Chapter VI: Part II: Fossil Fauna (2)

Fig. 10. An elegant chalk echinus (_Cidaris Königi_, of
Mantell;[50] _Cyphosoma Milleri_, of Agassiz; _C.
granulosus_, of Goldfuss): from Kent.

[Footnote 50: Fossils of the South Downs, p. 189. (1822.)]

Fig. 11. A fine species from the chalk at Gravesend (_Cidaris
vesiculosus_, of Goldfuss).

Fig. 12. A peculiar type of Cidaris (_Salenia scutigera_, of
Goldfuss), from the freestone or upper greensand of
Warminster, Wilts.

Fig. 13. Another species of the same genus (_Salenia stellulata_,
of Agassiz); from Warminster.

Fig. 14. An enlarged view of part of the structure around the
vertex of fig. 13.

Fig. 15. A species of Feather-star (_Comatula pectinata_, of
Goldfuss); from Solenhofen.

Figs. 17, 18, 19, 20. "Minute _Stellitæ_ (that is, fossil
Star-fish); from Verona."--_Mr. Parkinson._ These are
probably the bodies or disks of _Ophiuræ_ deprived of their
arms.

Fig. 16. The nature of the specimen figured is unknown to me.

PLATE LIV.

Various Species of Fossil Sea-Urchins.

Fig. 1. A large, discoidal echinite, of the type called _Clypeus_
or _Shield-echinus_, (_Clypeus sinuatus_, of Leske,) from
the Coral Rag of Oxfordshire. This species abounds in the
beds of this division of the Oolite in Berkshire, Wiltshire,
Gloustershire, &c.

Fig. 2. "_Echinanthites orbicularis_ (_Pygurus_) of Leske."--Mr.
Parkinson.

Fig. 3. An imperfect flint cast of an echinus (_Discoidea_), from
the South Downs.

Fig. 4. The Helmet Echinite, (_Ananchytes ovatus_, of Lamarck,)
from the Chalk of Kent. This is a characteristic species of
the white chalk, and abounds in the strata of the North and
South Downs. At Northfleet, near Gravesend, the quarry-men
find beautiful specimens.

Fig. 5. An oval echinite (_Nucleolites_,) from Verona.

Fig. 6. A portion of a very flat echinite, in which the rays or
ambulacra are in a floriform arrangement, (_Echinodiscus
bisperforatus_, of Parkinson; _Lobophora biperforata_, of
Desor,) from Tertiary Strata, Verona.

Fig. 7. A small discoidal echinite (_Discoidea subuculus_, of
Leske,) from the upper greensand of Warminster.

Fig. 8. The floriform radiated part of the shell of an echinite
(_Clypeaster_), from the tertiary strata of Malta.

Fig. 9. A cast in flint of part of the interior of the case or
shell of an echinite.

Fig. 10. An elegant conical echinite (_Conulus albogalerus_, of
Leske; _Galerites_, of Agassiz), common in the chalk of Kent
and Sussex.

Fig. 11. View of the base of fig. 10, showing the situation of
the two apertures of the shell.

PLATE LV.

Fossil Sea-Urchins, or Echinites.

Fig. 1. The shell of a Turban Echinite (_Cidaris saxatilis_, of
Parkinson), broken in two, and each piece imbedded in the
same fragment of flint. From Kent.

Fig. 2. A round Buckler Echinite (_Echinodiscus_ (_Clypeaster_)
_subrotundus_, of Parkinson), from Italy.

Fig. 3. The upper surface of an Echinite (_Spatangites_
(_Disaster_, of Agassiz) _ovalis_, of Parkinson); from
Scarborough.

Fig. 4. View of the upper, and fig. 5, of the lower surface of
an Echinite, (_Spatangus_ (_Hemipneaster_, of Agassiz)
_radiatus_, of Parkinson,) from the cretaceous strata of St.
Peter's Mountain, Maestricht.

Fig. 6. A small Echinite (_Echinites_ (_Nucleolites_, of Leske)
_pyriformis_, of Parkinson), from the cretaceous strata of
Maestricht.

Fig. 7. A small Echinite of a different genus (_Echinites_
(_Cassidulus_, of Lamarck,) _Lapis cancri_, of Parkinson),
from Maestricht.

Fig. 8. An Echinite (_Spatangites_ (_Nucleolites_) _brissoides
ovalis_, of Parkinson). Locality unknown.

Fig. 9. A beautiful specimen of a large heart-shaped Echinite of
a recent species (_Spatangus purpureus_), from a modern
tertiary deposit, Malta.

Fig. 10. An Echinite (_Echinodiscus_ (_Clypeaster_) _laganum_, of
Parkinson), from a tertiary deposit, Verona.

Fig. 11. This Is a very abundant Spatangus or heart-shaped
echinite, (_Spatangus cor marinum_, of Parkinson; _Cor
testudinarium,_ of Goldfuss; _Micraster cor anguinum_, of
Agassiz,) in the chalk of Kent, and some parts of Sussex.
Siliceous casts, forming cordiform flints, with deep
imprints of the pentapetalous rays on the vertex, are common
among the stones of the ploughed fields of the Downs.

Fig. 12. A _Spatangite_, (_Spatangus_ (_Micraster_, of Agassiz)
_lacunosus_, of Parkinson), from tertiary strata, Malta,

PLATE LVI.

Echinites and Echinital Spines.

Fig. 1. A fragment of the shell of a Turban Echinite, with three
clavated or club-shaped spines attached, on chalk, from Kent
(_Cidaris claviger_, of König). The inner surface of the
fragment of shell is exposed.

Fig. 2. A crushed shell of an elegant species of Turban Echinite
(_Cidaris sceptrifera_, of Mantell), on a block of chalk;
with two displaced spines near it. The sceptre-like form of
the spines suggested the specific name. The chalk has been
carefully cut away so as to display the shell and spines as
much as possible without detaching them. From Sussex; common
in the chalk near Gravesend.

Fig. 3. Part of the shell, with two spines of another species
(_Cidaris vesiculosus_, of Goldfuss), from Kent.

Fig. 4. "A fossil echinital spine resembling a belemnite."--_Mr.
Parkinson._ I am unable to determine either the species or
locality of this fossil: it is indeed doubtful whether it is
a spine of an echinus.

Figs. 5 to 19, represent various kinds of echinital spines of
Turban Echinites or Cidarites.

Fig. 5. "A fossil spine named '_Bacolo di Santo Paulo_,' by
Scilla."--_Mr. Parkinson._ From Verona.

Figs. 6, 8, 9, 10, 11, 14, 15, 16, 17, & 18, are, I believe,
referable to various species of Cidaris that occur in the
Oolite or Jurassic deposits.

Figs. 9 and 11. Species of _Cidaris glandiferus_, of Goldfuss.

Fig. 15, is a well known form, which occurs in thousands in
the Oolite Limestone, the Coral Rag, of Caen, and other
localities in Wiltshire; it belongs to a beautiful Cidarite
(_Cidaris Blumenbachii_[51]), which is occasionally found
with similar spines attached.

[Footnote 51: See Wonders of Geology, vol. ii. p. 500, figs. 3 and 6.]

Fig. 12. "A flat serrated spine from Verona."--_Mr. Parkinson._
It belongs to the _Cidaris Schmidelii_, of Goldfuss.

