary periodicals established within the last quarter-century are _The Bay State Monthly_ (Boston, 1884-1885), which became in 1886 _The New England Magazine_, and which confines itself chiefly to the history and literature of New England; _The Forum_ (New York, since 1886), devoted to the discussion of present-day questions; _The Cosmopolitan_ (New York, since 1886), a typical popular monthly miscellany; _The Arena_ (New York, since 1889), which has been a fearless exponent of advanced liberal thought; _Munsey’s Magazine_ (New York, since 1891), well illustrated, and claiming a circulation of over 600,000 copies; _McClure’s Magazine_, established by S. S. McClure in New York in 1893, which by the end of its first year circulated 150,000 copies; _The Bookman_ (New York), edited since 1895 by Harry Thurston Peck; and _The Reader_ (Indianapolis, Indiana, 1902), now merged in _Putnam’s Monthly_.

_The Annuals._--In the twenties and thirties of the last century, too, the annuals were popular in America as in England. Almost all of the leading authors contributed to them. Among the best were _The Talisman_ (New York, 1828-1830), written by Bryant, Verplanck, and Sands, and illustrated by Inman, Samuel F. B. Morse, and others; and _The Token_ (Boston, 1828-1842), edited by S. G. Goodrich (“Peter Parley”) and (in 1829) N. P. Willis, in which appeared contributions by Longfellow, Hawthorne (some “Twice-Told Tales”), Mrs. Child, Mrs. Sigourney, and Mrs. Hale. In general, however, the American, like the British annuals, included a large amount of mediocre writing.