Chapter XXXVIII: Mineral Veins (1)

Werner's doctrine that mineral veins were fissures filled from
above--Veins of segregation--Ordinary metalliferous veins or
lodes--Their frequent coincidence with faults--Proofs that they
originated in fissures in solid rock--Veins shifting other
veins--Polishing of their walls--Shells and pebbles in lodes--Evidence
of the successive enlargement and re-opening of veins--Fournet's
observations in Auvergne--Dimensions of veins--Why some alternately
swell out and contract--Filling of lodes by sublimation from
below--Chemical and electrical action--Relative age of the precious
metals--Copper and lead veins in Ireland older than Cornish tin--Lead
vein in lias, Glamorganshire--Gold in Russia--Connection of hot
springs and mineral veins--Concluding remarks.

The manner in which metallic substances are distributed through the earth's crust, and more especially the phenomena of those nearly vertical and tabular masses of ore called mineral veins, from which the larger part of the precious metals used by man are obtained,--these are subjects of the highest practical importance to the miner, and of no less theoretical interest to the geologist.

The views entertained respecting metalliferous veins have been modified, or, rather, have undergone an almost complete revolution, since the middle of the last century, when Werner, as director of the School of Mines, at Freiberg in Saxony, first attempted to generalize the facts then known. He taught that mineral veins had originally been open fissures which were gradually filled up with crystalline and metallic matter, and that many of them, after being once filled, had been again enlarged or re-opened. He also pointed out that veins thus formed are not all referable to one era, but are of various geological dates.

Such opinions, although slightly hinted at by earlier writers, had never before been generally received, and their announcement by one of high authority and great experience constituted an era in the science. Nevertheless, I have shown, when tracing, in another work, the history and progress of geology, that Werner was far behind some of his predecessors in his theory of the volcanic rocks, and less enlightened than his contemporary, Dr. Hutton, in his speculations as to the origin of granite.[489-A] According to him, the plutonic formations, as well as the crystalline schists, were substances precipitated from a chaotic fluid in some primeval or nascent condition of the planet; and the metals, therefore, being closely connected with them, had partaken, according to him, of a like mysterious origin. He also held that the trap rocks were aqueous deposits, and that dikes of porphyry, greenstone, and basalt, were fissures filled with their several contents from above. Hence he naturally inferred that mineral veins had derived their component materials from an incumbent ocean, rather than from a subterranean source; that these materials had been first dissolved in the waters above, instead of having risen up by sublimation from lakes and seas of igneous matter below.

In proportion as the hypothesis of a primeval fluid, or "chaotic menstruum," was abandoned, in reference to the plutonic formations, and when all geologists had come to be of one mind as to the true relation of the volcanic and trappean rocks, reasonable hopes began to be entertained that the phenomena of mineral veins might be explained by known causes, or by chemical, thermal, and electrical agency still at work in the interior of the earth. The grounds of this conclusion will be better understood when the geological facts brought to light by mining operations have been described and explained.

_On different kinds of mineral veins._--Every geologist is familiarly acquainted with those veins of quartz which abound in hypogene strata, forming lenticular masses of limited extent. They are sometimes observed, also, in sandstones and shales. Veins of carbonate of lime are equally common in fossiliferous rocks, especially in limestones. Such veins appear to have once been chinks or small cavities, caused, like cracks in clay, by the shrinking of the mass, which has consolidated from a fluid state, or has simply contracted its dimensions in passing from a higher to a lower temperature. Siliceous, calcareous, and occasionally metallic matters, have sometimes found their way simultaneously into such empty spaces, by infiltration from the surrounding rocks, or by segregation, as it is often termed. Mixed with hot water and steam, metallic ores may have permeated a pasty matrix until they reached those receptacles formed by shrinkage, and thus gave rise to that irregular assemblage of veins, called by the Germans a "stockwerk," in allusion to the different floors on which the mining operations are in such cases carried on.

The more ordinary or regular veins are usually worked in vertical shafts, and have evidently been fissures produced by mechanical violence. They traverse all kinds of rocks, both hypogene and fossiliferous, and extend downwards to indefinite or unknown depths. We may assume that they correspond with such rents as we see caused from time to time by the shock of an earthquake. Metalliferous veins, referable to such agency, are occasionally a few inches wide, but more commonly 3 or 4 feet. They hold their course continuously in a certain prevailing direction for miles or leagues, passing through rocks varying in mineral composition.

[3 Illustrations: Fig. 513. Fig. 514. Fig. 515. Vertical sections of the mine of Huel Peever, Redruth, Cornwall.]

_That metalliferous veins were fissures._--As some intelligent miners, after an attentive study of metalliferous veins, have been unable to reconcile many of their characteristics with the hypothesis of fissures, I shall begin by stating the evidence in its favour. The most striking fact perhaps which can be adduced in its support is, the coincidence of a considerable proportion of mineral veins with _faults_, or those dislocations of rocks which are indisputably due to mechanical force, as above explained (p. 62.). There are even proofs in almost every mining district of a succession of faults, by which the opposite walls of rents, now the receptacles of metallic substances, have suffered displacement. Thus, for example, suppose _a a_, fig. 513., to be a tin lode in Cornwall, the term _lode_ being applied to veins containing metallic ores. This lode, running east and west, is a yard wide, and is shifted by a copper lode (_b b_), of similar width.

The first fissure (_a a_) has been filled with various materials, partly of chemical origin, such as quartz, fluor-spar, peroxide of tin, sulphuret of copper, arsenical pyrites, bismuth, and sulphuret of nickel, and partly of mechanical origin, comprising clay and angular fragments or detritus of the intersected rocks. The plates of quartz and the ores are, in some places, parallel to the vertical sides or walls of the vein, being divided from each other by alternating layers of clay, or other earthy matter. Occasionally the metallic ores are disseminated in detached masses among the veinstones.

It is clear that, after the gradual introduction of the tin and other substances, the second rent (_b b_) was produced by another fracture accompanied by a displacement of the rocks along the plane of _b b_. This new opening was then filled with minerals, some of them resembling those in _a a_, as fluor-spar (or fluate of lime) and quartz; others different, the copper being plentiful and the tin wanting or very scarce.

We must next suppose the shock of a third earthquake to occur, breaking asunder all the rocks along the line c _c_, fig. 514.; the fissure in this instance, being only 6 inches wide, and simply filled with clay, derived, probably, from the friction of the walls of the rent, or partly, perhaps, washed in from above. This new movement has heaved the rock in such a manner as to interrupt the continuity of the copper vein (_b b_), and, at the same time, to shift or heave laterally in the same direction a portion of the tin vein which had not previously been broken.

