Chapter III: Front Matter (3)

The third was the kingdom of the West Saxons, founded by Cerdic in 419; and contained Cornwall, Devonshire, Dorsetshire, Wiltshire, Somersetshire, and Hampshire, with the Isle of Wight and Berkshire, though the remains of the Britons likewise inhabited Cornwall: the principal places were Winchester, Southampton, Portsmouth, Salisbury, Dorchester, Sherborne, and Exeter: it continued till the Norman Conquest, being 547 years, and ended in 1066, having been governed by 17 monarchs, during the heptarchy, of whom five were Pagans, and 12 Christians: the last of whom was Egbert, who, in 829, became sole monarch of England.

IV. _The Kingdom of the East Saxons_.

The fourth was the kingdom of the East Saxons, and contained Middlesex, Essex, and part of Hertforshire; where the principal places were London and Colchester: it was founded in 527, by Erkenwin, and continued 220 years, ending in 747; having been governed by 12 monarchs, of whom two were Pagans, and the rest Christians.

V. _The Kingdom of Northumberland_.

The fifth was the kingdom of Northumberland, founded by Ina, in 547, and contained Lancashire, Yorkshire, Durham, Cumberland, Westmoreland, Northumberland, and part of Scotland, as far as Edinburgh Frith: the principal places being York, Durham, Carlisle, Hexham, and Lancaster: it continued 245 years, and ended in 792; having been governed by 20 Princes, of whom four were Pagans, and the rest Christians, whose subjects were Angles, and called the Northumbrian Angles.

VI. _The Kingdom of the East Angles_.

The sixth was the kingdom of the East Angles, which contained Norfolk, Suffolk, and Cambridgeshire, with the Isle of Ely; where the principal places were Norwich, Thetford, Ely, and Cambridge. It was founded by Uffa in 575, and continued 218 years, ending in 792, when it was united to the kingdom of the Mercians.

VII. _The Kingdom of the Mercians_.

The seventh and last was the kingdom of the Mercians, or the Middle Angles, founded by Cridda in 582; and contained Gloucestershire, Herefordshire, Worcestershire, Warwickshire, Leicestershire, Rutlandshire, Northamptonshire, Lincolnshire, Huntingdonshire, Bedfordshire, Buckinghamshire, part of Berkshire, Oxfordshire, Staffordshire, Shropshire, Nottinghamshire, and Cheshire; the principal places being Lincoln, Nottingham, Warwick, Leicester, Coventry, Litchfield, Northampton, Worcester, Gloucester, Derby, Chester, Shrewsbury, Stafford, Oxford, and Bristol: it continued 292 years, and ended in 874; having been governed by 18 monarchs, of whom four were Pagans, and the rest Christians.

_Egbert the Great, first King of England_.

In the year 829, Egbert, the 17th King of the West Saxons, became sole monarch of all the seven kingdoms, and was crowned at Winchester, in Hampshire, by the unanimous consent both of the clergy and laity, King of England; and immediately afterwards a proclamation was published, whereby it was ordered, that no future distinctions should be kept up among the Saxon kingdoms; but that they should all pass under the common name of England.

Though Egbert was a wise and fortunate Prince, and though the English were a brave and numerous people, after the expulsion of the Picts and Scots; yet no sooner was he well established on the throne, but this island was exposed to new invasions.

In 832, the Danes, having made two descents before, landed a third time with great force at the Isle of Sheppey, in Kent; and in some few months afterwards at Charmouth, in Dorsetshire, with 18,000 men. In 835, they landed again in Cornwall; but Egbert was then prepared for them, and gave them a total defeat. They renewed their depredations, however, in 836, but were again repulsed. Soon after which, this Prince having reigned King of the West Saxons 36 years, and sole monarch of England upwards of eight, died as great as he lived, and was buried at Winchester, where he was crowned. He was the father, in short, of the English monarchy, and therefore justly entitled to the name of Egbert the Great.

_Ethelwulf, the Second King of England_.

Ethelwulf, the elder surviving son of Egbert, succeeded his father in 836. Till he became a King, he had been only a priest, or, at most, only bishop of Winchester. He obtained, however, a dispensation from Pope Gregory IV. and assumed a secular life. In the first year of his reign, the Danes landed at Southampton, in Hampshire, but were routed with great slaughter. In 837, however, they made a second descent upon Portland, in Dorsetshire, and succeeded in their attempt.

In 838, they made another descent about Romney, in Kent, with such success, and great slaughter, that they over-ran the country. In short, they made fresh visits for several years afterwards successively, for the sake of plunder only, without the least intention of making a settlement in the kingdom.

Ethelwulf, however, in 852, assembled a numerous army, with the assistance of his brother Athelstan, met them at Okely, in Surry [sic]; and there, after a desperate engagement, proved so victorious, that the slaughter of their enemies was almost incredible.

In 855, Ethelwulf went to Rome, in order to pay a visit to the Pope in person; and, on receiving his benediction, he not only gratified the vanity of the papal see by his devotion, but satisfied likewise its most avaricious expectations by his royal bounty.

In 857, after having reigned one and twenty years, he divided his kingdom between his two eldest sons, Ethelbald and Ethelbert, and soon after died, and was buried at Winchester.

III. [sic] _Ethelbald and Ethelbert, joint Kings of England_.

Ethelbald, whose reign was but short, and no ways remarkable, died in 800, and was buried at Sherborne, in Dorsetshire.

_Ethelbert, the fourth King of England_.