Fig. 7. The interior of the upper part or vertex of a large
Echinus, from the tertiary strata of Malta. The greater
portion of the shell is broken away, but a small fragment
showing the outer surface remains on the upper left
hand of the specimen. The five large petalous ambulacra
are beautifully seen. Perfect examples of this echinite
(_Echinanthus Clypeaster altus_, of Parkinson), are not
uncommon.

Fig. 19. A spine of _Cidaris sceptrifera_, from the chalk of Kent.

Fig. 20. An elegant Turban Echinite, (_Hemicidaris crenularis_,
of Lamarck,) common in the Coral Rag of Wiltshire. Groups of
this beautiful echinoderm, with numerous spines attached,
are found at Caen. I have seen on one slab of limestone,
upwards of twenty individuals with the spines radiating
round the shell, as if the animals were alive on a mud bank
in shallow water.

Fig. 21. A fragment of the shell with two spines (_Cidaris
claviger_), attached to a flint; from Kent.

PLATE LVII.

Fossil Shells.

Figs. 1, & 3. Upper and under view of a discoidal spiral univalve
shell (_Euomphalus pentangulatus_, of Sowerby), from
the mountain limestone of Derbyshire. The extinct genus
Euomphalus, a name suggestive of the deeply excavated
disk, comprises many species which occur in the Silurian,
Devonian, and Carboniferous formations. The shell has
chambers, or rather obsolete cavities sealed up by a shelly
partition, in the abandoned part of the spire.[52]

[Footnote 52: Medals of Creation, pp. 425-427.]

Fig. 2. An elegant univalve shell, completely silicified or
transmuted into flint (_Natica canrena_, of Parkinson,
_Natica Gentii_, of Sowerby), from the upper greensand of
Blackdown.

Figs. 4, & 6. Two views of the same specimen; a univalve (_Nerita
conoidea_, of Lamarck), in which the apex or upper part is
destroyed, and the interior of the shell is filled with
yellowish brown chalcedony; in fig. 4, a cast of the spire
is seen, and in fig. 6, the mouth of the shell, with the
chalcedony partially filling up the interior. From tertiary
strata near Paris.

Fig. 5. A beautiful fossil univalve shell, from the "Red Crag" of
Suffolk, known to collectors as the "Essex reversed whelk,"
from the spire being coiled in the opposite direction to the
common mode; the mouth is consequently situated to the left
of the observer; the same species occurs with the spire in
the usual direction. This shell is the _Murex_ (_Fusus_)
_contrarius_, of Parkinson.

Figs. 7, & 8. Under and upper view of another species of
Euomphalus (_E. rugosus_, of Sowerby), from the Wenlock
limestone, Dudley.

Fig. 9. An enlarged view of fig. 10. "A shell of the genus
_Sigaretus_."--_Mr. Parkinson._ Mr. Morris thinks it is
merely an operculum of a small univalve.

Fig. 11. A chambered cephalopodous shell (_Lituites lituus_, of
Hisinger), from Silurian strata, Sweden.

Figs. 12, & 13. These curious contorted bodies are named
"_Vermiculitæ_" by Mr. Parkinson. They occur in the
cream-coloured limestone of Pappenheim and Solenhofen.
They are termed "_Lumbricaria colon_" by Goldfuss; and
"_Cololites_" by M. Agassiz; the last-named eminent
naturalist has demonstrated that they are the fossilized
intestines of fishes.[53]

[Footnote 53: See Dr. Buckland's Bridgewater Essay, vol. ii. plate 15.]

PLATE LVIII.

Fossil Shells.

Fig. 1. "Part of a hexahedral Serpulite."--_Mr. Parkinson._

Fig. 2. A silicified mass of delicate filiform serpulæ, from the
upper greensand of Devonshire (_Serpula filiformis_, of
Sowerby).

Fig. 3. Portion of a species of _Siliquaria_, from tertiary
strata, France. It is the shell of an Annelide related to
_Dentalium_.

Fig. 5. A spiral Serpulite (it resembles the _Serpula conica_);
probably from the cretaceous beds of the Isle of Rugen.

Fig. 6, is a piece of polished sandstone, from the upper
greensand of Wiltshire, "the markings on which are produced
by sections of a species of Serpula (_Vermetus concavus_, of
Sowerby)."--_Mr. Morris._

Fig. 7. A species of _Vermetus_; from Bayonne?

Figs. 8, & 9. A species of _Vermetus_ which abounds in the coarse
arenaceous limestone of Bognor Rocks, in Sussex (_Vermetus
Bognoriensis_, of Sowerby).

Fig. 10. "A section of the shell of a Nautilus, to show that the
siphuncle sometimes suffered distension."--_Mr. Parkinson._

Fig. 11. A species of Serpula (_Serpula ampullacea_, of Sowerby),
from the chalk of Kent.

Fig. 12. A fragment of the back or dorsal part of the shell of a
fossil Nautilus (_Nautilus centralis_, of Sowerby), from the
London clay, Brentford. The outer shell is broken away, and
the siphuncle, traversing five of the septa of the chambers,
is exposed.

Fig. 13. "The outline of the back of a Nautilus."--_Mr.
Parkinson._

Fig. 14. An Orthoceratite (_Orthoceras annulatum_, of Sowerby;
_O. undulatum_, of Kissinger), from the Wenlock Limestone,
Dudley.

Fig. 15. A fragment of a fossil Nautilus (_Nautilus Parkinsoni_,
of Mr. Edwards), from the London clay of Harwich. It shows
the situation of the siphuncle and the form of the septa, as
indicated by the sinuous transverse lines.

Fig. 16. A polished section of a Nautilus (_N. truncatus_, of
Sowerby), from the Inferior Oolite of Yeovil, Somersetshire.
The chambers are filled up with crystalline limestone, with
the exception of the six outermost cells, in which are left
hollows that are lined with calcareous spar.

Fig. 17. Polished section of an Orthoceratite, from the Silurian
strata of Oëland, Sweden.

Fig. 18. The discoidal part of a Lituite from the same locality
as fig. 17.

Fig. 19. A polished slab of grey marble, from the Devonian
formation of the Rhine. The figures are sections of
_Orthoceratites_, _a_; and _Lituites_, _b_.

PLATE LIX.

Fossil Cephalopoda, &c.

Fig. 1. A fossil shell named Hippurite (_Hippurites bioculatus_,
of D'Orbigny), from the south of France. This shell belongs
to a family termed _Rudistes_, whose characters are somewhat
problematical,--some naturalists referring them to the
bivalves, and others to the univalves. The Hippurite is
generally of an elongated conical form, and has internally
two obtuse longitudinal ridges; the base is sometimes
partitioned by transverse septa.

Fig. 5, is a longitudinal section of a specimen in which septa
are displayed. The aperture is closed by a moveable
operculum, or upper valve, as in the specimen fig. 1. The
substance of the shell is cellular and very thick, and when
fractured, resembles that of the lamelliferous corals. Some
kinds attain a large size, and are called "petrified horns"
by the inhabitants of the districts in the Pyrenees where
they abound. Though Hippurites are abundant in the chalk of
the south of France, and in Spain and Portugal, none have
been found in England. The _Spherulite_, a nearly allied
genus, which has no internal longitudinal ridges, occurs in
the chalk of Sussex: it was first discovered near Lewes.
(_Spherulites Mortoni_, of Mantell.)[54]

[Footnote 54: Medals of Creation, p. 428.]

