A Practical Enquiry into the Philosophy of Education

Chapter XVII: Part IV (2)

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"None of them were taught to read till five years old, except Kezzy, in whose case I was overruled; and she was more years in learning than any of the rest had been months. The way of teaching was this: The day before a child began to learn, the house was set in order, every one's work appointed them, and a charge given that none should come into the room from nine till twelve, or from two till five, which were our school hours. One day was allowed the child wherein to learn its letters, and each of them did in that time know all its letters, great and small, except Molly and Nancy, who were a day and a half before they knew them perfectly, for which I then thought them very dull; but the reason why I thought them so, was because the rest learned them so readily; and your brother Samuel, who was the first child I ever taught, learnt the alphabet in a few hours. He was five years old the 10th of February; the next day he began to learn; and as soon as he knew the letters, began at the 1st chapter of Genesis. He was taught to spell the 1st verse, then to read it over and over till he could read it off hand without any hesitation;--so on to the second, &c. till he took ten verses to a lesson, which he quickly did. Easter fell low that year, and by Whitsuntide he could read a chapter very well; for he read continually, and had such a prodigious memory, that I cannot remember ever to have told him the same word twice. What was yet stranger, any word he had learnt in his lesson, he knew wherever he saw it, either in his Bible or any other book, by which means he learnt very soon to read an English author well.

"The same method was observed with them all. As soon as they knew the letters, they were first put to spell and read one line, then a verse, never leaving till perfect in their lesson, were it shorter or longer. So one or other continued reading at school, time about, without any intermission; and before we left school, each child read what he had learned that morning, and ere we parted in the afternoon, what he had learned that day."--_Southey's Life of Wesley_, Note, p. 429.

In the above simple narrative, there is a distinct reference to the principles of "Reiteration," and "Individuation," and hence Mrs Wesley's great success.

Note I, p. 162.--When the true nature of Education is better understood, it will be found that a child may have advanced far on its path by oral instruction, before it be either necessary or desirable that he should be compelled to read for himself. To assist the parent and teacher in this preliminary part of their duty, the "First Initiatory Catechism," or the "First Steps" to the Old and the New Testaments, with their respective Keys, may be used with advantage,--they having been constructed upon the principles here recommended. But the best Book _to begin with_, will be the "Groupings from Scripture," with its Key for the use of monitors, or older children, who can by its means greatly assist the parent or teacher in the work. In making use of that little book, the sentences are to be announced in whole or in parts to the pupils one by one; and upon which they are to be thoroughly and extensively catechised. As for example, the first announcement may be given thus:--"_God made the first man_," from which the following questions may be formed--"Who made the first man?" "Whom did God make?" "What man did God make?" "What did God do to the first man?" The teacher or monitor ought then to add the additional fact, "that God made the first man _of clay_," and catechise again upon the whole. After this is well understood, he may complete the sentence, "God made the first man of clay, _and called him Adam_." The child will then be able--not to repeat the words only, for that is not the effect of this exercise,--but to communicate the ideas in his _own words_; which, however, will generally be found to be the very same as in the book. This distinction is most important. When the whole section has been completely mastered, the lessons and their applications may also be taught;--by all of which the mental faculties will soon become vigorous and lively, and the pupil will be well prepared for all the exercises to which he may afterwards be called.

Note K, p. 151.--The art of catechising from any lesson or book, is a very simple one when the principle is understood. It consists simply in selecting the most important words contained in the announcement, and forming a question upon each of them, in such a manner, as to require that particular word from the pupil as the answer to the question raised upon it. For example, when the teacher has in four words announced the fact, that "Jesus died for sinners;" he will be able to form a question from the three chief ones, "Jesus,"--"died," and "sinners." These questions will be, "Who died?"--"What did Jesus do for sinners?" and "For whom did Jesus die?" It is not necessary that the words should be taken up in their order, which may be always left to the discretion of the teacher. For the several parts of this principle, as employed upon clauses, or whole sentences or subjects, see next Note L.