Again, in fig. 515. we see evidence of a fourth fissure (_d d_), also filled with clay, which has cut through the tin vein (_a a_), and has lifted it slightly upwards towards the south. The various changes here represented are not ideal, but are exhibited in a section obtained in working an old Cornish mine, long since abandoned, in the parish of Redruth, called Huel Peever, and described both by Mr. Williams and Mr. Carne.[491-A] The principal movement here referred to, or that of _c c_, fig. 515., extends through a space of no less than 84 feet; but in this, as in the case of the other three, it will be seen that the outline of the country above, or the geographical features of Cornwall, are not affected by any of the dislocations, a powerful denuding force having clearly been exerted subsequently to all the faults. (See above, p. 69.) It is commonly said in Cornwall, that there are eight distinct systems of veins which can in like manner be referred to as many successive movements or fractures; and the German miners of the Hartz Mountains speak also of eight systems of veins, referable to as many periods.

Besides the proofs of mechanical action already explained, the opposite walls of veins are frequently polished and striated, as if they had undergone great friction, and this even in cases where there has been no shift. We may attribute such rubbing to a vibratory motion known to accompany earthquakes, and to produce trituration on the opposite walls of rents. Similar movements have sometimes occurred in mineral veins which had been wholly or partially filled up; for included pieces of rock, detached from the sides, are found to be rounded, polished, and striated.

That a great many veins communicated originally with the surface of the country above, or with the bed of the sea, is proved by the occurrence in them of well rounded pebbles, agreeing with those in superficial alluviums, as in Auvergne and Saxony. In Bohemia, such pebbles have been met with at the depth of 180 fathoms. In Cornwall, Mr. Carne mentions true pebbles of quartz and slate in a tin lode of the Relistran Mine, at the depth of 600 feet below the surface. They were cemented by oxide of tin and bisulphuret of copper, and were traced over a space more than 12 feet long and as many wide.[492-A] Marine fossil shells, also, have been found at great depths, having probably been engulphed during submarine earthquakes. Thus, a gryphaea is stated by M. Virlet to have been met with in a lead-mine near Semur, in France, and a madrepore in a compact vein of cinnabar in Hungary.[492-B]

When different sets or systems of veins occur in the same country, those which are supposed to be of contemporaneous origin, and which are filled with the same kind of metals, often maintain a general parallelism of direction. Thus, for example, both the tin and copper veins in Cornwall run nearly east and west, while the lead-veins run north and south; but there is no general law of direction common to different mining districts. The parallelism of the veins is another reason for regarding them as ordinary fissures, for we observe that contemporaneous trap dikes, admitted by all to be masses of melted matter which have filled rents, are often parallel. Assuming, then, that veins are simply fissures in which chemical and mechanical deposits have accumulated, we may next consider the proofs of their having been filled gradually and often during successive enlargements. I have already spoken of parallel layers of clay, quartz, and ore. Werner himself observed, in a vein near Gersdorff, in Saxony, no less than thirteen beds of different minerals, arranged with the utmost regularity on each side of the central layer. This layer was formed of two beds of calcareous spar, which had evidently lined the opposite walls of a vertical cavity. The thirteen beds followed each other in corresponding order, consisting of fluor-spar, heavy spar, galena, &c. In these cases, the central mass has been last formed, and the two plates which coat the outer walls of the rent on each side are the oldest of all. If they consist of crystalline precipitates, they may be explained by supposing the fissure to have remained unaltered in its dimensions, while a series of changes occurred in the nature of the solutions which rose up from below; but such a mode of deposition, in the case of many successive and parallel layers, appears to be exceptional.

If a veinstone consist of crystalline matter, the points of the crystals are always turned inwards, or towards the centre of the vein; in other words, they point in that direction where there was most space for the development of the crystals. Thus each new layer receives the impression of the crystals of the preceding layer, and imprints its crystals on the one which follows, until at length the whole of the vein is filled: the two layers which meet dovetail the points of their crystals the one into the other. But in Cornwall, some lodes occur where the vertical plates, or _combs_, as they are there called, exhibit crystals so dovetailed as to prove that the same fissure has been often enlarged. Sir H. De la Beche gives the following curious and instructive example (fig. 516.) from a copper-mine in granite, near Redruth.[493-A] Each of the plates or combs (_a_, _b_, _c_, _d_, _e_, _f_) are double, having the points of their crystals turned inwards along the axis of the comb. The sides or walls (2, 3, 4, 5, and 6) are parted by a thin covering of ochreous clay, so that each comb is readily separable from another by a moderate blow of the hammer. The breadth of each represents the whole width of the fissure at six successive periods, and the outer walls of the vein, where the first narrow rent was formed, consisted of the granitic surfaces 1 and 7.

A somewhat analogous interpretation is applicable to numbers of other cases, where clay, sand, or angular detritus, alternate with ores and veinstones. Thus, we may imagine the sides of a fissure to be encrusted with siliceous matter, as Von Buch observed, in Lancerote, the walls of a volcanic crater formed in 1731 to be traversed by an open rent in which hot vapours had deposited hydrate of silica, the incrustation nearly extending to the middle.[493-B] Such a vein may then be filled with clay or sand, and afterwards re-opened, the new rent dividing the argillaceous deposit, and allowing a quantity of rubbish to fall down. Various metals and spars may then be precipitated from aqueous solutions among the interstices of this heterogeneous mass.

That such changes have repeatedly occurred, is demonstrated by occasional cross-veins, implying the oblique fracture of previously formed chemical and mechanical deposits. Thus, for example, M. Fournet, in his description of some mines in Auvergne worked under his superintendence, observes, that the granite of that country was first penetrated by veins of granite, and then dislocated, so that open rents crossed both the granite and the granitic veins. Into such openings, quartz, accompanied by sulphurets of iron and arsenical pyrites, was introduced. Another convulsion then burst open the rocks along the old line of fracture, and the first set of deposits were cracked and often shattered, so that the new rent was filled, not only with angular fragments of the adjoining rocks, but with pieces of the older veinstones. Polished and striated surfaces on the sides or in the contents of the vein also attest the reality of these movements. A new period of repose then ensued, during which various sulphurets were introduced, together with hornstone quartz, by which angular fragments of the older quartz before mentioned were cemented into a breccia. This period was followed by other dilatations of the same veins, and other sets of mineral deposits, until, at last, pebbles of the basaltic lavas of Auvergne, derived from superficial alluviums, probably of Miocene or older Pliocene date, were swept into the veins. I have not space to enumerate all the changes minutely detailed by M. Fournet, but they are valuable, both to the miner and geologist, as showing how the supposed signs of violent catastrophes may be the monuments, not of one paroxysmal shock, but of reiterated movements.