Fig. 2. The siphuncle of a very large Orthoceratite ("related to
the genus _Ormoceras_," Mr. Morris), from the Rhine.

Figs. 3 & 4, "show the direction in which the siphuncle in
Orthoceratites intersects the septa."

Fig. 6. Siphuncle of an orthoceratite (related to _Orthoceras
duplex_, of Kissinger), from the Silurian strata, Sweden.

Fig. 7. An Orthoceratite (_O. pyriforme_, of Sowerby), from the
Silurian strata, Dudley.

Figs. 8-15. Various kinds of Belemnites.

In the "_Supplementary Notes_" I have, under the head, "_Belemnites_," explained somewhat fully the nature of those fossils which, by the name of "thunderbolts," have for so many centuries excited the interest and perplexed the ingenuity of collectors of fossil remains. Referring the reader to that note, I shall therefore in this place merely give such specific names of the specimens figured by Mr. Parkinson as I have been able to determine.

Fig. 8. "A Belemnite of large size," Mr. Parkinson. This specimen
is part of the phragmocone from near the lower apical
portion, partially invested with the fibrous rostrum or
guard. It is the species named _Belemnites giganteus_ by M.
D'Orbigny; from the Oxford clay of Wiltshire.

Fig. 9. The guard of a Belemnite, eroded by some Annelide.

Fig. 10, is a vertical section of a fragment of a Belemnite,
showing the alveolus or cavity for the reception of the apex
of the phragmocone in the upper part.

Fig. 11. The distal or apical part of the rostrum or guard of a
Belemnite. The annexed outline of a transverse section
exhibits the radiated structure.

Fig. 12. The distal part of the guard of a chalk Belemnite
(_Belemnitella mucronata_); from Norwich. Siliceous casts
of the phragmocone of _Belemnitella_ are occasionally met
with in the flints of the South Downs. This phragmocone has
a longitudinal flat band or ridge, extending down the dorsal
aspect: the chambers are very numerous; the slit or fissure
in the ventral aspect of the guard, is occupied by a thin
expansion of the phragmocone.

Fig. 13. A Belemnite from the great oolite of Stonesfield
(_Belemnites fusiformis_, of Parkinson). The upper part
shows the alveolus for the reception of the apex of the
phragmocone.

Fig. 14. A fragment of a guard split vertically, the flat surface
showing a section of the alveolus filled with spar. This
specimen belongs to the _Belemnites cylindriformis_, of
Parkinson.

Fig. 15. A Belemnite (_Belemnites coniformis_, of Parkinson),
having part of the guard broken off, to show the alveolus
or hollow in which the apical part of the phragmocone is
received. The removed portion has the cast of the alveolus
attached to it.

Fig. 16, of which fig. 17, is an enlarged view, is a species of
chambered foraminiferous shell, called _Nodosaria_ (_N.
raphanistrum_, of Lamarck); from Sienna. See description of
Plate LXII.

PLATE LX.

Ammonites.

Fig. 1. A Belemnite (_Belemnitella mucronata_) attached to a
flint. Kent.

Fig. 2. Cast of part of a straight-chambered shell (_Baculites
Fraujasii_, of Lamarck), in which the septa, or partitions,
are deeply and regularly sinuated. In fossils of this kind,
the cast of each chamber is distinct from the others; but
the series is held together by the flexuosities of the
septa. From Maestricht.

Fig. 3. A limestone cast of the chamber of an Ammonite: from
Bath. The elongated channel in the middle indicates the
position of the siphuncle.

Fig. 4. Fragment of an Ammonite, showing cavities of two
chambers, and the canal of the siphuncle, partly lined with
calcareous spar.

Fig. 5. Polished sections of an Ammonite (_Ammonites Walcotii_)
from the Lias, Whitby. The chambers are filled with
semi-transparent spar. The siphunculus is seen running along
the dorsal, or outer margins of the volutions. The dark
appearances observable in several parts of the siphuncle
result from the carbonization of the animal membrane with
which the tube was lined in the living state.

Fig. 6. "An _Oval Ammonite_."--_Mr. Parkinson._ This is evidently
the cast of a discoidal shell pressed into an elliptical
form. In the Chalk-marl, casts of Ammonites, Nautilites, &c.
are very commonly more or less distorted by compression. The
marl appears to have remained in a plastic state after the
decomposition of the shell in which it was moulded, and to
have admitted of being squeezed into close contact with the
surrounding matrix; when the stratum became consolidated
the cast retained its accidental shape, and adhering but
slightly to the investing marl, was separable by a properly
directed blow. This explains the otherwise unintelligible
fact of a cast being closely invested by the rock, and all
traces of the shell in which it was formed absent. When both
the cast and the matrix became solid and uncompressible
before the shell was decomposed, then loose casts were
formed; as is common in the Portland stone, &c. The fossil
figured appears to be an indifferent example of a common
chalk-marl species (_Ammonites Mantelli_, of Sowerby).

Fig. 7. A beautiful cast of an Ammonite, in which the foliaceous
septa transmuted into pyrites (sulphuret of iron, or
_marcasite_), are exquisitely shown.

Fig. 8. A very fine specimen of an Ammonite (_Ammonites latus_,
of Sowerby), from the "_Galt_;" a subdivision of the
Lower chalk, in which Ammonites, with their pearly shells
beautifully preserved, are abundant. From Folkstone, in
Kent; a celebrated locality for these and other fossils of
the same cretaceous deposits.

Fig. 9. Sections of a pyritous cast of an Ammonite, showing the
sinuous edges of the septa.

PLATE LXI.

Fossil Cephalopoda, &c.

Fig. 1. Part of the cast of a species of Hamite (_Hamites
intermedius_, of Sowerby), from the Gait of Folkstone. The
name _Hamites_ was employed by Mr. Parkinson to designate
a genus of chambered shells, in which the direction of the
spire, instead of being straight, as in _Baculites_, or
discoidal, as in _Ammonites_, was bent like a hook beyond
the inner reflected part. All the specimens here figured are
but fragments.[55]

[Footnote 55: Medals of Creation, vol. ii. p. 500.]

Figs. 2, & 5. Portions of _Hamites intermedius_, of Sowerby.

Fig. 3. _Hamites plicatilis_, of Sowerby.

Fig. 4. A fragment of _Hamites rotundus_, of Sowerby.

Figs. 6, & 7. Two views of a species of an extinct genus, the
shells of which, though not chambered, are supposed to have
been inhabited by Cephalopoda, like the recent Argonaut. The
specimen (_Bellerophon costatus_, of Sowerby) is from the
Mountain limestone of Derbyshire.[56]

[Footnote 56: Ibid p. 477.]

Figs. 8, & 9. An Ammonite with a contracted aperture, and three
deep constrictions across the disk. From the Inferior oolite
of Normandy.

Figs. 10, & 11. Two specimens of "_Scaphites_, or Boat-like
Ammonite," of Mr. Parkinson. A remarkable cretaceous genus
of extinct cephalopoda. The specimens figured are from the
Lower chalk of Sussex (_Scaphites costatus_, of Mantell; _S.
equalis_, of Sowerby).