Note L, p. 185.--The Catechetical Exercise has for convenience been divided into three kinds of exercises, called the "Connecting Exercise," the "General Exercise," and the "Verbal Exercise." The "Connecting Exercise," includes those comprehensive questions, which require the pupil to go over perhaps a whole subject, or several sentences, to complete his answer; as if in teaching the Parable of the Sower, the pupil were asked, "What were the several kinds of ground on which the seed was sown?" or, "What is said of the seed sown by the way side?" In answering either of these questions he would have to combine many ideas, and the truths contained in several distinct clauses. This exercise is used commonly in revising several sections at a time after they have been taught.

The "General Exercise," is used in all the advanced classes, sometimes in connection with the Verbal Exercise, and includes those questions chiefly which are formed upon clauses in the book or section taught. As, for example, when the pupil is asked, "What became of the seed sown by the way side?" or, "What did the birds of the air do?" he has to give one or more clauses, containing several ideas, as his answer.

The "Verbal Exercise" has to do only with the words of the clauses, and the single idea which the particular word is intended to convey; as when it is said, "the birds of the air devoured it up;" the questions, "What devoured the seed?" "What birds?" "What did the birds do?" "What did the birds devour?" refer chiefly to the words, and the single ideas which they communicate.

It may be here remarked, however, that although these exercises are divided in theory, they ought seldom to be altogether separated in practice. In using the Verbal Exercise with the younger classes, many questions will be required which properly belong to the "General;" and in using the "General Exercise" with the advanced classes, neither the "Connecting," nor the "Verbal Exercise," ought to be altogether excluded.

Note M, p. 192.--In communicating knowledge to the young by means of the Catechetical Exercise, care ought to be taken that the truths or ideas be communicated regularly, and not too many at a time. In making use of the "Groupings," or "First Steps," the contents of one section ought to be well understood, and all the circumstances to be made familiar, before the child passes to another. To do otherwise is not to forward, but to retard his advance in the attainment of knowledge. There ought also to be frequent returns upon the sections formerly mastered, so that the truths be more and more firmly fixed upon the memory. This will also be accomplished by means of the lessons from the several moral truths taught, and by their application to the circumstances of ordinary life.

It is also a matter of great practical importance, in teaching any subject, that the teacher confine himself strictly to it, avoiding all kinds of "Catechetical Wandering," by which the minds of his pupils will be distracted and enfeebled if they _cannot_ follow him, and by which their attention will be powerfully drawn away from the lesson, if they _can_.--For example, if the subject to be taught be the "Good Samaritan," nothing can be plainer than that the mind of the pupil ought to be concentrated upon the subject, till it be "grouped," and fixed upon the mind and memory as one combined and moving scene, so that one circumstance in the story will conjure up all the others.--This is Nature's plan.--But if the teacher, at the very commencement, when the child has read that "a certain man went down from Jerusalem to Jericho," shall call his attention from the story itself, to ask where Jerusalem was? What was Judea? Who dwelt there? Who was their progenitor? From what bondage were they saved? Who conducted them through the wilderness? Who brought them into Judea? requiring the whole history of the Jews, their captivity, and restoration; the effect is most pernicious, and is fatal to the great design intended by the teacher. It is destructive of that habit of concentration of mind upon a particular subject, which is always the accompaniment of genius; and which ought to be cultivated in the young with the greatest assiduity and care. But this habit of "Catechetical Wandering," does not stop here, for the teacher has yet another word in this first sentence which admits of a similar treatment; and instead of returning to the lesson, he takes up the word "Jericho," by means of which he follows a similar course; "riding off" from the original subject, and leaving the child bewildered and confused, to commence again, to be again interrupted and distracted by other irrelevant questions. Many evils result from this practice; and the cause is obvious. For if the child has been taught these irrelevant truths before, this is obviously not the time to introduce them, when he is in the very act of _learning a new subject_;--and if he has not been taught them previously, the matter becomes worse; for by this attempt to teach a variety of new things at the same time, some important principles of Nature are still more violently outraged.--_After_ the subject has been taught, and the child is called on to _revise_ his several lessons, then is the time to combine them, and to point out their various connections,--but not before.