Such repeated enlargement and re-opening of veins might have been anticipated, if we adopt the theory of fissures, and reflect how few of them have ever been sealed up entirely, and that a country with fissures only partially filled must naturally offer much feebler resistance along the old lines of fracture than any where else. It is quite otherwise in the case of dikes, where each opening has been the receptacle of one continuous and homogeneous mass of melted matter, the consolidation of which has taken place under considerable pressure. Trappean dikes can rarely fail to strengthen the rocks at the points where before they were weakest; and if the upheaving force is again exerted in the same direction, the crust of the earth will give way anywhere rather than at the precise points where the first rents were produced.

A large proportion of metalliferous veins have their opposite walls nearly parallel, and sometimes over a wide extent of country. There is a fine example of this in the celebrated vein of Andreasberg in the Hartz, which has been worked for a depth of 500 yards perpendicularly, and 200 horizontally, retaining almost every where a width of 3 feet. But many lodes in Cornwall and elsewhere are extremely variable in size, being 1 or 2 inches in one part, and then 8 or 10 feet in another, at the distance of a few fathoms, and then again narrowing as before. Such alternate swelling and contraction is so often characteristic as to require explanation. The walls of fissures in general, observes Sir H. De la Beche, are rarely perfect planes throughout their entire course, nor could we well expect them to be so, since they commonly pass through rocks of unequal hardness and different mineral composition. If, therefore, the opposite sides of such irregular fissures slide upon each other, that is to say, if there be a fault, as in the case of so many mineral veins, the parallelism of the opposite walls is at once entirely destroyed, as will be readily seen by studying the annexed diagrams.

Let _a b_, fig. 517., be a line of fracture traversing a rock, and let _a b_, fig. 518., represent the same line. Now, if we cut a piece of paper representing this line, and then move the lower portion of this cut paper sideways from _a_ to _a'_, taking care that the two pieces of paper still touch each other at the points 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, we obtain an irregular aperture at _c_, and isolated cavities at _d d d_, and when we compare such figures with nature we find that, with certain modifications, they represent the interior of faults and mineral veins. If, instead of sliding the cut paper to the right hand, we move the lower part towards the left, about the same distance that it was previously slid to the right, we obtain considerable variation in the cavities so produced, two long irregular open spaces, _f f_, fig. 519., being then formed. This will serve to show to what slight circumstances considerable variations in the character of the openings between unevenly fractured surfaces may be due, such surfaces being moved upon each other, so as to have numerous points of contact.

Most lodes are perpendicular to the horizon, or nearly so; but some of them have a considerable inclination or "hade," as it is termed, the angles of dip varying from 15 deg. to 45 deg.. The course of a vein is frequently very straight; but if tortuous, it is found to be choked up with clay, stones, and pebbles, at points where it departs most widely from verticality. Hence at places, such as _a_, fig. 520., the miner complains that the ores are "nipped," or greatly reduced in quantity, the space for their free deposition having been interfered with in consequence of the pre-occupancy of the lode by earthy materials. When lodes are many fathoms wide, they are usually filled for the most part with earthy matter, and fragments of rock, through which the ores are much disseminated. The metallic substances frequently coat or encircle detached pieces of rock, which our miners call "horses" or "riders." That we should find some mineral veins which split into branches is also natural, for we observe the same in regard to open fissures.

_Chemical deposits in veins._--If we now turn from the mechanical to the chemical agencies which have been instrumental in the production of mineral veins, it may be remarked that those parts of fissures which were not choked up with the ruins of fractured rocks must always have been filled with water; and almost every vein has probably been the channel by which hot springs, so common in countries of volcanos and earthquakes, have made their way to the surface. For we know that the rents in which ores abound extend downwards to vast depths, where the temperature of the interior of the earth is more elevated. We also know that mineral veins are most metalliferous near the contact of plutonic and stratified formations, especially where the former send veins into the latter, a circumstance which indicates an original proximity of veins at their inferior extremity to igneous and heated rocks. It is moreover acknowledged that even those mineral and thermal springs which, in the present state of the globe, are far from volcanos, are nevertheless observed to burst out along great lines of upheaval and dislocation of rocks.[496-A] It is also ascertained that all the substances with which hot springs are impregnated agree with those discharged in a gaseous form from volcanos. Many of these bodies occur as veinstones; such as silex, carbonate of lime, sulphur, fluor-spar, sulphate of barytes, magnesia, oxide of iron, and others. I may add that, if veins have been filled with gaseous emanations from masses of melted matter, slowly cooling in the subterranean regions, the contraction of such masses as they pass from a plastic to a solid state would, according to the experiments of Deville on granite (a rock which may be taken as a standard), produce a reduction in volume amounting to 10 per cent. The slow crystallization, therefore, of such plutonic rocks supplies us with a force not only capable of rending open the incumbent rocks by causing a failure of support, but also of giving rise to faults whenever one portion of the earth's crust subsides slowly while another contiguous to it happens to rest on a different foundation, so as to remain unmoved.

Although we are led to infer, from the foregoing reasoning, that there has often been an intimate connection between metalliferous veins and hot springs holding mineral matter in solution, yet we must not on that account expect that the contents of hot springs and mineral veins would be identical. On the contrary, M. E. de Beaumont has judiciously observed that we ought to find in veins those substances which, being least soluble, are not discharged by hot springs,--or that class of simple and compound bodies which the thermal waters ascending from below would first precipitate on the walls of a fissure, as soon as their temperature began slightly to diminish. The higher they mount towards the surface, the more will they cool, till they acquire the average temperature of springs, being in that case chiefly charged with the most soluble substances, such as the alkalis, soda and potash. These are not met with in veins, although they enter so largely into the composition of granitic rocks.[496-B]

To a certain extent, therefore, the arrangement and distribution of metallic matter in veins may be referred to ordinary chemical action, or to those variations in temperature, which waters holding the ores in solution must undergo, as they rise upwards from great depths in the earth. But there are other phenomena which do not admit of the same simple explanation. Thus, for example, in Derbyshire, veins containing ores of lead, zinc, and copper, but chiefly lead, traverse alternate beds of limestone and greenstone. The ore is plentiful where the walls of the rent consist of limestone, but is reduced to a mere string when they are formed of greenstone, or "toadstone," as it is called provincially. Not that the original fissure is narrower where the greenstone occurs, but because more of the space is there filled with veinstones, and the waters at such points have not parted so freely with their metallic contents.