Fig. 12. Cast of a spiral chambered shell, called _Turrilite_, of
which many species occur in the lower cretaceous strata
(_Turrilites costatus_, of Langius). The quarries of lower
chalk at St. Catharine's Mount, near Rouen, in Normandy,
have long been celebrated for the number and perfection of
specimens of this elegant type of cephalopodous shells.
The first known English examples of this genus, as well as
of Scaphites, were discovered by me in the chalk marl, at
Hamsey, near Lewes, in Sussex, in 1810. Several very fine
specimens of a large species (_Turrilites tuberculatus_),
some of which are more than two feet in length, have
been obtained from the same strata. The tubercles on the
casts of this species are the bases of strong spines. The
siphunculus, in the state of a pyritous cast, is preserved
in some examples.

Figs. 13 to 27. These figures all refer to a very curious group of
fossils, termed _Nummulites_, from the supposed resemblance
of some of the flat disks to a piece of money. The
complexity of their internal structure, and the supposed
resemblance of their organization to that of the true
Cephalopoda, led to many erroneous opinions as to the
nature of the originals. That eminent physiologist, Dr.
W. B. Carpenter, has recently investigated the intimate
structure of the whole group, and the results are given in
a beautiful and masterly memoir in the Quarterly Journal
of the Geological Society of London.[57] Dr. Carpenter
has clearly shown that these fossils belong to the
_Foraminifera_, and not, as some eminent naturalists have
supposed, to the _Bryozoa_, or "_Moss-corals_." As the
family to which they belong comprises a numerous assemblage
of minute organic remains, many of which are delineated in
the next plate (Plate LXII.), the reader is referred to
the "_Supplementary Notes_," for a general description of
the _Foraminifera_, in which is given a restored figure
of the supposed living animal of the Nummulite, from Dr.
Carpenter's memoir.

[Footnote 57: No. 21, for February 1850. "On the Microscopic Structure of Nummulina, Orbitolites and Orbitoides."]

Fig. 13. The usual appearance of the common species of Nummulite
(_Nummulina lævigata_). From Egypt.

Fig. 14. A specimen rubbed down, and exposing the internal
cellular structure.

Fig. 15. An example in which the outer investment is partly
removed.

Fig. 16. A vertical section of the same.

Fig. 17. This fossil, of which fig. 18, is a vertical section
(_Nummulites obtusa_, of Sowerby), appears to belong to a
different genus; probably _Orbitolites_, or _Marginopora_.
Tertiary strata.

Fig. 19. A vertical section of a Nummulite, showing a cavity in
the centre, probably from decomposition.

Fig. 20. A section of another species of Nummulite (_N. dispansa
?_ of Sowerby);[58] Tertiary strata, India.

[Footnote 58: See Sowerby's Mineral Conchology, vol. i.; and Mantell's Fossils of the South Downs.]

Figs. 21 to 26, are various sections of a fossil Nummulite, of
which fig. 37, represents the flat surface (_Nummulites
complanata_, of Parkinson. This fossil belongs to the genus
_Discospira_ of Mr. Morris).[59]

[Footnote 59: "_Discospira_, Nov. Gen. Disciform, volutions distrial, not embracing the previous ones, cells numerous." _Mr. Morris_, 1850.]

Fig. 28. A species of Foraminifera (_Fasciolites_, of Parkinson;
_Alveolina elliptica_, of D'Orbigny).

Fig. 29. A transverse section.

Figs. 30, & 31. Enlarged views of the same fossil. Fig. 31. A
longitudinal section.

PLATE LXII.

Fossil Foraminifera.

With the exception of figs. 23, 24, 29, 31 and 32, all the specimens delineated in this Plate belong to the Foraminifera. The figures represent magnified views; the natural size is indicated in some instances by a minute outline. Under the article "Foraminifera," in the "_Supplementary Notes_," a general account is given of the structure and economy of the living animalcules. A list of names is subjoined.

Figs. 1, & 2. _Rotalia trochiliformis_, of Lamarck. Tertiary.

Fig. 3. _Rotalia Beccarii_, of Linnæus. Tertiary.

Fig. 4. _Cristellaria rotulata_, Lamarck. Chalk.

Figs. 5, 6, 7. _Lituola nautiloidea_, Lamarck. Chalk.

Fig. 8. _Spirolina depressa_, Lamarck. This and the specimens to
fig. 21 inclusive, are tertiary fossils.

Fig. 9. _Spirolina cylindracea_, Lamarck.

Fig. 10. _Orthocerina clavulus._

Fig. 11. _Biloculina ringens_, Lamarck.

Figs. 12, & 13. _Quinqueloculina cor anguinum_, Lamarck.

Figs. 14, 15, & 16. _Quinqueloculina._

Figs. 17, 18, 19. _Triloculina trigonula_, Lamarck.

Fig. 20. _Quinqueloculina opposita_, Lamarck.

Fig. 21. _Peneroloplis opercularis_.

Fig. 22. _Adelosina_, of D'Orbigny; a recent species.

Figs. 23, & 24. _Gyrogonites_. The fossils here figured on a
magnified scale as microscopic shells of the same family as
those above described, received the name of Gyrogonites,
or twisted stones. They prove to be the seed-vessels of a
species of the common fresh-water plant, the _Chara_. The
fruit of this genus consists of minute nuclei, with an
external calcareous covering, composed of five spirally
twisted plates, which unite at the summit. These fossils
occur by myriads in many of the fresh-water secondary and
tertiary limestones, as well as in the calcareous deposits
now in progress of formation in our lakes. In the lacustrine
limestones of the Isle of Wight (at Binstead, White Cliff,
&c.), beautiful specimens may be obtained.[60] Professor E.
Forbes has discovered Gyrogonites in the Wealden strata of
the Isle of Purbeck, associated with shells of the genera
_Planorbis_, _Physa_, _Paluolina_, &c.

[Footnote 60: See Geological Excursions round the Isle of Wight. 2d Edit. 1850, p. 108.]

Fig. 25. _Polystomella crispa_, of Linnæus. From the tertiary
strata of the Apennines.

Fig. 26. _Cristellaria ?_

Figs. 27, & 28. _Rotalia Beccarii_. Apennines.

Fig. 30. _Cristellaria galea_, of Lamarck. Apennines.

Fig. 29. Cast of a species of Area; a bivalve shell, from
tertiary strata, Bordeaux.

Fig. 31. A curious pteropodous shell (_Vaginella depressa_), from
tertiary strata, Basterot.

Fig. 32. This appears to be an imperfect specimen of a bivalve
having a fibrous structure, like _Pinna_. It is probably a
fragment of an Inoceramus.

PLATE LXIII.

Trigoniæ.

Figs. 1, & 2, represent the structure of the hinge in both valves
of a genus of bivalves of which numerous fossil species
are met with in the secondary strata, and two or three
species still exist in the Pacific Ocean. The genus is named
_Trigonia_, from the form of the hinge, and the specific
names below are those given by Mr. Parkinson.

Fig. 3. _Trigonia clavellata_, of Parkinson, from the Kimmeridge
clay, Hartwell, Bucks.

Fig. 4. _Trigonia costata_, Oxford clay, Wilts.

Fig. 5. _Trigonia excentrica_; upper greensand, Blackdown. Like
most of the shells from this locality, the Trigoniæ are
transmuted into silex.

Fig. 6. _Trigonia dædalea_, Blackdown.

Fig. 7. ---- _spinosa_, Blackdown.

Fig. 8. Enlarged view of the spines of the above.

Fig. 9. _Trigonia alæformis_, Blackdown.