Though Ethelbert bore an excellent character, yet he was no favourite of fortune; for from his coronation in 860, to his death in 866, he had one continued conflict with the Danes. He was interred at Sherborne, near his brother.

_Ethelred, the fifth King of England_.

In 866, Ethelred, third son of Ethelwulf, succeeded to the crown: in whose reign the Danes committed great ravages through the kingdom. Notwithstanding, in 868, a great famine and plague happened in England, yet those merciless and blood-thirsty Pagans the Danes, in 869, through their aversion to Christianity, set fire to the religious houses in the city of York, murdered the monks, ravished the nuns, and made a sacrifice of Edmund, titular King of the East Angles, by first shooting his body full of arrows, and afterwards cutting off his head. He was soon after interred at St. Edmundsbury, in the county of Suffolk, from whom it has ever since been distinguished by that name, as the manner of that Prince's death entitled him to the honour of martyrdom.

Ethelred, after having reigned six years, was buried at Winbourn, in the county of Dorset.

_Alfred the Great, sixth King of England_.

In the year 872, Alfred the Great (the fourth son of Ethelwulf) succeeded his brother Ethelred, whose moral virtues endeared him so far to his subjects, that they honoured him with the appellation of the Father of the English Constitution. He was crowned at Winchester.

In the year 878, the Danes settled themselves in divers parts of England, with whom Alfred fought many battles, with various success; but at length gave them a total overthrow at Eddington, in Somersetshire, and not only obliged their leader Guthrun, the chiefs of their army, and the main body of their people, to be baptized, but afterwards to retire out of the kingdom.

This illustrious Prince, in 882, rebuilt the city of London, which had been burnt and destroyed by the Danes in 839.

As he was an excellent scholar himself, he founded, or at least greatly augmented, the University of Oxford.

In 893, the Danes, with 300 ships, under one Hastings, invaded England again, but were defeated by Alfred's army, at Farnham, Surry [sic].

In 897, a plague happened, and raged throughout the land for three years successively.

In the year 900, Alfred died of a contraction of the nerves, after he had lived 51 years, and reigned 29.

_Edward the Elder, seventh King of England_.

On his decease, Edward the Elder (so called to distinguish him from Edward the Martyr, and Edward the Confessor) succeeded his father, and was crowned at Kingston upon Thames.

This Prince was a brave warrior, and tho' invaded by the Danes, in the year 905, he defeated them in Kent.

In the year 911, he improved the University of Cambridge, much after the same manner as Alfred his father had augmented Oxford.

In 921, he was in the height of his glory, all the Princes in Britain either submitting to his allegiance, or courting his favour. He died in the 24th year of his reign, at Farringdon, in Berkshire, and was buried at Winchester.

Tho' he had three wives, and several children, yet Ethelstan, his son by one Egwinna, a shepherd's daughter, succeeded to his kingdom.

_Ethelstan, eighth King of England_.

He was crowned in the 13th year of his age, at Kingston upon Thames, in the year 924.

In the year, 938, he defeated both the Danes and Scots, and made the Princes of Wales pay him a tribute of 20 pounds of gold, 300 pounds of silver, and 25,000 head of cattle.

The same year he caused the Bible to be translated into the Saxon, which was then the mother tongue.

Much about this time the renowned Guy, Earl of Warwick, is said to have encountered Colebrand, the famous Danish giant, and, after a sharp contest, to have killed him on the spot at Winchester.

AN ACCOUNT OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM, _Adapted to the Capacities of Children_.

[In the HTML version, the symbols for the planets can be seen next to their names, except for Georgium Sidus, whose name was later changed to Uranus.]

THE SUN, which is the fountain of light and heat, is placed in the centre of the universe; and the several planets, namely, Luna, (the moon); Mercury; Venus; the Earth; Mars; Jupiter; Saturn; and Georgium Sidus; move around him in their several orbs, and borrow from him their light and influence: on the surface of the sun are seen certain dark spots, but what they are is not known. They often change their place, number, and magnitude; and if they are really in the sun's body, as to all appearance they are, we must suppose that he moves around his axis in about twenty-five days and six hours; otherwise those various changes and alterations cannot be accounted for on the principles of reason and philosophy. The daily motion of the sun from east to west is not real; for, as I have observed before, the sun is fixed in the centre, and can have no motion but upon its own axis, that is, of turning round in the same space. The apparent motion, therefore, from east to west, must arise from the true and real motion of the earth on which we live, as I shall prove by and by. The body of the sun is so immensely large, that his diameter or thickness is computed to be 822,145 English miles, and a million of times larger than the globe of our earth; stupendous and amazing magnitude! which is supposed to be all fire, and by whose beams of light the whole system of beings about it is made visible.

The fixed stars which enamel and bespangle the concave expanse, or canopy of heaven, by numbers and lustre, make the night beauteous and delightful, which would otherwise be dark and horrible. The UNIVERSE has no determinate form or figure at all; for it is every way infinite and unlimited, and is called the MUNDANE SPACE, in which all worlds have their place and being.

The MOON, which is the next planet, or body, we are to consider, is, as to matter and form, not unlike our earth; for her body is uneven and spherical. The bright portions we see in her are the more prominent and illuminated parts of the land, as mountains, islands, promontories, &c. to which we are obliged for the light that is reflected to us; for the dark parts, which are supposed to be seas, lakes, vales, &c. are incapable of reflecting any light at all. Some of our philosopers [sic] assert, that there is an atmosphere of air about her; and, if so, then is she subject to the wind, clouds, rain, thunder, lightning, and other meteors, as well as the earth, and of consequence may be inhabited by men and animals. The diameter or thickness of the moon, is about 2175 English miles. The moon revolves round the earth in about 27 days, 7 hours, and 43 minutes. According to the different position of the moon in her orb, with respect to the sun and earth, she puts on different aspects or phases, as new, horned, full, &c. And since, at the same distance from the sun, she never appears of a different face, it is evident that she has a diurnal motion round her own axis, which is completed in the same time as her periodical revolution is about the earth. So that the Lunarians, or people of the moon, (if there are such) have their days and months perpetually of equal length.