Note N, p. 195.--It will always be found advisable to teach the alphabet to children long before they begin to read; and while they are being verbally exercised on the "Groupings from Scripture," and other books of a similar kind. To do so at home by way of games, will be found easiest for the parent, and most pleasant for the child. By having the small letters on four dice, (six on each,) and allowing the use of only one till the six letters on its sides are familiar;--and not giving the third, till those on the two first have been mastered; and the same with the fourth,--will be found useful, provided they be only occasionally made use of. A too frequent repetition of the _game_ will destroy its effect; and therefore, as there is sufficient time, it ought only to be allowed on proper, and perhaps on _great_ occasions. Other contrivances, besides those given in the text, such as making the child guess at letters, drawing letters from a bag, and naming them, &c. will readily occur to ingenious parents or teachers. It should be observed, that as this acquirement is needed but _once_ in the child's lifetime, a little pains or trouble ought not to be grudged in forwarding it.

Note O, p. 208.--In using the "First Class Book on the Lesson System," the teacher must take care that the letters and their sounds, or powers, be perfectly familiar to the child before he begins to read. The first lesson, of course, is composed altogether of words new to the child, each of which he must be taught to _read_ by combining the powers of the letters composing it;--and he must never be allowed to pass on to the following word, till all the previous ones can be correctly and readily decyphered. Before beginning to the second, or succeeding lessons, the new words occurring in it, (which are prefixed,) must be read and made familiar to him one by one, and explained if necessary. By this means he will soon be able to _pick up the ideas_ in his lesson by even a first reading, which is the great end that the teacher ought to have in view.--The capital letters need not be taught till the child comes to them in his reading.--The lessons being consecutive, none must be omitted.

Note P, p. 220.--The nature of successive "Steps" will be better understood by using, than by describing them. The following, however, will give some idea of their design; keeping in mind, that the contents of the several branches must be written out in such a manner as to convey the ideas in the common way. The following is a rude sketch of what the History of Joseph would be like, if the ideas under each branch of the analysis were fairly written out as First, Second, and Third Steps.

ANALYTICAL TABLE.

SHEWING THE NATURE OF SUCCESSIVE STEPS IN EDUCATION.

THE HISTORY OF JOSEPH.

-------------+-----------------+------------------------------------------- Substance of | Substance of a | a First Step.| Second Step. | Substance of a Third Step. -------------+-----------------+------------------------------------------- {Joseph's father {Jacob loved Joseph best of his family; who Joseph {was partial to {Brought him the evil reports of them; and was beloved {him. {Got a coat of many colours. by his { father, {And he dreamed {Joseph told his dream of the sheaves, and {that he was {And his brothers hated him the more. hated {to be great. {He told his dream of the sun and stars; by his { {And his father observed the saying. brothers; { {These things {His brothers would not speak peaceably to {made the family {Him; and envied and hated him; and {uneasy. {His father expostulated with him.

{Joseph sought his brothers at Dothan;
{Joseph was {Was cast into a pit, and afterwards
{cruelly used by {Sold for a slave.
{his brothers, {His brothers concealed the crime, and
{ {His father mourned him as dead.
And although {
he was { {Joseph was carried to Egypt, and
long in {And was made {Was a slave in Potiphar's house;
affliction, {a slave to {Where he was industrious and faithful;
{Potiphar; {And was tempted by his mistress.
{
{ {Joseph was unjustly put into confinement.
{Who unjustly {He was useful in prison, where
{cast him into {A butler and baker were confined.
{prison. {Joseph interpreted their dreams; but was
{Left in prison by the butler forgetting
{him.

{ {Pharoah was displeased with the magicians.
{He was brought {The butler told him of Joseph;
{out to Pharoah, {And Joseph interpreted his dreams,
{ {And was advanced to authority.
{
{ {Joseph married and was made next to
{And made ruler {Pharoah. He collected corn for seven
{over all Egypt; {Years; Distributed it to all nations; and
He rose { {Sold it for the cattle and lands of Egypt.
at last {
to great { {Joseph's brothers came to Egypt for food;
prosperity. {During which {And he spake roughly to them.
{time he behaved {He detained Simeon;
{with great {Brought and entertained Benjamin;
{prudence to his {And hid his cup in Benjamin's sack.
{brothers; {He then made himself known to his brothers.
{
{ {Joseph brought his father and family to
{And kindly {Egypt. He settled, supported, and honoured
{took care of the {Them. He buried his father,
{whole family. {And left several charges with his brothers.