Fig. 10. ---- _rudis_, Blackdown.

Fig. 11. A bivalve shell of the genus _Productus_ (_P.
antiquatus_, of Sowerby?), from the Mountain limestone. See
description of fig. 9, Plate LXVII.

Fig. 12. Cast of a species of _Trigonia_ (_T. clavellata_), from
the Portland rock. Many beds of this oolitic limestone are
almost entirely made up of casts of Trigoniæ, and chiefly of
this species.

Fig. 13. _Trigonia sinuata_, from Blackdown.

Figs. 14 to 18. "Different views of a species of _Harpax_."--_Mr.
Parkinson._ (_Plicatula spinosa_). From the Lias,
Gloucestershire.

Fig. 14. The inner surface of the flat valve.

Fig. 15. Inner surface of the convex valve.

Fig. 16. Magnified hinge teeth of the flat, and fig. 17, of the
convex valve.

Fig. 18. Magnified view of the adpressed spines on the external
surface of the shell.

PLATE LXIV.

Fossil Shells.

Fig. 1. A perfect specimen of one valve, showing the character of
the hinge of _Cucullæa decussata_, of Parkinson. London
clay. Herne Bay.

Fig. 2. Interior view of _Crassatella tumida_, of Lamarck. Eocene
strata, Paris.

Fig. 3. _Cardium Hillanum_, of Sowerby. A beautiful silicified
bivalve from Blackdown.

Fig. 4. _Nucula ovum_, of Sowerby. A common bivalve, in the Lias,
Yorkshire.

Fig. 5. Inner view of _Cyrena deperdita_, of Parkinson. Plastic
clay, Woolwich.

Fig. 6. _Lima gigantea_, of Sowerby, from Lyme Regis. This is a
young and small specimen of a large bivalve that occurs in
great perfection in the Lias.

Fig. 7. _Cardinia Listeri_, of Sowerby. From the Lias,
Gloucestershire.

Fig. 8. Cast of a bivalve; genus uncertain.

Figs. 9 to 12. These fossils are the _Trigonellites_ of Mr.
Parkinson; and have since been referred to a genus named
_Aptychus_. Their true relations are very problematical.
Though found in pairs, there is no hinge or natural
connexion. Some naturalists suppose they may belong to the
internal organization of Ammonites, because certain kinds
have been found collocated with particular species of that
genus of Cepholopoda. At present I do not think there is any
satisfactory evidence as to their real nature. Species occur
in the Kimmeridge clay, and other subdivisions of the Oolite
formation.

Figs. 9, & 12. _Trigonellites lata_, of Mr. Parkinson.

Figs. 10, & 11. ---- _lamellosa_.

Figs. 13, & 14. _Corbida revoluta_, of Sowerby. London clay,
Highgate.

Fig. 16. An imperfect specimen of _Lysianassa_ (_Mya_)
_literata_, from the fullers' earth of the Oolite, Wiltshire.

Figs. 15, & 17. _Cardita senilis_, of Sowerby. From the Red crag
of Suffolk.

PLATE LXV.

Fossil Shells.

Fig. 1. A single valve, viewed interiorly, of a fine shell
(_Panopæa Aldrovandi_, of Faujas St. Fond) from the
Pleistocene or Newer Tertiary strata, that form a chain
of low hills near Palermo, in Sicily. The shells in these
deposits comprise almost all the genera and species that now
inhabit the Mediterranean. They occur in the most beautiful
state, deprived only of their colour; and groups are often
met with of extreme elegance. The cabinet of the Marquess of
Northampton contains an extensive and unrivalled series of
these fossils, collected during his Lordship's residence at
Palermo.

Figs. 2, & 4. A boring bivalve (_Fistulana_ or _Lithodomus_) from
the Oolite, Bath.

Figs. 3, & 5. Valves of a small Oyster from the Crag of Essex.

Fig. 6. A group of Lithodomi in limestone from the Oolite,
Bradford, Wilts.

Fig. 7. A detached specimen from the same, showing the enclosed
bivalve.

Figs. 8, & 10. Fine but imperfect specimens of a species of
_Teredo_ (_Teredina personata_, of Lamarck), from the
Plastic clay of Epernay, France.

Fig. 9. A snail-shell (_Helix arbustorum_) found associated, and
evidently contemporaneous, with bones of Mammoth, and
extinct species of Deer, and other mammalia. From Brentford,
in a bed of light calcareous earth, twenty feet below the
surface.

Fig. 11. "A concamerated Teredo."--_Mr. Parkinson._ I am unable
to ascertain the nature of this fossil.

Fig. 12. A species of _Fistulana_, from France.

Fig. 13. External surface of _Chama squamosa_ of Brander. London
clay, Hordwell.

Figs. 14, & 15, are the anchylosed caudal vertebræ of the tails of
fishes. From the London clay, Isle of Sheppey.

Fig. 16. "A small oyster with a spathose structure."--_Mr.
Parkinson._ This shell is probably the flat valve of a
species of _Dianchora_, of Sowerby; from the Chalk.

PLATE LXVI.

Fossil Bivalve Shells.

Fig. 1. A fossil Oyster (_Ostrea Marshii_, of Sowerby), from the
Cornbrash of the Oolite, Wiltshire.

Fig. 2. The fossil Cockscomb Oyster, (_Ostrea carinata_, of
Lamarck,) from the Lower chalk, Havre, France.

Fig. 3. The elegant fossil shell here figured is a peculiar and
most abundant species in the Lias formation; specimens
are not uncommon, in which every part of the shell is as
perfect as if just thrown up on the sea-shore. It belongs
to the genus Gryphites (_Gryphea incurva_, of Sowerby,)
the shells of which are nearly related to the oysters, but
are distinguished by the deep concave under-valve, and its
curved beak, and the almost flat upper shell. The testaceous
substance is of a finer laminated structure than in the
Ostrea, and the hinge-ligament is inserted in an elongated
curved groove.[61]

[Footnote 61: Medals of Creation, vol. i. p. 387.]

Fig. 4. "_Ostrea vel frons folium._"--_Mr. Parkinson._ This
species appears to be the _Ostrea gregarea_ (?) of Sowerby,
which occurs in the chlorite marl or firestone of the Lower
chalk in Sussex and Kent.

Fig. 5. The fossil is the cast of an oyster-like bivalve, called
Perna, (_Perna quadrata_, of Sowerby,) which is easily
recognisable, even in casts, by the line of distinct
teeth which compose the hinge. This species is abundant
in the Portland limestone, particularly in the quarries
around Swindon, in Wiltshire; but from the close adhesion
of the outer surface of the shell to the surrounding
stone, they can seldom be extracted, the casts only being
readily obtainable. In the Kimmeridge clay, which lies
above the Portland rock, the shells may be met with in
great perfection. The best locality is near Hartwell, in
Buckinghamshire, where the clay is extensively dug for the
brick manufactures.

Figs. 6, & 7. Two views of a small shell of the genus _Crenatula_,
from Bedfordshire.

Fig. 8. Portion of a very large species of Perna (_Perna
maxillata_, of Sowerby), from tertiary strata. Piedmont. The
figure shows the inner surface of the shell with part of the
broad crenulated hinge.

PLATE LXVII.

Fossil Shells of Brachiopoda, &c.