The other planets, i.e. Mercury, Venus, the Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, and the Georgium Sidus,* all revolve in the same manner about the sun as the centre of the system; and in the order from the sun as they are named in the following figure of the UNIVERSE.

* The Georgium Sidus is a later discovery, having two moons; without the orb of Saturn, and not represented in the following scheme, for want of room.

The real motion of them all is from west to east, though sometimes they appear to move from east to west; and at other times seem not to move at all. And hence they are said to be direct, retrograde, and stationary. The Earth, Jupiter, and Saturn, are often eclipsed by the interposition of their respective moons, or satellites, between the sun and themselves; and these eclipses are sometimes partial, sometimes total, and sometimes central. The orbit of the earth (or the circle which the sun seems to describe round the earth), is called the ecliptic, which is divided into twelve equal parts, called signs, and are distinguished by the following names and marks, [again, the symbols for the signs can be seen in the HTML version] viz. Aries, the Ram; Taurus, the Bull; Gemini, the Twins; Cancer, the Crab; Leo, the Lion; Virgo, the Virgin; Libra, the Balance; Scorpio, the Scorpion; Sagittarius, the Archer; Capricornus, the Goat; Aquarius, the Water-bearer; Pisces, the Fishes.

There are many other things peculiar to the planets; but as they are not within the compass of my design, I shall pass them over, in order to speak more particularly of the earth.

_Of the_ EARTH, _considered as a_ PLANET.

THE Earth, by its revolution about the sun in 365 days, 5 hours, and 49 minutes, makes that space of time which we call a year.

The line, which the centre of the earth describes in its annual revolution about the sun, is called the Ecliptic.

The annual motion of the earth about the sun, is in the order of the signs of the zodiac; that is, from west to east.

Besides its annual revolution about the sun in the ecliptic, the earth turns round also on its own axis in 24 hours.

The turning of the earth on its own axis every 24 hours, whilst it moves round the sun in a year, we may conceive by the rolling of a bowl on a bowling-green; in which not only the centre of the bowl hath a progressive motion on the green, but the bowl, in going forward, turns round about its own axis.

The turning of the earth on its own axis makes the differences of day and night; it being day in those parts of the earth which are turned towards the sun; and night in those parts which are in the shade, or turned from the sun.

The annual revolution of the earth in the ecliptic is the cause of the different seasons, and of the several lengths of days and nights, in every part of the world, in the course of the year. If the diameter of the sun be to the diameter of the earth as 48 to 1, (as by some it is computed), the disk of the sun is above 2000 times bigger than the disk of the earth; and the globe of the sun is about 100,000 times bigger than the globe of the earth.

The distance of the earth's orbit from the sun is above 20,000 semidiameters of the earth; so that if a cannon ball should come from the sun with the same velocity it hath when discharged from the mouth of a cannon, it would be 25 years in coming to the earth.

We shall now consider the earth in another sense, and speak of the several divisions made by geographers.

OF THE CIRCLES, _Which are used by_ GEOGRAPHERS _to explain_ _the Properties of the_ NATURAL GLOBE. You may suppose the following figure to be a globe or sphere, representing the earth. The outermost circle, marked with the letters A, D, B, C, is called the meridian; and on this circle the latitude is reckoned, either from C towards A or B, or else from D towards A and B.

The equator is the line C, D, which upon the globe is a circle, and is sometimes called the equinoctial: Upon this circle the degrees of longitude are reckoned, beginning at C, and counting all round the globe till you come to C again; and O is the middle of the world between A and B, which are the two poles thereof: A representing the North Pole, B the South Pole.

The circles E F, and G H, are called the Tropics, beyond which the sun never moves.

The line G F, which upon the globe is a circle, is termed the Ecliptic, in which the sun is perpetually moving from G to F, and F to G again. When the sun is in O, he is then in the Equinoctial, and the days and nights are of equal length to all the world, except under the Poles. When he is at F, which is called the Tropic of Cancer, days are at the longest to all those who dwell under the North side of the Equator. When the sun is at G, which is called the Tropic of Capricorn, days are at the longest to all those dwelling on the South side of the Equator, and at the shortest to those on the North side.

The circles LM and I K are called the Polar Circles, because to those inhabitants who dwell under these circles, the longest day is 24 hours; so that the sun sets not, but moves quite round their horizon. Thus much may suffice for the circles of the sphere; only note this, that every circle, whether great or small, is divided into 360 equal parts or degrees; so that a degree is no certain measure, but only the three hundred and sixtieth part of the circle; and these degrees are again supposed to be divided into sixty equal parts, which are called minutes. Now, therefore, if a circle which will reach round the earth be divided into 360 parts, then one of those parts is equal to a degree, which was looked upon by the ancients to be equal to sixty miles, and thus one mile was exactly equal to a minute.

_Of the_ ZONES.