Note Q, p. 225.--In giving a specimen of this mode of illustrating a connected subject, we may only premise, that the method, as a branch of Education, requires that all the general heads should be perceived first, before any of them is sub-divided. For example, Paul's sermon at Antioch, (Acts xiii.) must be perceived by the pupil in its great outline, or general heads, before he be called on to separate these into their several particulars. These heads as given in the Analysis, (Help to Acts, vol. I. p. 187,) are to the following purport:

"The design of Paul in this discourse appears to be,

I. To conciliate the Jews.

II. To prove that the Messiah had already come, and that Jesus was that Messiah.

III. To remove certain objections against Jesus being the Messiah.

IV. To establish the claims of Jesus as the Messiah; and,

V. To press his salvation upon their notice and acceptance."

When these general divisions, or heads, are understood, either by reading the respective verses which they occupy, or by the oral illustration of the teacher, each of them may then be taken separately, and sub-divided into its parts. For example, the first head, which in the analysis is, "_First_, Paul endeavours to conciliate the Jews by giving a brief outline of their history, till the days of David, to whom the Messiah was specially promised," ver. 17-23. This first of the above five heads, is separable into the following particulars. "1. The condition of the Jews in, and their deliverance from, Egypt;--2. Their history in the wilderness;--3. The destruction of their enemies, and their settlement in Canaan;--4. Of the Judges till the time of Samuel;--5. The origin of the kingly authority in Israel;--and 6. The history of their two first kings." These again may be sub-divided into their several parts, of which the last will form a good example. It appears in the Analysis in the following form:

VI. History of their two first kings.
i. Of Saul, and the time of his reign, ver. 21.
ii. Of David, and his character.
1. Saul was removed to make room for David, ver. 22.
2. David was chosen by God to be their king, ver. 22.
3. An account of David's character, and God's dealing with him.
[1.] God's testimony concerning David.
(1.) What David was, ver. 22.
(2.) What David was to do, ver. 22.
[2.] God's promise to David.
(1.) A Saviour was to be raised up for Israel, ver. 23.
(2.) This Saviour was to be of David's seed, ver. 23.

Note R, p. 314.--There is not perhaps a subject in the whole range of human investigation that is so much misunderstood in practice, as a person's own happiness. Whatever causes uneasiness, or distress, or anxiety of mind, destroys happiness;--which shews that it is this pleasure, or delight itself,--this exercise of the heart, that we are seeking, and not the money, or the applause, or the sensual indulgences, which sometimes procure it. The heart of man has been made for something higher and more noble than these grovelling objects of sense and time. History and experience shew, that it can never be satisfied with any finite good; and especially, the possession of all earthly enjoyments only leaves the void more conspicuous and more painful. The whole world, if it were attained, would but more powerfully illustrate its own poverty; for even Alexander weeps because there are no more worlds to conquer. Scripture declares, and Nature, so far as we can trace her, confirms it, that man--and man alone--was _made after the image of God_,--and therefore nothing short of God himself can ever satisfy _him_. Heaven itself would be inadequate to fill the soul, or to allay the cravings of such a being. The fellowship and love of the Almighty, and that _alone_, by the very constitution of our nature, can fill and satisfy the boundless desires of the human heart. They who stop short of this, can never be satisfied; while they who place their happiness on HIM, will always be full, because he alone is infinite. The love of God, and the desire for his glory then, are the only true foundation of human happiness. And hence it is, that the perfection of enjoyment, and the whole sum of duty, meet in this one point,--THE LOVE OF GOD.

Note S, p. 318.--The writer is aware that, in doing justice to this department of a child's education, it is impossible to avoid the charge of "enthusiasm," perhaps "illiberality," or "fanaticism." In what we have urged in the preceding pages, we have endeavoured calmly to state and illustrate simple facts,--plain indications of Nature,--and to draw the obvious deductions which they suggest. We intend to follow precisely the same course here, although quite aware that we are much more liable to be misunderstood, or misrepresented. We shall at least endeavour calmly to put what we have to say upon a true philosophical basis.