Fig. 1. A species of _Radiolites_ (_R. agariciformis_, of M.
D'Orbigny), from the Cretaceous strata of France. This genus
is only known in a fossil state; it belongs to the same
group of shells (order, _Rudistes_) as the Spherulites and
Hippurites: the lower valve is conical, and much larger than
the upper, which is slightly convex; it is deeply channelled
longitudinally.

Fig. 2. Smooth valve of a species of Corbula (_Corbula gallica_,
of Lamarck); abundant in some of the Eocene deposits of the
Paris basin.

Fig. 3. A single valve; the inner surface is shown in the figure,
of a remarkable genus of shells (_Crania personata_, of
Lamarck), frequently occurring attached to Echinites and
other bodies of the white chalk.

Fig. 4. A species of _Terebratula_ (_T. diphya_, of Lamarck).
The shells of this genus belong to that division of
mollusks termed _Brachiopoda_ (arm-feet), from their having
internally two spiral fleshy arms developed from the sides
of the alimentary orifice. These organs are supported by
shelly processes, curiously modified in different genera,
which often occur in a fossil state. Although the fossil
Terebratulæ are very numerous, the recent species are but
few, and are inhabitants of the seas off Australia. They
form two natural groups; in the one the shells are smooth,
but perforated all over with minute openings or foramina;
and these are often filled with a dark substance, which is
the carbonized soft parts: in the other division the shells
are plicated or furrowed, and are not foraminiferous.[62]
The Spirifers, another group of Brachiopoda, have a pair of
internal spiral appendages.

[Footnote 62: On the structure of shells the reader should consult the admirable papers of Dr. Carpenter, in the British Association Reports.]

Fig. 5. _Terebratula coarctata_, of Parkinson. Bradford clay,
Wilts.

Figs. 6, & 7, show the internal structure of recent Terebratulæ
from New Holland. The complicated shelly apophyses which
supported the arms are quite perfect.

Fig. 8. _Terebratula triquetra_, of Parkinson (_T. diphya_, of
Lamarck); another example of the species, fig. 4.

Figs. 9, & 10. Different parts of the same specimen of a
brachiopodous bivalve belonging to the genus _Productus_, so
named from the lengthened or produced form of the convex
valve. "This is generally filled with limestone, which
conceals the internal structure; but, with a slight blow,
the shell divides, when the edge of the small valve rests
against the inside of the produced cylindrical part of the
larger one; generally about half an inch from the top of the
shell: one side of the valve, before hidden, fig. 9 _a_, is
then exposed, as shown in fig. 10."--_Mr. Parkinson._

Fig. 9. _a_, the beak of the upper valve; _c_, a cavity in the
superior part of the shell.

Fig. 10. The under part of the shell; _b_, a depression receiving
the beak of the upper valve, a.

Fig. 10*. The inner surface of another upper valve, having a
longitudinal fissure. The species figured is the _Productus
Martini_ of Mr. Sowerby. From the mountain limestone of
Derbyshire; in which deposit numerous examples occur.

Fig. 11. A large species of Spirifer (_Spirifer striatus_, of
Sowerby), from the mountain limestone of Derbyshire. In this
species the upper valve is broken away, and one of the large
spiral apophyses is seen lying imbedded in the limestone
with which the cavity of the shell is filled.

Fig. 13, is a beautiful example of part of one of the spiral
appendages of the same species.

Fig. 12. "A patch of square scales of a fish from
Dorsetshire."--_Mr. Parkinson._ These evidently belong to a
Lepidoid fish (_Dapedius_), whose remains are common in the
Lias;[63] perfect specimens are often obtained. The British
Museum contains some beautiful examples of this fossil fish.

[Footnote 63: Wonders of Geology, vol. ii. p. 529.]

Figs. 14, & 15. A curious fossil bivalve, from the Devonian strata
of the Eifel. The flat valve is shown in fig. 14; and the
deep conical valve in fig. 15; _a_, tooth in the posterior
margin; _b_, a part of the surface magnified, to show its
cellular structure. The species is _Calceola sandalina_, of
Lamarck.

Fig. 16. A species of Spirifer; _a_, medial convexity of the
upper valve; _b_, the triangular foramen at the beak.

Fig. 17. Spirifer (_S. cuspidatus_, of Mr. Martin), from the
Mountain limestone of Derbyshire.

Fig. 18, represents a common appearance in certain chalk flints.
Although I have examined hundreds, and some in which the
form was more definite than in the specimen figured, I
am not able to offer any probable suggestion as to their
origin, should they be organic bodies, of which there is
much doubt.

Fig. 19. "_Coronulites diadema._"--_Mr. Parkinson._ Probably a
species of Balanus, from a tertiary deposit.

Fig. 20. Cast of one of the shells of a bivalve (_Pentamerus_),
from the Wenlock limestone of Dudley.

PLATE LXVIII.

Fossil Crustacea.

Figs. 1, & 3. "Fossil Crabs, from Sheppey."--_Mr. Parkinson._
The London clay of this celebrated locality contains an
abundance of the fossil remains of Crustacea; and the
visitor may purchase of the local collectors fossil crabs
and lobsters, as readily as the recent species from the
neighbouring sea. Good specimens are however rare, and
command high prices. The specimens figured are two common
species.

Fig. 1. _Cancer Leachii_, of MM. Desmarest and Brongniart.

Fig. 3. _Inachus Lamarckii._

These fossils show the usual mode in which the crustaceæ occur in the hardened clay of Sheppey. The thorax is bent over the abdomen, and the pair of large chelate claws drawn towards each other.

Fig. 2. Fossil Insects from the lithographic stone of Pappenheim.
"_a_, an insect with a bifurcated caudal extremity; _b_, the
sting which has passed out of its sheath; c, the termination
in a single point."--_Mr. Parkinson._

Fig. 4. "A fossil Shrimp, from Anspach."--_Mr. Parkinson._

Fig. 5. "Impression of an unknown fossil."--_Mr. Parkinson._

Fig. 6. "The claw of a Crab, from Maestricht, &c."--_Mr.
Parkinson._ Claws of this kind are frequent in the soft
sandy limestone of St. Peter's Mountain, but no other
vestiges of the Crabs to which they belonged have been met
with. The cause of this has been ascertained: the claws
belong to a species of Hermit Crab (_Pagurus Faujasii_,
of Desmarest), which like the living species had the body
covered by a delicate membrane, the claws only possessing a
durable crustaceous shell.[64]

[Footnote 64: Wonders of Geology, p. 338.]

Fig. 7. "An extended trilobite, from Dudley."--_Mr. Parkinson._
Among the organic remains of the inhabitants of the seas,
in whose abysses were formed the Silurian, Devonian, and
other ancient sedimentary strata, an extinct family of
crustaceans, comprising numerous genera, are among the most
characteristic and remarkable. The name "_Trilobite_," first
given by Mr. Parkinson, expresses the most obvious character
of the longitudinally trilobed, convex, segmented, carapace
of the body, of the most common forms; but so great is the
number of species, and so dissimilar the groups, now known,
that the nomenclature of this class of fossils is greatly
extended. In Sir R. I. Murchison's splendid work on the
Silurian System, the genera and species of the formations
therein comprised are beautifully illustrated. The specimen
figured is an expanded specimen of the species commonly
known as the _Dudley Locust_ or _Insect_, (_Calymene
Blumenbachii_), from the Wenlock limestone, Dudley.