The Zones are certain tracts of land, whose boundaries are made by the circles before described, and are five in number, namely, the Torrid Zone; the Northern Temperate Zone; the Southern Temperate Zone; the Northern Frigid Zone; the Southern Frigid Zone. 1. The Torrid Zone contains all that space of land which lies between the circles E F and G H; for to those inhabitants who dwell betwixt the said limits, the sun, at some time of the year, becomes vertical, i.e. right over their heads. 2. The Northern Temperate Zone is all that space betwixt the circle E F, named the Tropic of Cancer, and the line L M, called the Northern Polar Circle; and to all the inhabitants within this compass, the sun, when in their several meridians, casteth their shadows directly north. 3. The Southern Temperate Zone is that tract of land which lies between the circular line G H, called the Tropic of Capricorn, and the Southern Polar Circle I K. To all the inhabitants within this space, the sun, when in their meridian, casteth their shadows full south. 4. The Northern Frigid Zone, is that part of the earth which lies between the Northern Polar Circle L M, and the North Pole at A; to all these inhabitants the sun, at a certain season, and when in the Tropic of Cancer, does not set, but moves in view quite round the horizon, casting their shadows every way. 5. The Southern Frigid Zone is that part of the earth which lies between the Southern Polar Circle I K, and the South Pole at B. To all the inhabitants within these limits, the sun, when in the Tropic of Capricorn, sets not, but moves in sight as before, casting their shadows also every way.

_Of the_ CLIMATES.

The Climates are reckoned from the Equator to the Poles; under the Equator the day is always 12 hours long, and under the Polar Circles the longest day is 24 hours. Geographers make 24 climates between the Equator and each of the Polar Circles, because there are 24 half hours difference between the length of day under the Equator, and the longest day under the Polar Circle; so that any place where the longest day in that place is half an hour longer or shorter than that of another place, is of a different climate. The first climate begins at the Equator; the second where the longest day is 12 hours and a half; the third where it is 13 hours, and so on. There are in all 48 climates of hours, that is, four [sic] from the Equator to the Polar Circle, either Northward or Southward. Besides the aforesaid 48 climates of hours, there are 12 more, called climates of months, that is, six from each of the Polar Circles to the Poles. They are called climates of months, because the longest day in the end of the first climate is one whole month, the longest day at the end of the second two whole months, and so on.

_Of_ LAND _and_ WATER.

The whole globe of the earth is called terraqueous, consisting of two bodies, namely, Land and Water, which may be divided in the following manner, viz.

LAND into Continents, Islands, Peninsulas, Isthmuses, Promontories, Mountains.

1. A Continent is a large tract of land, comprehending divers countries, kingdoms, and states, joining altogether, without any separation of its parts by water, of which we have four, viz. Europe, Asia, Africa, and America.

2. An Island is a part of land encompassed round with water.

3. A Peninsula, called also Chersonesus, is a piece of dry land every where environed with water, save only a narrow neck of land adjoining the same to the Continent.

4. An Isthmus is that narrow neck of land which joins the Peninsula to the Continent, by which people go from one to the other.

5. A Promontory is a high piece of land, stretching out into the sea, the extremity whereof is commonly called a Cape.

6. A Mountain is a rising part of dry land, overtopping the adjacent country, and appearing the first at a distance.

WATER is divided into Oceans, Seas, Gulfs, Straits, Lakes, and Rivers.

7. Ocean is a vast collection of water, environing a considerable part of the Continent.

8. The Sea is a smaller body of water, intermixed with Islands, and for the most part environed with land.

9. A Gulf is a part of the Sea, every where encompassed with land, except only one passage, whereby it communicates with the main ocean.

10. A Strait is a narrow passage, either joining a Gulf to the neighbouring Sea or Ocean, or one part of the Sea or Ocean to another.

11. A Lake is a small collection of deep standing water, surrounded by land, and having no visible communication with the Sea.

12. A River is a considerable stream of fresh water, rising out of one, or various fountains, continually gliding along in one or more currents, till it empties itself into the sea or ocean.

OF THE FOUR QUARTERS OF THE WORLD, AND FIRST OF EUROPE.

_A Swedish Man and Woman in their proper_ _Dresses_.

_An Historical and Geographical Account of_ SWEDEN, DENMARK, _and_ NORWAY.

SWEDEN is one of the Northern Kingdoms, great and populous; is bounded on the North by Lapland, Norway, and the Frozen Sea; on the East by Muscovy; on the South by the Baltic Sea; on the West by Denmark and Norway. It is divided into six parts, contains seventeen cities, the capital is Stockholm; the air is cold, but wholesome; it abounds with all the necessaries of life; the inhabitants are long-lived; they trade in brass, lead, iron, steel, copper, skins, furs, deals, oak, pitch, and tar: They are civil, and so industrious that a beggar is not to be seen among them; good soldiers, strong and healthy. It was formerly elective, but now hereditary. It is governed by a King and the States, which consist of the nobility, clergy, and the merchants; their religion is Lutheranism, and dialect Teutonic and German.

_An Account of_ DENMARK.

DENMARK lies to the North of England, is but a small kingdom, Copenhagen is the metropolis. The King of Denmark is also Sovereign of Norway, Greenland, Fero, &c. The air is very cold, the country fruitful; there is store of deer, elks, horses, cattle, &c. also fish, especially herrings; their commodities are chiefly tallow, timber, hides, and rigging for ships: The crown is hereditary, the government entirely in the power of the King, and their religion the same as in Sweden.

_An Account of_ NORWAY.