We all admire what is termed "Roman Greatness,"--that self-esteem that would not allow the possessor to degrade himself, even in his own estimation, by indulging in any thing that was mean, or disreputable, or contrary to the unchangeable rule of right. Cato's probity, who chose to die rather than appear to connive at selfishness; and Brutus's love of justice, who could, with a noble heroism, and without faltering, doom even his own sons to death in the midst of the entreaties of his friends for their pardon, and the concurrence of the people;--are but two out of numberless instances from ancient history. Now we ask, if we admire, and approve of men being so jealous of _their_ honour, is it to be imagined that the God who made them, and who implanted those high moral sentiments in their breasts, should be less jealous of _his_?--Every one will acknowledge that he is infinitely more so.--And it is in accordance with this true philosophical sentiment, that we come to the conclusion, that to teach religion,--that is, to teach the character of God, and the duty we owe him,--without what is called the "peculiar doctrines" of Christianity, is to lower the character of the Almighty, and to impugn his holiness, his faithfulness, his justice, and even his goodness;--things under the imputation of which even a high-minded Roman would have felt himself degraded and insulted.

In teaching Religion and Morality to the young, therefore, the pupil must know, that God is too holy to look upon sin, or to connive at it;--too just to permit the very least transgression to pass with impunity;--too faithful to allow his intimations, either in Nature, or in Providence, or in Scripture, ever to fail, or to be called in question, without danger;--and too good to risk the happiness of his holy creatures, by allowing them to suppose it even _possible_ that they can ever indulge in sin, and yet escape misery. Where a knowledge of these attributes of Deity is _wanting_, his character must appear grievously defective; but wherever they are _denied_, it is most blasphemously dishonoured.--Hence the importance of even a child knowing how it is that "God can be just, while he justifies the ungodly."

All these perfections, with the additional revelation of his mercy and grace, are exhibited, and greatly magnified and honoured, by the Christian scheme; and it is to the simplicity of this, as the foundation of the child's education, that we wish at present to direct the attention of the parent and teacher.

A child may be taught to know that God hates sin, and that he must, as a just God, punish even the least transgression. There is no difficulty in understanding this simple truth. And it may be made equally clear, that man must have suffered for himself, and that for ever, if God had not sent his Son Jesus Christ to endure in their place the punishment which the inflexible nature of his justice required. To believe that God will pardon sin _without_ such an atonement, is, as we have shewn, to sully the character of God; while to believe it, and to act upon the belief, is at once the highest honour we can pay to his perfections, and becomes the strongest possible stimulant to a grateful heart to avoid sin, and to strive to love and to obey Him. This accordingly is the sum of Christianity, when divested of its technicalities; and this is the foundation,--and the only proper foundation, upon which to rear either morality or religion. But it _does_ form a solid and ample foundation for that purpose. And there is perhaps no Christian of any sect who will deny, that either child or adult, who simply depends for pardon and acceptance with a holy God, on the substitution of the Saviour, and who, in evidence of his sincerity, strives to hate and avoid sin, and to love and obey God, is not in a safe state.

In teaching these simple fundamental truths to the young, the parent or teacher will find the "Shorter Confession of Faith," of great use. Its "First Step" ought to be taught first; and the second must on no account be proceeded with, till the truths in the first have become familiar. The same rule ought also to be adopted with the second, before passing to the third. The "First Initiatory Catechism" has also been found of great benefit to the young; and which is very easily and successfully taught by means of its Key.

The foundation being thus laid, the great object of the teacher then is to train the child to duty;--teaching, in a familiar way, what _conduct_ ought to be avoided, and what pursued,--what is displeasing to God, and what he delights in. This can only be done, or at least is best done, by drawing lessons from Scripture. The very commandment, "Thou shalt not steal," is dealt with by Nature in this way; for when we examine the operation of the mind, when acting even upon the direct precept, we find that it assumes the form of a lesson, which in that case is only an echo of the command. Scripture example and narrative, however, are always preferable with children; and perhaps the best method of initiating them into the ability to perceive and draw lessons generally, will be to begin and carry them forward by means of the "Progressive Exercises" at the end of the First Initiatory Catechism. Very young children are able to _commence_ this important exercise; and the information and directions given in the Key will enable any monitor to carry them forward.