"Lodes in Cornwall," says Mr. Robert W. Fox, "are very much influenced in their metallic riches by the nature of the rock which they traverse, and they often change in this respect very suddenly, in passing from one rock to another. Thus many lodes which yield abundance of ore in granite, are unproductive in clay-slate, or killas, and _vice versa_. The same observation applies to killas and the granitic porphyry called elvan. Sometimes, in the same continuous vein, the granite will contain copper, and the killas tin, or _vice versa_."[497-A] Mr. Fox, after ascertaining the existence at present of electric currents in some of the metalliferous veins in Cornwall, has speculated on the probability of the same cause having acted originally on the sulphurets and muriates of copper, tin, iron, and zinc, dissolved in the hot water of fissures, so as to determine the peculiar mode of their distribution. After instituting experiments on this subject, he even endeavoured to account for the prevalence of an east and west direction in the principal Cornish lodes by their position at right angles to the earth's magnetism; but Mr. Henwood and other experienced miners have pointed out objections to the theory; and it must be owned that the direction of veins in different mining districts varies so entirely that it seems to depend on lines of fracture, rather than on the laws of voltaic electricity. Nevertheless, as different kinds of rock would be often in different electrical conditions, we may readily believe that electricity must often govern the arrangement of metallic precipitates in a rent.

"I have observed," says Mr. R. Fox, "that when the chloride of tin in solution is placed in the voltaic circuit, part of the tin is deposited in a metallic state at the negative pole, and part at the positive one, in the state of a peroxide, such as it occurs in our Cornish mines. This experiment may serve to explain why tin is found contiguous to, and intermixed with, copper ore, and likewise separated from it, in other parts of the same lode."[497-B]

_Relative age of the different metals._--After duly reflecting on the facts above described, we cannot doubt that mineral veins, like eruptions of granite or trap, are referable to many distinct periods of the earth's history, although it may be more difficult to determine the precise age of veins; because they have often remained open for ages, and because, as we have seen, the same fissure, after having been once filled, has frequently been re-opened or enlarged. But besides this diversity of age, it has been supposed by some geologists that certain metals have been produced exclusively in earlier, others in more modern times,--that tin, for example, is of higher antiquity than copper, copper than lead or silver, and all of them more ancient than gold. I shall first point out that the facts once relied upon in support of some of these views are contradicted by later experience, and then consider how far any chronological order of arrangement can be recognized in the position of the precious and other metals in the earth's crust. In the first place, it is not true that veins in which tin abounds are the oldest lodes worked in Great Britain. The government survey of Ireland has demonstrated, that in Wexford veins of copper and lead (the latter as usual being argentiferous) are much older than the tin of Cornwall. In each of the two countries a very similar series of geological changes has occurred at two distinct epochs,--in Wexford, before the Devonian strata were deposited; in Cornwall, after the carboniferous epoch. To begin with the Irish mining district: We have granite in Wexford, traversed by granite veins, which veins also intrude themselves into the Silurian strata, the same Silurian rocks as well as the veins having been denuded before the Devonian beds were superimposed. Next we find, in the same county, that elvans, or straight dikes of porphyritic granite, have cut through the granite and the veins before mentioned, but have not penetrated the Devonian rocks. Subsequently to these elvans, veins of copper and lead were produced, being of a date certainly posterior to the Silurian, and anterior to the Devonian; for they do not enter the latter, and, what is still more decisive, streaks or layers of derivative copper have been found near Wexford in the Devonian, not far from points where mines of copper are worked in the Silurian strata.[498-A]

Although the precise age of such copper lodes cannot be defined, we may safely affirm that they were either filled at the close of the Silurian or commencement of the Devonian period. Besides copper, lead, and silver, there is some gold in these ancient or primary metalliferous veins. A few fragments also of tin found in Wicklow in the drift are supposed to have been derived from veins of the same age.[498-B]

Next, if we turn to Cornwall, we find there also the monuments of a very analogous sequence of events. First the granite was formed; then, about the same period, veins of fine-grained granite, often tortuous (see fig. 496., p. 445.), penetrating both the outer crust of granite and the adjoining fossiliferous or primary rocks, including the coal-measures; thirdly, elvans, holding their course straight through granite, granitic veins, and fossiliferous slates; fourthly, veins of tin also containing copper, the first of those eight systems of fissures of different ages already alluded to, p. 491. Here, then, the tin lodes are newer than the elvans. It has indeed been stated by some Cornish miners that the elvans are in some few instances posterior to the oldest tin-bearing lodes, but the observations of Sir H. De la Beche during the survey led him to an opposite conclusion, and he has shown how the cases referred to in corroboration can be otherwise interpreted.[499-A] We may, therefore, assert that the most ancient Cornish lodes are younger than the coal-measures of that part of England, and it follows that they are of a much later date than the Irish copper and lead of Wexford and some adjoining counties. How much later it is not so easy to declare, although probably they are not newer than the beginning of the Permian period, as no tin lodes have been discovered in any red sandstone of the Poikilitic group, which overlies the coal in the south-west of England.

There are lead veins in the Mendip hills which extend through the mountain limestone into the Permian or Dolomitic conglomerate, and others in Glamorganshire which enter the lias. Those worked near Frome, in Somersetshire, have been traced into the Inferior Oolite. In Bohemia, the rich veins of silver of Joachimsthal cut through basalt containing olivine, which overlies tertiary lignite, in which are leaves of dicotyledonous trees. This silver, therefore, is decidedly a tertiary formation. In regard to the age of the gold of the Ural Mountains, in Russia, which, like that of California, is obtained chiefly from auriferous alluvium, we can merely affirm that it occurs in veins of quartz in the schistose and granitic rocks of that chain. Sir R. Murchison observes, that no gold has yet been found in the Permian conglomerates which lie at the base of the Ural Mountains, although large quantities of iron and copper detritus are mixed with the rolled pebbles of these same Permian strata. Hence it seems that the Uralian quartz veins, containing gold and platinum, were not exposed to aqueous denudation during the Permian era. But we cannot feel sure, from any data yet before us, that such auriferous veins of quartz may not be as old as the tin lodes of Cornwall, in which, as well as the more ancient copper lodes of Ireland, some gold has been detected. We are also unable at present to assign to the gold veins of Brazil, Peru, or California, their respective geological dates. But, although enough is known to show that Ovid's line about the "Age of Gold," "Aurea prima sata est aetas," would, by no means, be an apt motto for a treatise on mining, it would be equally rash in the present state of our inquiries to affirm, as some have done, that gold was the last-formed of metals.