NORWAY is a kingdom on the North-West shore of Europe, belongs to the King of Denmark, is separated from Sweden by a ridge of mountains always covered with snow; the chief town is Drontheim. It is mountainous, barren, and extremely cold, therefore but thinly peopled; they are a plain people, of the same religion as those of Denmark. The produce of the country is good for timber, oak, pitch, tar, copper, and iron; and their seas abound with fish, which the inhabitants dry upon the rocks without salt, and sell them to most nations in Europe, to victual their ships in long voyages. They have very little corn grown in the country; and the inhabitants feed on the flesh of bears, wolves, and foxes; and the poorer sort make bread of dried fish ground to powder, while the better sort exchange the commodities above-mentioned for corn, fruits, wine, and other necessaries. Their longest day in the northern parts is two months, and shortest in the southern about eight hours.

_A Moscovite, or Russian Man and Woman in_ _their proper Dresses_.

_An account of_ MOSCOVY, _or_ RUSSIA.

MOSCOVY is the largest country in Europe, and which comprehends all that vast country which obeys the Czar, or Czarina. It is bounded by the Northern Ocean on the North; the rivers Oby and Tanais on the East; the Little Tanais, the rivers Desna and Sosa, with Lesser Tartary, on the South; Narva, Poland, Sweden, and Norway on the West: It contains about forty provinces; is a marshy country, not well inhabited, full of forests and rivers; the winter is long, and very cold; they sow only rye before winter, and the other corn in May, though their harvest is in July and August. They have plenty of fruit, melons, fowl, and fish; and their commodities are salt, brimstone, pitch, tar, hemp, flax, iron, steel, copper, and Russian leather, much valued in England. They wear long beards, short hair, and gowns down to their heels; are a mistrustful and cruel people, cunning in trading, and deceive with impunity, it being counted industry; naturally lazy and drunken, and lie on the ground or benches, all excent [sic] the gentry. Until Czar Peter the Great (who polished the people, as well as enriched and improved the country), they were barbarous and savage; but he setting up printing-houses and schools in his dominions, banished ignorance, and introduced the liberal arts. Their government is hereditary and absolute, their religion is that of the Greek church. They have a number of clergy, and divers monasteries for friars and nuns. The Emperor of Moscovy is called the Czar, and Empress the Czarina.

_A French Man and Woman in their proper Dresses_.

_An Historical and Geographical Account of_ FRANCE.

FRANCE is one of the finest and largest countries in Europe, lies in the middle of the Temperate Zone, is washed by the ocean to the west, by the Mediterranean Sea to the South, joins to the Low Countries to the North, Germany and Italy lie to the East, and Spain to the South. Its length and breadth is about 225 leagues each. Its chief city is Paris; there are ten universities, and many very stately palaces, the chief of which is that at Versailles, about eleven miles from Paris, where their Kings used to reside. It abounds with all the necessaries of life, which made the Emperor Maximilian say, "That if it were possible he himself were God, his eldest son should succeed him, and the second should be King of France." The common people were reckoned industrious, and the better sort very polite, well bred, extremely gay in dress, and civil to strangers, till their late wonderful revolution destroyed all distinctions, and involved them in a contest with the rest of Europe; which seems to have reversed their manners, and renders it impossible to say what will in future be the distinguishing traits of the national character, when they shall again cultivate the arts of peace. Their commodities are brandy, wine, salt, silks, linen and woollen, hemp, canvas, paper, soap, almonds, olives, &c. To take a view of the country, their fields are long and open, intermixed with corn and vines, and every hedge so beset with choice fruits, that eyes can hardly have fairer objects.

'Twas in this country that Master Tommy Courtly and his sister, who went over with their papa, learnt all that good manners and genteel behaviour, which made every body love and admire them so much at their return home; which had such an effect on their brother Jack, (who was a rude, ill-natured, slovenly boy), that he soon grew better; and to prevent himself being utterly despised, and turned out of doors, by his papa and mamma, for his undutiful behaviour, he immediately mended his manners, and in a very little time was beloved and admired, almost equally with his brother Tommy. It has now, however, ceased to be the school of Europe; and as the late extraordinary events, which brought their Monarch to the block, and occasioned the people to declare for a Republican government, have been attended with a total loss of trade, and the destruction of the arts, it must be many years before travellers can again visit this country with hope of similar advantages.

_Germans in their proper Habits_.

_An Account of_ GERMANY.

GERMANY is a large, fruitful, and pleasant country, which has the title of an Empire. It is bounded on the North by the Baltic Sea, Denmark, and the German Ocean; on the East by Hungary, Prussia, and Poland; on the South by the Alps; on the West by the Netherlands, Lorrain, and French Compte. It is divided into higher and lower; its whole length is about 840 Italian miles, and breadth about 740; the soil is very fertile, and furnishes every thing necessary; the chief rivers are the Danube, the Rhine, Elbe, Oder, and Weser. Tacitus, speaking of the Ancient Germans, says, "They sung [sic] when they marched to fight, and judged of the success by the shouts and huzzas at the onset. Their wives, as martial as themselves, accompanied them to the war to dress their wounds, and provide them with necessaries. They esteemed nothing so infamous as to throw away or lose their shield. They buried the bodies of their noblemen on a funeral pile, with their arms and horse." The Germans of our age are laborious, simple, and brave, but ready to serve for money, constant in their religion, true friends, open enemies.