Fig. 8. A coiled-up specimen; in this view are seen both ends
of the crustaceous covering of the animal: _a_, "the eye
enlarged."

Fig. 9, is part of the head of the same species.

Fig. 10. "A fossil Crab from the East Indies."--_Mr. Parkinson._
Beautiful specimens of this species of Crab (_Gonoplax
Latreilli_, of Mr. Edwards) have been obtained from the
tertiary strata of India.

Fig. 11. Another form of Trilobite (_Ogygia Buchii_, (_Asaphus_,)
of the Silurian System), from the Llandeilo flagstones.

Fig. 12. "Remains of some large unknown insect."--_Mr.
Parkinson._ This figure is not sufficiently defined to admit
of interpretation.

Fig. 13., "Part of a trilobite with tuberculated head,"
(_Calymene variolare_,) from the Wenlock limestone, of
Dudley.

Fig. 14. Posterior part of a trilobite with a caudal style or
process, (_Asaphus caudatus_,) from the Wenlock shale,
Dudley.

Fig. 15. A nodule of ironstone from Coalbrook Dale, in which is
imbedded a small crustacean allied to the recent King Crab
or _Limulus_; a genus abundant in the seas of India and
America.[65] (_Limulus trilobitoides_, of Dr. Buckland.
_Bellinurus bellulus_, of Mr. König.)

[Footnote 65: Medals of Creation, vol. i. p. 550.]

PLATE LXIX.

Fossil Fishes and Reptiles.

Fig. 1. "A fossil body resembling part of a Tortoise, from
Gloucestershire."--_Mr. Parkinson._ This specimen is
probably one of the mandibles of a remarkable extinct genus
(_Ceratodus_) of fishes, whose dental organs, like those
of the recent _Chimæra_, consisted of consolidated plates
instead of separate teeth; each side of the jaw was formed
by one of these mandibular processes; the upper margin is
deeply undulated. The bone-bed of the Lias at Aust Cliff
near Westbury, Somersetshire, is rich in these remains.

Fig. 2. The plastron, or inferior aspect of the carapace of a
fossil Turtle (_Chelonia breviceps_), from the London Clay
of the Isle of Sheppey. _a_, fragment of the _entosternal_
plate; _b, b_, _hyosternal_ plates; _c, c_, _hyposternals_;
_d_, _xiphisternals_.[66]

[Footnote 66: See Parkinson, p. 269.]

Fig. 3. The cranium of the same species of Turtle, from the Isle
of Sheppey. Equally rich in the remains of Chelonian
reptiles, as in those of Fishes, Crustaceans, Serpents, and
Mollusks, the little Island at the mouth of the Medway has
yielded to the indefatigable researches of Mr. Bowerbank the
most extensive series of fossil Turtles hitherto discovered
in England. The various genera and species will be figured
and described in a work now in progress by Professors Bell
and Owen, under the auspices of the Palæontographical
Society.

Fig. 4. A Serpula (_S. antiquata ?_), from the chalk, Sussex.

Fig. 5. A dorsal vertebra of a fossil crocodilian reptile
(_Steneosaurus_), from the Oxford Clay of Honfleur. _a, b_,
costal depressions.

Fig. 6. A dorsal convexo-concave vertebra of a crocodilian or
gavial-like reptile (_Streptospondylus_), from the same
locality. This figure shows the remarkable character whence
the name of this genus: the convexity of the body of the
vertebra (_a_) being situated anteriorly as in mammalia, the
reverse of the position of the bones forming the vertebral
column in the existing Crocodilians and Lacertians. _b_,
the posterior concavity; _c_, a deep depression beneath the
neural arch.

Fig. 7. Sketch of the lower jaw of an extinct gavial-like reptile
(_Steneosaurus_): the vertebra, fig. 5, probably belongs to
the same species. From Honfleur. This figure, and figs, 5,
6, and 8, are copied from Cuvier, "_Annales du Muséum_"

Fig. 8. A caudal vertebra of the Fossil Animal of Maestricht
(_Mosasaurus_); a, the chevron bone or inferior spinous
process (_hœmapophysis_), anchylosed to the middle of the
body of the vertebra.

Fig. 9. Fossil scale of a ganoid fish (probably _Lepidotus_),
from Kent.

Fig. 10. Fossil tooth of a fish of the Shark family (_Notidanus
microdon_, of Agassiz,) from the chalk of Kent.

Fig. 11. Recent "tooth of one of the Dog-fish," (Mr. Parkinson,)
for comparison with fig. 10.

Fig. 12. Tooth of an extinct group of squaloid fishes (_Ptychodus
decurrens_, of Agassiz,) from the chalk of Kent.[67]

[Footnote 67: See Medals of Creation, vol. ii. p. 617.]

Fig. 13. A ctenoid (or comb-like) scale of a fish, (probably of a
species of _Beryx_,) from the chalk of Kent.

PLATE LXX.

Fossil Reptiles and Fishes.

Fig. 1. A reduced figure of the celebrated specimen of the jaws,
&c. of the "Fossil Animal of Maestricht," (_Mosasaurus
Hoffmani_,) from the cretaceous strata of St. Peter's
Mountain. See "_Supplementary Notes_," art. _Mosasaurus_.

"_a, b._ The left side of the lower jaw, nearly whole, and seen on
its outer side.

_c, d._ Right side of the lower jaw, viewed on the inner side, the
posterior part of which, a little concealed by the palate bones,
is continued to _e_.

_f, g._ The right side of the upper jaw, seen on its inner side, and
with the palate bone. This part is nearly in its natural position
in relation to the corresponding ramus of the lower jaw.

_h, i._ A fragment of the left side of the upper jaw, displaced and
fallen across the lower jaw.

_k, l, m; k', l', m', o'._ The two palate bones displaced and thrown
one over the other, and also over the right side of the lower jaw.
In the original specimen a portion of bone is placed from _m_ to
_p_, and another at _q_, which are omitted to render the figure more
intelligible."--_Mr. Parkinson._

Figs. 2 to 18, are fossil teeth of various kinds of fishes,
principally of the Shark and Ray families.

Fig. 2. Tooth of a shark (_Lamna_), from Malta.

Fig. 3. Tooth of a shark (_Galeus pristodontus_), chalk marl,
Kent.

Fig. 4. Tooth of a Saurian, the upper and lower end imperfect:
probably of a species of Steneosaurus, from Bath.

Figs. 5, & 8. Teeth of a shark (_Otodus_,) London Clay, Isle of
Sheppey.

Fig. 6. Tooth of a fish, (_Spherodus_,) from the Oolite,
Gloucestershire.

Fig. 7. Part of the fossil jaw with three rows of teeth of a
fish, (of the Pycnoid[68] family,) from the Oolite,
Gloucestershire.

[Footnote 68: Medals of Creation, vol. ii. p. 641.]

Fig. 9. Tooth of a species of _Lamna_, from Sheppey.

Fig. 10. Tooth of a species of _Hybodus_,[69] Stonesfield.

[Footnote 69: Ibid. p. 621.]

Fig. 11. A very large tooth of a Shark, (_Carcharias megalodon_,)
from the tertiary deposits of Malta.

Fig. 12. Fragment of a bone, with two teeth, probably of a
species of _Pycnodus_.