It has been remarked by M. de Beaumont, that lead and some other metals are found in dikes of basalt and greenstone, as well as in mineral veins connected with trap rocks, whereas tin is met with in granite and in veins associated with the granitic series. If this rule hold true generally, the geological position of tin in localities accessible to the miners will belong, for the most part, to rocks older than those bearing lead. The tin veins will be of higher relative antiquity for the same reason that the "underlying" igneous formations or granites which are visible to man are older, on the whole, than the overlying or trappean formations.

If different sets of fissures, originating simultaneously at different levels in the earth's crust, and communicating, some of them, with volcanic, others with heated plutonic masses, be filled with different metals, it will follow that those formed farthest from the surface will usually require the longest time before they can be exposed superficially. In order to bring them into view, or within reach of the miner, a greater amount of upheaval and denudation must take place in proportion as they have lain deeper when first formed. A considerable series of geological revolutions must intervene before any part of the fissure, which has been for ages in the proximity of the plutonic rocks, so as to receive the gases discharged from it when it was cooling, can emerge into the atmosphere. But I need not enlarge on this subject, as the reader will remember what was said in the 30th, 34th, and 37th chapters, on the chronology of the volcanic and hypogene formations.

* * * * *

_Concluding Remarks._--The theory of the origin of the hypogene rocks, at a variety of successive periods, as expounded in two of the chapters just cited, and still more the doctrine that such rocks may be now in the daily course of formation, has made and still makes its way, but slowly, into favour. The disinclination to embrace it has arisen partly from an inherent obscurity in the very nature of the evidence of plutonic action when developed on a great scale, at particular periods. It has also sprung, in some degree, from extrinsic considerations; many geologists having been unwilling to believe the doctrine of the transmutation of fossiliferous into crystalline rocks, because they were desirous of finding proofs of a beginning, and of tracing back the history of our terraqueous system to times anterior to the creation of organic beings. But if these expectations have been disappointed, if we have found it impossible to assign a limit to that time throughout which it has pleased an Omnipotent and Eternal Being to manifest his creative power, we have at least succeeded beyond all hope in carrying back our researches to times antecedent to the existence of man. We can prove that man had a beginning, and that, all the species now contemporary with man, and many others which preceded, had also a beginning, and that, consequently, the present state of the organic world has not gone on from all eternity, as some philosophers have maintained.

It can be shown that the earth's surface has been remodelled again and again; mountain chains have been raised or sunk; valleys formed, filled up, and then re-excavated; sea and land have changed places; yet throughout all these revolutions, and the consequent alterations of local and general climate, animal and vegetable life has been sustained. This has been accomplished without violation of the laws now governing the organic creation, by which limits are assigned to the variability of species. The succession of living beings appears to have been continued not by the transmutation of species, but by the introduction into the earth from time to time of new plants and animals, and each assemblage of new species must have been admirably fitted for the new states of the globe as they arose, or they would not have increased and multiplied and endured for indefinite periods.[501-A]

Astronomy had been unable to establish the plurality of habitable worlds throughout space, however favourite a subject of conjecture and speculation; but geology, although it cannot prove that other planets are peopled with appropriate races of living beings, has demonstrated the truth of conclusions scarcely less wonderful,--the existence on our own planet of so many habitable surfaces, or worlds as they have been called, each distinct in time, and peopled with its peculiar races of aquatic and terrestrial beings.

The proofs now accumulated of the close analogy between extinct and recent species are such as to leave no doubt on the mind that the same harmony of parts and beauty of contrivance which we admire in the living creation, has equally characterized the organic world at remote periods. Thus as we increase our knowledge of the inexhaustible variety displayed in living nature, and admire the infinite wisdom and power which it displays, our admiration is multiplied by the reflection, that it is only the last of a great series of pre-existing creations, of which we cannot estimate the number or limit in times past.[501-B]

FOOTNOTES:

[489-A] Principles, &c. chap. iv. 8th ed. p. 49.

[491-A] Geol. Trans. vol. iv. p. 139.; Trans. Roy. Geol. Society Cornwall, vol. ii. p. 90.

[492-A] Carne, Trans. of Geol. Soc. Cornwall, vol. iii. p. 238.

[492-B] Fournet, Etudes sur les Depots Metalliferes.

[493-A] Geol. Rep. on Cornwall, p. 340.

[493-B] Principles, ch. xxvii. 8th ed. p. 422.

[496-A] See Dr. Daubeny's Volcanos.

[496-B] Bulletin, iv. p. 1278.

[497-A] R. W. Fox on Mineral Veins, p. 10.

[497-B] Ibid. p. 38.

[498-A] I am indebted to Sir H. De la Beche for this information. See also maps and sections of Irish Survey.

[498-B] Sir H. De la Beche, MS. notes on Irish Survey.

[499-A] Report on Geology of Cornwall, p. 310.

[501-A] See Principles of Geol., Book 3.

[501-B] See the author's Anniv. Address to the Geol. Soc. 1837. Proceedings of G. S. No. 49. p. 520.

INDEX.

A.

AEgean Sea, mud of, 35.
animal life in depths of, 137.

Agassiz, M., cited, 192. 276. 300. 335. 344. 345.
on parallel roads, 87.
on fossil fishes of molasse and faluns, 171.
on fossil fish of Lias, 275.
on fossil fish in Permian marl-slate, 304.
on fish from Sheppey, 202.
on foot-prints, 299.
on fishes of brown coal, 417.
on glaciers, 140. 143.

Age of formation determined by fragments of older rock, 101.
of metamorphic rocks, 482.
test of, in plutonic rocks by relative position, 449.
of Spanish volcanos, 414.
of volcanic rocks, how tested, 397-400.

Aix-la-Chapelle, hot spring at, 477.

Alabaster defined, 13.

Alabama, cretaceous shingle of, 225.

Alberti on the Keuper, 287.