The inventions of printing, gunpowder, and fire-arms are attributed to them. There are above three hundred different Sovereignties in Germany, most of which are subject to the supreme head, the Emperor, who is chosen by the nine Electors, viz. the Archbishops of Mentz, Triers, and Cologn; the King of Bohemia; the Duke of Bavaria; the Duke of Saxony; the Marquis of Brandenburgh, (King of Prussia); the Prince Palatine of the Rhine; and the Elector of Hanover, (King of England). The Electors are the principal members of the Empire, and absolute Sovereigns in their own dominions. Their religion, for the greatest part, is Popery; but in several states and cities, particularly Prussia, the Protestant prevails. The chief city is Vienna, in the Dukedom of Austria, which is the seat of the Emperor.

_A Dutch Man and Woman in their proper Habits_.

HOLLAND and FLANDERS, which are called the Seven Provinces, and the Netherlands, are inhabited by the Dutch.

This country is also in Germany, though mostly independent of the Empire; the greatest part belongs to the Dutch, part to the French, and part to the Emperor: Its capital city is Amsterdam, a place of vast trade and riches. The air is moist and foggy; the country, lying low, is naturally wet and fenny, and employed chiefly in grazing of cattle; little corn grows there, but they import abundance from other countries; the soil is fertile, the natural produce is chiefly butter and cheese, in which their trade has been great, but that of herrings the most considerable; and they had manufactures of various kinds, carrying on a prodigious trade to most parts of the world. They are a plain and frugal people, and very laborious. Their form of government was very peculiar; but their independence having been absorbed in the vortex of the French revolution, it is uncertain what form it may assume in a short period. Their language is a dialect of the German. The reformed religion, according to the doctrines of Calvin, is the established one, though all are tolerated.

_A Spanish Man and Woman in their proper Habits_.

_An Account of_ SPAIN.

SPAIN is separated from France by the Pyrenean Hills, and on all other sides is surrounded by the Mediterranean Sea, the Straits of Gibraltar, and the Atlantic Ocean. The King has the most lands of any Prince in the world, on which account some of their predecessors have boasted, "That the sun never sets in their dominions, as having possessions in all the four parts of the world." He is stiled [sic] his Catholic Majesty. His Court is different from all others, he gives audience but one day in a week, and the rest he is shut up in his palace, the courts of which are full of merchants' shops, and resemble the cloisters of religious houses. The air of Spain is pure and dry, but very hot; the soil is sandy, and mostly barren, though where fertile not well cultivated, through the pride and laziness of the people, to which they are much addicted; though what they want in corn is made up in a variety of excellent fruits and wines, of which they have great plenty. Their chief commodities are wine, oil, fruits of various sorts, wool, lamb-skins, honey, cork, &c. The people are grave and majestic, faithful to their Monarch, delicate in point of honour, jealous, lascivious, and tyrants over a vanquished enemy; look upon husbandry and the mechanical arts with the greatest contempt. Their government is an absolute Monarchy, and their crown hereditary as well to females as to males. Their religion is Roman Catholic, nor is any other tolerated. Madrid is their capital city, which stands near the middle of the country, on top of a hill, by the little river Manzanares.

_A Portuguese Man and Woman in their proper Habits_.

_An Account of_ PORTUGAL.

PORTUGAL joins to Spain, and to the East is bounded by Spanish provinces; the capital city is Lisbon, a place of great trade and riches, with an excellent harbour: The soil of this country is poor, and produces but little, except wine and fruit. The nobility and gentry are magnificent and hospitable, but the common people much addicted to thieving. It is governed by its own King, who is by much the richest crowned head in Europe. His government is absolute, and crown hereditary. The established religion is Popery, though others are tolerated, but are under a necessity of being very reserved and cautious, for fear of the inquisition, which is a court or tribunal for the examination and punishment of offenders, whom they torture in the most cruel manner.

Lisbon, the capital city, as before-mentioned, is about six miles in length, built on seven hills, surrounded with a wall, on which are 77 towers, and 36 gates; is reckoned to contain 30,000 houses, and 150,000 inhabitants, (whose foreign trade is equal to any city in Europe, except London and Amsterdam.) There is a cathedral, 37 parish churches, 23 cloisters, several handsome squares, and sumptuous buildings, the largest of which is the King's palace. Such was the state of this opulent city till the 1st of November, 1755, when the greatest part of it was reduced to a heap of ruins by a most tremendous earthquake, which was followed by a terrible fire. A gentleman who was present, giving an account of the calamity to his friend in England, says, "It is not to be expressed by human tongue, how dreadful and awful it was to enter the city after the disaster; in looking upwards one was struck with terror, in beholding frightful ruined fronts of houses, some leaning one way, some another; then, on the contrary, one was struck with horror in beholding dead bodies, by six or seven in a heap, crushed to death, half buried, half burnt; and if one went through the broad squares, nothing to be met with but people bewailing their misfortunes, wringing their hands, and crying _the world was at an end_: In short, 'twas the most lamentable scene that eyes could behold."

The King, in his letter on the melancholy occasion to the King of Spain, concludes thus: "I am without a house, in a tent, without servants, without subjects, without money, and without bread."

_An Italian Man and Woman in their proper Habits_.

_An Historical Description of_ ITALY.