Fig. 13. "The mandible and tooth of a recent fish (_Diodon_), to
compare with the fossils figs. 16, and 17."--_Mr. Parkinson._

Fig. 14. "Fossil palate of a fish, from Sheppey."--_Mr.
Parkinson._ This evidently belonged to a species of _Ray_;
possibly to the Eagle rays (_Miliobatis_).

Fig. 15. Tooth of a fish allied to the _Cestracionts_, or Port
Jackson Shark, (probably of the genus _Acrodus_,[70]) from
Bath; commonly called "_Leech palates_" by the quarry-men.

[Footnote 70: Medals of Creation, p. 614.]

Figs. 16, & 17. "Fossil palates of fishes of the Ray kind, from
Sheppey."--_Mr. Parkinson._ These appear to belong to the
Miliobates (_M. micropleuris_, of Agassiz). Beautiful
examples of these fossils have been obtained from the
Bracklesham clay, on the coast of the West of Sussex. The
late Frederic Dixon, Esq. of Worthing, whose untimely
death is so much to be deplored, had a matchless suite of
specimens from that locality.

Fig. 18. A fine specimen of a fossil tooth of a fish of an
extinct genus, of which many species occur in the chalk
(_Ptychodus polygurus_, of Agassiz). The teeth of various
species of this genus of Sharks abound in the chalk of
almost every part of England.[71]

[Footnote 71: Ibid. p. 616; and plate vi. fig. 2.]

PLATE LXXI.

Fossil Remains of Mammalia.

Fig. 1. "a fossil tooth, probably of some animal of the whale
kind."--_Mr. Parkinson._ I am not able to determine the
nature of this specimen.

Fig. 2. The antlers and skull of the Fossil Elk, of Ireland,
(_Megaceros Hibernicus_.) The original was nearly eleven
feet across, from the point of one antler to another. A
perfect skeleton of this extinct gigantic deer is exhibited
in the Gallery of Organic Remains in the British Museum.
For an account of this animal see Wonders of Geology, vol.
i. p. 132; and _Supplementary Notes_, p. 189. The following
measurements of the specimen figured are given by Mr.
Parkinson;

Feet. Inches.
_a_ to _b_ 10 10
_c_ to _d_ 5 2
_e_ to _f_ 3 7½
_g_ to _h_ 2 6
_i_ to _k_ 1 10½
_d_ to _l_ 1 2
Diameter of the horn at _m_ 0 2¼
Circumference, " 0 8
" at the root 2 11
Length of the cranium from _n_ to _o_ 2 0
Width " " _p_ to _q_ 1 0

"A similar pair, found ten feet under ground in the county of Clare, was presented to Charles the Second, and placed in the guard-room of Hampton Court Palace."

Fig. 3. Fragment of the fossil horn of some species of Cervus or
Deer, from Etampes, in France.

Fig. 4. Two teeth of a ruminant, (a species of _Bos_ or _Ox_,) in
breccia, from Gibraltar.[72]

[Footnote 72: Wonders of Geology, vol. i. p. 186.]

The remaining figures. Figs. 5, 6, 7, 8, represent the worn surfaces of molars or grinding teeth of the extinct species of Elephants termed Mammoths, (_Elephas primigenius_, of M. Bojanus.)

Fig. 9, shows the structure of part of the tooth.

These were regarded by Mr. Parkinson as referable to two or more species of Mammoth; but Professor Owen, after an examination of the vast number of specimens that modern researches have brought to light, and which are deposited in the public and private collections of Great Britain, concludes that the specimens here figured belong to but one species. The differences observable in the surface of the crowns, are due to abrasion, and to the latitude of variety to which the highly complex molars of this extinct Elephant were subject.[73]

[Footnote 73: British Association, Report for 1843. Fossil Mammalia, p. 213.]

For an account of the Mastodon and Mammoth, see Wonders of Geology, vol. i. pp. 151-161.

PLATE LXXII.

Fossil Teeth of Mammalia.

Fig. 1. A right lower molar tooth of an extinct species of
Hippopotamus (_H. major_, of Cuvier), from France.

Fig. 2. Upper molar of an extinct species of Rhinoceros (_R.
leptorhinus_, of Cuvier), from the bone-cave near Torquay,
Devonshire.

Fig. 3. The crown of a molar tooth of the "gigantic Tapir" of
Baron Cuvier; the _Dinotherium_ of M. Kaup.[74]

[Footnote 74: Wonders of Geology, vol. i. p. 174.]

Fig. 4, "the outer, and fig. 5, the inner, surface of the fourth
molar of _Palæotherium medium_, of M. Cuvier."--_Mr.
Parkinson._ From the eocene tertiary deposits of Paris.

Fig. 6, the outer, and fig. 7, the inner, aspect of an upper
molar of the same animal.

Figs. 8, & 9. Lower molars of _Amplotherium commune_, of M.
Cuvier.[75]

[Footnote 75: Ibid, p, 256.]

Fig. 10. An ungueal or bone of the claw, of a gigantic animal of
the Sloth tribe (_Megalonyx Jeffersoni_); the figure is half
the linear diameter of the original.[76]

[Footnote 76: Ibid. p. 169.]

Fig. 11. Vertical section of a tooth of the same. These remains
of a colossal animal of that remarkable group of
mammalia--the Edentata--are from Big-bone Cave, in Kentucky.
The Megalonyx resembled the Megatherium in its general
characters but was one-third smaller. See _Supplementary
Notes_, p. 184.

PLATE LXXIII.

Megatherium and Fossil Bears.

Fig. 1, is a sketch, on a very small scale, of the skeleton of a
colossal extinct animal of the Sloth tribe, discovered in
the alluvial deposits of the Pampas, and preserved in the
museum at Madrid. A plaster model of a skeleton, restored
from the remains of various individuals, dispersed in
different collections, is just completed, and exhibited to
the public in the Gallery of Organic Remains of the British
Museum.[77] This extinct animal is named the _Megatherium_
(_gigantic wild animal_) _Cuvieri_. It was seven feet
high, and nine long, and therefore larger than the largest
rhinoceros. It possessed no incisor teeth; and the grinders,
which are seven inches long, are of a prismatic form,
and like those of the sloths, are composed of dentine
and cement. They are so formed that the crown always
presents two cutting, wedge-shaped, salient angles; they
are therefore admirably adapted for cutting and bruising
vegetable substances. The entire fore-foot is about a yard
in length, and armed with strong claws. The Megatherium held
an intermediate place between the sloths, armadillos, and
ant-eaters. The celebrated specimens of different parts of
the skeleton of this colossal creature, preserved in the
Hunterian Museum of the College of Surgeons of England, were
collected and presented by Sir Woodbine Parish.

[Footnote 77: See Wonders of Geology, pp. 164-167.]

Fig. 2. The hindmost grinder of the upper jaw of the Fossil Bear
(_Ursus spelæus_) of the Caverns, from Gaylenreuth.[78]

[Footnote 78: Ibid. vol. i. p. 176.]

Fig. 3. The middle upper grinder.

Fig. 4. The foremost upper grinder.

Fig. 5. The hindmost grinder of the lower jaw.

Fig. 6. The penultimate grinder of the lower jaw.

Fig. 7. The antepenultimate lower grinder.

Fig. 8. The foremost lower grinder.

Fig. 9. The canine tooth of the Fossil Bear.

PLATE LXXIV.

Tooth of the Mastodon.

A molar tooth of the _Mastodon giganteus_, from Big-bone Lick, Kentucky; of the natural size.