Alexander, Capt., marine shells in crag, found by, 149.

Alluvium, term explained, 79.
in Auvergne, 80.
of the Wealden, 252.

Alps, nummulitic formation of, 205.
curved strata of, 58.
Swiss and Savoy, cleavage of, 470.
of Switzerland, 483.

Alpine blocks on the Jura, 142.
erratics, 140.

Altered rocks, 381. 456.
by subterranean gases, 476.

Alternations of rocks, 14.
of marine and freshwater formations, 32.

Alumine in rocks, 11.

_Amblyrhynchus cristatus_, 279.

America, North, lithodomi in beaches of, 78.
South, cretaceous strata, 225.
South, gradual rise of parts of, 46.
South, fossils of, 157.

Amygdaloid, 372.

Amphitherium, 268.

Andelys, chalk cliffs at, 239.

Andernach, strata near, 417.

Andes, plutonic rocks of, 453.
rocks drifted from to Chiloe, 144.

Anthracite in Rhode Island, 478.

Anticlinal line, 48. 57.

Antrim, rocks altered by dikes in, 382.

Antwerp, strata like Suffolk crag near, 166.

_Apateon pedestris_, a carboniferous reptile, 336.

Apennines, limestone in, 482.

Appalachian coal-field, 329.

Appalachians, altered rocks in, 478.

_Apteryx_ in New Zealand, 158.

Aqueous rocks defined, 2.
rocks, mineral character of, 97.
deposits, superposition of, 96.

Arbroath, section from, to the Grampians, 48.

Archegosaurus, figure of, 337.

Archiac, M., cited, 143.
on fossils in chalk, 221.
on shells in French Lower Eocene, 196.

Ardeche, lava in, 385.

Arenaceous rocks described, 11.

Argillaceous rocks, 11.
schist, 465.

Argile plastique, or Lower Eocene, 196.

Argyleshire, trap-vein in cliff, 379.

Arran, age of granite in, 459.
section of, 461.
dike of greenstone in, 379.

Arthur's Seat, altered strata of, 383.

Ashby-de-la-Zouch, fault in coal-field of, 69.

Ascension, lamination of volcanic rocks in, 480.

Asterophyllites, 314.

Asti, formations at, 167.

Atherfield, cretaceous strata of, 219.

Augite, 369.

Aurillac, freshwater strata of, 188.

Austen, Mr., R. A. C., on phosphate of lime, 219.

Australian cave-breccias, 155.

Auvergne freshwater formations, 186.
succession of changes in, 180.
lacustrine strata, 181.
mineral veins of, 493.
indusial limestone, 184.
extinct volcanos of, 422.
alluvium in, 80.

Aymestry limestone, 352.

B.

Bagshot sands, 199.

Bacillaria, fossil in tripoli, 25.

Baiae, Bay of, strata in, 403.

Bakewell, Mr., on cleavages of Alps, 470.

Balgray, near Glasgow, stumps of trees in coal, 317.

Bahia Blanca, fossil remains at, 148.

Baltic, brackish water strata on coast of, 114.

Barcombe, chalk flints near, 253.

Barton Cliff, 198.

Barrande, M., on trilobites, 358.

Basterot, M. de, on tertiaries of south of France, 105.

Basalt, 371.
columnar in the Eifel, 387.
columnar, near Vicenza, 386.
columnar, structure of, 384.

Basset, term explained, 56.

Batrachian, eggs of, in Old Red, Scotland, Postscript, x.

Bayfield, Capt., on fossil shells in Canada, 134.
on inland cliffs in Gulf of St. Lawrence, 78.

Bean, Mr., shells similar to those in Norwich crag found in Yorkshire
by, 149.

Bean, Mr., on fossil shells from oolite, 272.

Beachy Head, chalk cliffs near, 246.

Beaumont, M. E. de, on rocks of Hautes Alpes, 455.
on lamination of volcanic rocks, 480.

Beaumont, M. E. de, on Swiss Alps, 484.
on quartz, 439.
on oolite formation in France, 221.

Beck, Dr., on kelp, 217.
on graptolites, 357.
cited, 162. 186.

Belemnite in Oxford clay, 262.

Berger, Dr., on rocks altered by dikes, 382.

Bergmann on trap, 366.

Berlin, tertiary strata near, 177.

Bermuda Islands, lagoons in, 216.
rocks of, 78.

Bernese Alps, gneiss in, 484.

Berthier, on augite and hornblende, 369.

Beudant, M., on Hungary, 421.

Beyrich, Prof., on tertiary strata near Berlin, 177.

Biaritz, calcareous cliffs of, 72.

Bilin, tripoli, composed of infusoria, 25.

Binney, Mr., on stigmaria and sigillaria, 315.

Birds, footprints of, 298.
fossil, scarcity of, Postscript, xix.

Bischoff, Prof., experiments on heat, 476.
on steam at a high temperature, 477.

Blainville, on number of genera of mollusca, 28.

Boase, Dr., cited, 479.

Boblaye, M., on inland cliffs, 73.
cited, 431.

Bog-iron ore, 26.

Borrowdale, black-lead of, 38.

Bordeaux, tertiary deposits of, 171.

Bosquet, M., on Maestricht beds, 210.

Bothnia, Gulf of, land upheaved, 45.

Boue, M., on arrangement of rocks, 95.
on fossil shells in Hungary, 421.
on Carrara marble, 482.
on Swiss Alps, 484.

Bonelli, on strata in Italy, 106.

Boulder formation in Canada, 133.
period, fauna of, 126.
formation, mineral ingredients of, 126.
formation in England, 130.

Boulders, 123.
striated, 136.

Boutigny, M., cited, 441.

Bowen, Lieut. A., R.N., drawings of rocks in Gulf of St. Lawrence, 78.

Bowerbank, Mr., on fossil flora of Sheppey, 200.

Bowman, Mr., on coal-seams, 330.

Bracklesham Bay, characteristic shells of, 199.

Brash, term, explained, 81.

Bravard, M., on Auvergne mammalia, 188. 425.

Breccia on ancient coast lines, 73.

Brickenden, Captain, on Elgin fossils, Postscript, ix.

Brighton, elephant bed of, 256.

Bristol, dolomitic conglomerate near, 305.
section of strata near, 102.

Brocchi, on Subapennines, 105. 167.

Brockedon, Mr., on black-lead, 38.

Broderip, Mr., cited, 270.

Brodie, Rev. P.B., on fossil insects, 281.
cited, 207.