ITALY in the scriptures is called Chittim, and Mesech. Pliny (an ancient Latin writer) gives it this character: "Italy is the nurse-mother of all nations, elected by the Gods to make the Heavens more glorious, and unite the dispersed governments of the world." &c. The situation is very advantageous, being towards the midst of the Temperate Zone. It is bounded by the Alps on the North, which separates it from Germany; on the East by the Adriatic Sea; on the South by Mare Inferum, or the Sea of Tuscany; and on the West by a part of the Alps, and the River Var, which are its bounds towards France and Savoy. The air of this country is temperate and healthful; the soil so fruitful, that there seems to be a continual spring: It abounds with grain, fruits, and flowers, and a variety of living creatures, as well for pleasure as profit; on which account Italy is called the Garden of Europe. The people are polite, dexterous [sic], prudent, and ingenious, extremely revengeful, jealous, and great formalists; their genius lies much for poetry, music, antiquities, &c. and, in short, all the liberal arts. Their tongue is derived from the ancient Latin. The cities are fair, well built, and magnificent; Rome is looked on as the capital, and is called the _Holy_, Naples the _Noble_, Florence the _Fair_, Genoa the _Proud_, Milan the _Great_, Venice the _Rich_, Padua the _Learned_, and Bonia the _Fat_. There are 300 bishoprics in it, and many universities. It was governed of old by Kings, then by Consuls, and last of all by Emperors, who raised it to the highest pitch of glory. Only the Roman Catholic religion is professed in Italy; neither are the Protestants suffered there, though the Jews are permitted in some cities. This country affords more entertainment to travellers than any other in the world, in which may be seen many remains of the greatest, wisest, and bravest people that ever lived, namely, the old Romans. The present people are inured to slavery, harassed with tyrannies and impositions of their priests. The country is but badly cultivated; its commodities are wine, oil, corn, rice, velvets, silk, glass, &c.

_A Turkish Man and Woman in their proper Habits_.

_An Account of_ TURKEY.

TURKEY, or the Empire of the Turks, comprehends many provinces in Europe, Asia, and Africa; so it is with reason the Sultan is called Grand Signior. The empire is divided into 25 governments, of which there are seven in Europe, seventeen in Asia, and Egypt makes one of itself; two of the governments have what they call Beglerbergs at the head of them, and the rest are governed by Bashaws. Most of these countries are fruitful, but neglected through the laziness of the Turks, and oppressions the Christians lie under, who chuse [sic] rather to let the land lie untilled, than cultivate it for others. It is thin of inhabitants, occasioned by frequent plagues and continual wars, which carry off great numbers. They are very temperate, robust, and good soldiers. Their religion, whereof Mahomet was the author, comprehends six general precepts, viz. circumcision, prayer, fasting, alms, pilgrimage, and abstinence from wine. Friday is their most solemn day of the week, which they distinguish only by being longer at prayer on that than other days. They observe an extraordinary fast on the ninth month, which whoever breaks is certainly punished with death: They keep it so strict, that labourers ready to faint with thirst dare not taste a drop of water. They have a sort of monks called Dervises [sic], who live a very austere life, keeping a profound silence, go barefoot, with a leather girdle round their bodies, full of sharp points to mortify the flesh, and sometimes beat and burn themselves with hot irons: they are very charitable, and spare nothing for the maintenance of the poor. The government is monarchial; the Grand Signior, or Sultan, is absolute master of the lives and fortunes of his subjects; his orders are above the laws, which are but few. If his ministers grow rich, they certainly suffer death, right or wrong, their wealth (which goes to the Sultan) being esteemed a clear proof of their guilt.

The customs and ways of the Turks are very different from ours: the left is the upper hand with them; they bury in the dark, and carry the dead head-foremost; their books are all manuscripts, for they suffer no printing among them. Their commodities are chiefly raw silks, oil, leather, cake-soap, honey, wax, and various fruits and drugs. Constantinople, which was formerly Thrace, by the Turks called Stamboul, is their capital, and seat of the Ottoman or Turkish Emperor.

ASIA.

_A Man and Woman of Tartary in their proper Habits_.

_An Account of TARTARY_.

TARTARY, which is the same country as the ancient Scythia, comprehends all the North of Europe, and almost a third part of Asia. At present the Russians possess the North part and have given it the name of Siberia. It is a cold barren country, generally covered with snow, and very thinly inhabited.

Their wealth consists in cattle, and their employment in grazing. They carry on neither manufacture nor trade, except in slaves and horses, and rove about in herds or clans. The Emperor of Russia is supreme Lord of the Western as well as North part of Tartary, especially since the time of the late Czar Peter the Great, who extended his conquests even to the Northern coast of the Caspian Sea.

The Chinese are masters of the South and East parts of Tartary. The Tartars are divided into four different nations, namely, the Tartars properly so called, the Calmucks, and the Usbeck and Moguls. The Calmuck Tartars acknowledge themselves subjects of Russia; the Usbeck Tartars were once independent, but since subdued by Kouli Khan, the late Sovereign of Persia, who took possession and plundered their capital city Bochara, which was extremely populous and wealthy. This country of Usbeck Tartary is situate in a very happy climate and fruitful soil, and carries on a very brisk trade to the East and West parts of Asia: it was the country of the victorious Tamerlane, who subdued most of the kingdoms of Asia.

The Tartars, as to stature, are generally thick and short, having flat square faces, little eyes, little round short noses, and an olive complexion. They are reckoned the best archers in the world, and eat all manner of flesh but hog's-flesh. They are very hospitable, and take a pleasure in entertaining strangers. Their religion is mostly Paganism, they worship the Sun, Moon, and Stars, and a variety of images, but not in temples or churches, for they worship in groves and on the tops of monntains [sic]; but those that live near the Mahometan countries are mostly Mahometans. The Southern provinces lie in a temperate climate, and would produce all manner of corn and vegetables; but the inhabitants pay no regard to it, and lead a rambling life, driving great herds of cattle before them to such parts of the country where they can meet with the best pasture, and here they pitch their tents, but seldom remain long enough in a place to reap a crop of corn, even if they were to plough the land and sow it.

_A Chinese Man and Woman in their proper Habits_.

_An Account of CHINA_.

THE Empire of China is a great and spacious country, on the East of Asia, famed for its fruitfulness, wealth, beautifulness of towns, and incredible number of inhabitants.

It is divided into seventeen kingdoms, which contain 160 large cities, 240 lesser, and 1200 towns; the chief of all is Pekin. The air is pure and serene, and the inhabitants live to a great age. Their riches consist in gold and silver mines, pearls, porcelain or China ware; japanned or varnished works; spices, musk, true ambergris, camphire [sic], sugar, ginger, tea, linen, and silk; of the latter there is such abundance, that they are able to furnish all the world with it. Here are also mines of quicksilver, vermillion, azure-stone, vitriol, &c. So much for the wealth: Now as to the inhabitants, they are so numerous, that the great roads may be compared to a perpetual fair, such numbers are continually passing, which made a Portuguese, who went thither, ask, "If the women had not nine or ten children at a birth?" Every inhabitant is obliged to hang a writing over his door, signifying the number and quality of the dwellers. The inside of their houses is very magnificent. The men are civil, well-bred, very ingenious, polite, and industrious, but extremely covetous, insomuch that they will not scruple to sell their very children, or drown them, when they think they have too many. This desire of wealth lets them never be idle, and makes them have a great aversion to strangers that come to settle among them. The men go neatly dressed, and carry a fan in their hand, and when they salute each other (for they are very courteous) they never put off their hat, but with their hands joined before their breast bow their bodies. Here is no Nobility but what depends on learning, without any regard to birth, except the Royal Families; and the more learned any one is, the more he is advanced in honour and government. The King, who is called the Tartar, keeps a guard of forty thousand men. When he dies his body is buried on a pile of paper, and with him all his jewels, and every thing else, except living creatures, that he made use of in his life-time. His Counsellor, Priest, and Concubines, that devoted themselves wholly to his soul, sacrifice their lives as soon as he dies; but have the liberty to chuse what kind of death they please, which is generally beheading. In this country there is a stupendous wall, built to prevent the incursions of the Tartars, which is at least 1700 miles long, near 30 feet high, and broad enough for several horsemen to travel on it abreast. Their established religion is what they call the Religion of Nature, as explained by their celebrated Philosopher Confucius; but the greatest part of them are Idolaters, and worship the Idol Fo. The Mahometans have been long since tolerated, and the Jews longer. Christianity had gained a considerable footing here by the labour of the Jesuits, till the year 1726, when the missionaries being suspected of a design against the Government, were quite expelled.

_An Indian Man and Woman in their proper Habits_.

_An Account of INDIA_.

INDIA, one of the greatest regions of Asia, is bounded on the East by China, on the West by Persia, North by Great Tartary, and on the South by the Indian Sea. It is divided into three parts, viz. Indostan, or the Empire of the Great Mogul; India on this side the Ganges, and India beyond; the cities of Deli [sic] and Agra are the two chief, and, by turns, the residence of the Great Mogul, at each of which he has a very splendid palace. The most noted city on the coast is Surat, a place of great trade, where the English have a factory. India on this side the Ganges contains many petty kingdoms. On the coast are Goa, belonging to the Portuguese, which is their staple for East-India goods; and Bombay, a little island and town belonging to the English. On this coast are Pondicherry, Fort St. David, and Fort St. George, which belong to the English, who in fact possess the supreme dominion of the country, most of the native princes being either dependent on them, or happy to enter into alliance with them. India beyond the Ganges, is also divided into various kingdoms, and contains a great number of large and populous cities, of which we have no knowledge besides their names. The people are for the most part tawny, strong, and big, but very lazy. They eat on beds, or tapestry spread on the ground. They burn most of their dead, and their wives glory in being thrown into the funeral piles, and there consumed to ashes. The Great Mogul is a Mahometan, and esteemed the richest King in the world in jewels; one of his thrones is said to have cost five millions sterling. Their commodities are silks, cottons, callicoes, muslins, sattins [sic], carpets, gold, silver, diamonds, pearls, porcelain, rice, ginger, rhubarb, aloes, amber, indigo, cinnamon, cocoa, &c. They are mostly Pagans, and worship idols of various shapes, and the rest are Mahometans, except a few Christians. Their monarch is absolute, and so are all the petty Kings; who are so fond of titles that they often take them from their jewels, furnitures, equipage, and elephants, to make up a number. This country is so exceeding rich, that it is thought by many to be the Land of Ophir, where Solomon sent for gold.

_Of_ TURKEY _in_ ASIA.

THIS vast continent takes in Natolia, Arabia, Phœnicia, Judea, or Palestine, and the Euphratian Provinces. The people are chiefly Mahometans, though there are many Jews and Christians in some places among them. There are various governments, but they are all subject to the Grand Signior, who depopulates these fine countries, and discourages industry; so that the Phœnicians, formerly famous for commerce, are at present a poor despicable people; and Judea, the land which heretofore flowed with milk and honey, is in general still fruitful, abounding in corn, wine, and oil, where cultivated, and might supply the neighbouring countries with all these, as they anciently did, were the inhabitants equally industrious. The parts above Jerusalem, its once famous capital, are mostly mountainous and rocky; but they feed numerous herds and flocks, and yield plenty of honey, wine, and oil, and the vallies [sic] abound with large crops of corn.

_Shaw's Travels_.

AFRICA.

_An Egyptian Man and Woman in their proper Habits_.

_An Account of_ EGYPT.