Bromley, oyster-bed near, 204.

Brongniart, M. Adolphe, on Eocene flora, 200.
on flora of cretaceous period, 223.
on fossil plants in lias, 282.
on plants of Bunter sandstein, 288.
on fossil fir-cones, 313.
on Permian flora, 307.
on sigillaria, 314.
on asterophyllites, 314.
on stigmaria, 315.
age of acrogens, 316.
on endogens, 316.

Brongniart, M. Alex., on Paris tertiaries, 104.
on Eocene formation, 175.
on shells of nummulitic formation, 205.
on coal mine near Lyons, 319.

Brora, coal formation, 272.

Brora, granite near, 458.

Brown, Mr. Richard, on stigmariae, 315.
on coal formation, 415.
on Cape Breton coal-field, 324. 334.
on carboniferous rain-prints, Postscript, xii.

Buckland, Dr., on cave at Kirkdale, 154.
on coal plants, 317.
on coprolites in chalk, 216.
on fish of Lias, 276.
on footprints, 291.
on mountains of Caernarvonshire, 130.
on oyster bed near Bromley, 204.
on parallel roads, 87.
on term Poikilitic, 286.
on saurians of Lias, 278.
on sudden destruction of saurians, 280.
cited, 155. 231. 233. 267. 268.

Buddle, Mr., on creeps in coal mines, 50.
on ancient river-channels of coal period, 334.

Buist, Dr. G., on saltness of Red Sea, 296.

Bunbury, Mr. C. J. F., on plants of coal-field, 285.

Bunter sandstein, 288.

Burmeister on trilobites, 358.

Burnes, Sir A., cited, 295.

C.

Caernarvonshire, ancient glaciers of, 130.

Calamites, figures of, 313.
near Pictou, 319.

Calcaire grossier, 193.
siliceux, 195.

Calcareous rocks, 12.
rocks of Gulf of Spezia, 482.
cliffs of Biaritz, 72.

Caldcleugh, Mr., cited, 399.

Caldera of Palma, 392.

Cambrian group, 361.
volcanic rocks, 435.

Campagna di Roma, tuffs of, 408.

Canada, shells in drift of, 134.

Cantal, freshwater formation of, 188.
igneous rocks of, 429.
freshwater beds of, 429.

Cape Breton, coal measures of, 324.
Wrath, granite veins in, 444.

Caradoc sandstone, 356.

Carbonaceous shale, 271.

Carbonate of lime scarce in metamorphic rocks, 487.

Carbonate of lime in rocks, how tested, 12.

Carboniferous group, 308.
flora, 310.
period, plutonic rocks of, 456.
period, volcanic rocks of, 432.
reptiles, 335.

Carne, Mr., on Cornish lodes, 491. 492.

Carrara marble, 482.

_Caryophyllia caespitosa_, bed of, in Sicily, 151.

Castrogiovanni, bent strata near, 58.

Catalonia, volcanic region of, 408.

Cautley, Captain, on Sewalik hills, 173.

Caves in Europe, 155.
at Kirkdale, 154.
in Sicily, 153.
in Australia, 156.

Central France, Upper Eocene of, 178.

Cetacea, fossil, rarity of, Postscript, xxi.

Chalk, pinnacle of, near Sherringham, 129.
of Faxoe, 210. and Postscript, xv.
white, fossils of, 26.
white, section of, 211.
white, extent and origin of, 215.
white, animal origin of, 216.
pebbles in, 217.
difference of, in north and south of Europe, 221.

Chalk cliffs, inland, on Seine, 238.
needles of, in Normandy, 241.
flints, bed of, near Barcombe, 253.

Chambers, Mr., cited, 88.

Chamisso, cited, 217.

Chara, in freshwater strata, 31.
in flints of Cantal, 189.
in Eocene strata of France, 176.
in Purbeck beds, 232.

Charlesworth, Mr. E., cited, on Crag, 162.

Charpentier, M., on Alpine glaciers, 140.
on Swiss glaciers, 143.

Cheirotherium, footprints of, 290. 337.

Chemical and mechanical deposits, 33.

Chili, earthquake in, 61.
gold mines in, 472.

Chiloe, rocks drifted from Andes to, 144.

Chlorite schist, 465.

Christiania, dike near, 380.
trap rocks, passage of granite into, at, 441.
granite near, 457.
gneiss near, 446.
intrusion of granite into beds near, 446.

Chronological groups, 101.

Cinder-bed, Purbeck, 231.

Claiborne, marine shells of, 206.

Clausen, Mr., cited, 158.

Clay, defined, 11.

Clay-slate, 465. 468.

Clay-ironstone, 326.

Clays, plastic, 203.

Cleavage of rocks, 468.

Climate of drift period, 139.
of coal period, 335.

Coal, zigzag flexures of, near Mons
group, 308.
measures, 308. 309.
how formed, 317.
pipes, danger of, 318.
mine, near Lyons, 319.
seam at Brownsville, Pennsylvania, view of, 332.
conversion of into lignite, 333.
formation at Brora, 272.
seams, continuity of, 334.
period, climate of, 335.
strata, footprints of reptiles in, 337.

Coal-field at Burdiehouse, 325.
of Ashby-de-la-Zouch, 69.
United States, diagram of, 327.
of Yorkshire, fossils of, 325.

Coalbrook Dale, beetles in coal of, 335.
fossil cones in, 313.
coal measures of, 324.
faults in, 62.

Cockfield Fell, rocks altered by dikes, 383.

Columbia, vinegar river of, 191.

Colchester, Mr., on mammalian remains at Kyson, 203.

Come, ravine in lava of, 427.

Cones in Val di Noto, 389.
and craters, absence of, in England, 6.
and craters, 367.

Conifers, fossil trees, 316.

Concretionary structure, 37.

Conglomerate, or pudding-stone, 11.
dolomitic, 305.
vertical in Scotland, &c., 47.

Connecticut, valley of the, 297.
beds, antiquity of, 300.

Conrad, Mr., on cretaceous rocks, 224.

Conybeare, Mr., cited, 64. 69. 244. 274.
on Plesiosaurus, 278.
on oolite and lias, 283.
on term Poikilitic, 286.
on crocodiles, 201.

Cook, Capt., on _Fucus giganteus_, 217.

Coprolites in chalk, 216.

Coralline crag, fossils in, 164.

Coral islands and reefs, 34. 46.
rag of Oolite, 260.

Corals, figures of, in crag, 165.
of Devonian system, 346.
of Devonian strata in United States, 349.
in Wenlock formation, 355.

Corinth, corrosion of rocks by gases near, 477.

Cornbrash, 263.

Cornwall, granite veins in, 445. 474.
mineral veins in, 490. 494.
tin of, newer than Irish copper, 499.

Cotta, Dr. B., on granite in Saxony, 459.

Crag coralline, fossils in, 164.
comparison of faluns and, 170.
of Suffolk, red and coralline, 105. 162.
fluvio-marine, Norwich, 148.

Craigleith fossil trees, 40.
quarry, slanting tree in, 320.

Crater of Island of St. Paul, 395.

Craven fault, 64.

Creeps in coal-mines described, 52.

Credneria in Quadersandstein, Postscript, xvi.

Cretaceous rocks of Pyrenees, 455.
group, 209. 219. and Postscript, xvi.
strata in South America and India, 225.
period, plutonic rocks of, 455.
volcanic rocks, 431.
rocks in United States, 224.

Crocodiles near Cuba, 279.

Croizet, M., on Auvergne fossil mammalia, 188.

Cromer, contorted drift near, 129.

"Crop out," term explained, 55.

Crust of earth defined, 2.

Crystalline limestone, 302.
rocks, erroneously termed primitive, 9.
schists defined, 7.

Curved strata, 47.
strata, experiments to illustrate, 49.

Cutch, Runn of, 295.

Cuvier, M., on Eocene formation, 175.
on Amphitherium, 268.
cited, 192.
on tertiary strata near Paris, 104.
on fossils of Montmartre, 191.

Cyclopian Islands, 401.

Cypris in Lias, 281.
in Wealden, 228.
in marl of Auvergne, 183.

Cystideae in Silurian rocks, 358.

D.

Dana, Mr., on coprolites of birds, 299.
on coral reef in Sandwich Islands, 216.
on volcanos of Sandwich Islands, 394. 406. 423.

Dartmoor, granite of, 456.

Darwin, Mr., cited, 217.
on boulders and glaciers in South America, 144.
on cleavage in South America, 471.
on coral islands of Pacific, 216.
on dike in St. Helena, 406.
on habits of ostrich, 299. and Postscript, xx.
on fossils in South America, 148.
on _Fucus giganteus_, 217.
on gradual rise of part of S. America, 46.
on lamination of volcanic rocks, 480.
on parallel roads, 87.
on plutonic rocks of Andes, 453.
on recent strata near Lima, 115.
on saurians in Galapagos Islands, 279.
on sinking of coral reefs, 46.
on Welsh glaciers, 131.

Daubeny, Dr., on the Solfatara, 477.

Daubeny, Dr., on volcanos in Auvergne, 428.

Dax, inland cliff at, 72.

Deane, Dr., on footprints, 298.

Dean, forest of, coal in, 334.

Dechen, Prof. von, on reptiles in Saarbrueck coal-field, 336.

De Koninck, cited, 176. 178.

De la Beche, Sir H., cited, 231. 233. 281.
on Carrara marble, 482.
on clay beds, 283.
on clay-ironstone, 326.
on coal-measures near Swansea, 309.
on fossil trees, S. Wales, 318.
on granite of Dartmoor, 474.
on mineral veins, 493. 495. 498.
on term supracretaceous, 103.
on trap of New Red Sandstone period, 432.

Deluge, 4.

Denudation explained, 66.
of the Weald Valley, 242.
terraces of, in Sicily, 75.

Derbyshire, lead veins of, 497.

Deshayes, M., identification of shells, 176.
on fossil shells in Hungary, 421.
on Lower Eocene shells, 196.
on tertiary classification, 110.

Desmarest, cited, 183.
on trappean rocks, 91.

Desnoyers, M., on Faluns of Touraine, 106.

Desor, M., on glacial fauna in N. America, 133.

Devonian flora, 349.
strata in United States, 349.
system, term explained, 346.

Diagonal, or cross stratification, 16.

Dicotyledonous leaves in chalk, Postscript, xvi.

Dike in St. Helena, 406.

Dikes at Palagonia in Sicily, 407.
trappean, crystalline in centre, 380.
defined, 6.
in Scotland, 378.
of Somma, 404.

Diluvium, popular explanation of term, 132.

Dip, term explained, 53.

Dolerite, or greenstone, 372.

Dolomite defined, 13.

Dolomitic conglomerate, 305.

Doue, M. B. de, on volcanos of Velay, 428.

Drift contorted, near Cromer, 129.
in Ireland, 131.
in Norfolk, 126.
meteorites in, 145.
northern, in Scotland, 125.
northern, in North Wales, 130.
of Scandinavia, North Germany, and Russia, 121.
period, climate of, 139.
period, subsidence in, 135.
shells in Canada, 134.

Dudley limestone, 354.
shales of coal near, 474.

Dufrenoy, M., on granite of Pyrenees, 475.

Duff, Mr. P., on reptile of Old Red, Postscript, ix.
on hill of Gergovia, 430.

Dunker, Dr., on Wealden of Hanover, 237.

E.

Echinoderms of coralline crag, 166.

Echinus, figure of, 23.

Egerton, Mr., on fossils of Southern India, 225.

Egerton, Sir P., on fish of marl slate, 304.
on fossil fish of Connecticut beds, 300.
on fossils of Isle of Wight, 198.
on saurians and fish in New Red Sandstone, 289.
on Ichthyosaurus, 276.

Eggs, fossil, of snake, 120.

Ehrenberg, Prof., on bog-iron ore, 26.
on infusoria, 24.

Elephant bed, Brighton, 256.

_Elephas primigenius_, jaw figured, 159.

Elvans of Ireland and Cornwall, 498.
term explained, 457.

Encrinites, figure of, 264.

Endogens, 316.

Eocene, foraminifera, 194.
formations, 174.
formations in England, 197.
granite, 451.
lower, in France, 176-191.
middle, in France, 191.
strata, in United States, 206.
upper, near Louvain, 177.
term defined, 111.
upper, of Central France, 178.
volcanic rocks, 429.

Equisetaceae, 313.

Equisetum of Virginian oolite, 284.

_Equisetum_ giganteum, 314.

Erman on meteoric iron in Russia, 145.

Erratics, Alpine, 140.
northern origin of, 123.

Escher, M., on boulders of Jura, 143.

Etna, deposits of, 401.

Eurite, 440.