The application of the lessons ought to be the principal concern of the teacher. On this much of their utility depends, and of which the following will afford a sufficient example.

In the 5th line of the "Progressive Exercises," above referred to, the announcement is simply that "Rebekah was obliging,"--from which the child will readily enough draw the lesson, that "we also should be obliging." But to _apply_ this lesson, the teacher is to suppose a corresponding case, and to ask the child how it ought to behave on that occasion. For example, he may ask, "If a companion wanted a sight of your book, what should you do?" "Lend it to him."--"From what do you get that lesson?" "From Rebekah being obliging."--"If you saw your companion drop his ball, or his marble, without perceiving it, what should you do?" "Pick it up and give it to him."--"How do you know that you ought to do that?" "From God giving Rebekah as our example, who was obliging."

The field which here opens up for the ingenuity of the teacher for the moral improvement of the young is almost boundless.

Note T, p. 318.--The method which both Nature and experience have pointed out, as the best for giving a practical knowledge of the principles of Natural Philosophy to children, is to state and explain some general principle, such as, that "Soft and porous bodies are bad conductors (of heat;") and then set them to think, by asking what special lessons that general truth teaches them. This leads the pupil to a train of thought, which will at all events prepare him for the proper lessons when suggested by the teacher, and which will enable him at once to perceive why his mother has to make use of a cloth when using the smoothing iron; why a metal tea-pot must have a wooden handle;--why soft clothing preserves the heat of his body, and keeps him warm;--and why the poker by the fire gets heated throughout, while a piece of wood, the same length and in the same spot, remains comparatively cool.

To teach the phenomena of Nature, out of their mutual relations to the general principle, would be both laborious and evanescent, because of the want of the great connecting link, afforded by the analytical method here supposed. It was by the above means that the children, in the experiment in Aberdeen, and more especially those in that at Newry, appeared to the examinators to be inexhaustible; they having, during a space of time unprecedentedly short, got hold of principles which enabled them, without any great stretch of memory, and by the association of ideas, to account for hundreds of familiar objects and circumstances, the nature and working of which they had never perhaps thought of before.

The application of the lessons in these exercises is equally necessary, and equally beneficial. It may be _directly_ from some of the lessons drawn, such as, "Why is it inconvenient to handle hot irons?" "Because hard bodies readily conduct heat." Or it may be varied by asking the reason of a phenomenon not formerly perceived;--such as, "Why does the fire scorch the foot when it is without a stocking, and not when we have a stocking on?" "Because soft bodies, such as the stocking, do not readily conduct heat." These are sufficient as specimens of the mode of conducting classes upon these principles; the "Steps," and their "Keys," constructed for the purpose, will assist both teacher and pupil in their proper working.

Note U, p. 320.--In teaching children to read, two things are to be specially observed.--_First_, that the child shall know that the letters in a syllable are used merely as the signs of sound, by the combination of which he is to get a _hint_ only of the sound of the whole word. This will very soon enable him to teach himself.--The _second_ is, that the child shall know that his reading is only another way of getting at truth by words _seen_, instead of words _heard_. This will make him search for the ideas, even while learning to read; and the habit being formed, he will never afterwards be satisfied without understanding all that he reads.

The letters of the Alphabet, with their powers, having been made familiar, the "First Class Book" may be put into the pupil's hand, and the first word taught him by the combination of the three letters,--"Bob." Shew him how the letters pronounced shortly, and rapidly one after another, _form the word_. He will then be able to _read_ this word wherever he finds it. The word "has," is to be taught in the same way, and then the word "dog." He must then be asked, "Who has a dog?" and "What has Bob?" till he understands that these three words convey an idea. The second and succeeding lines are to be taught the same way;--the teacher making him read the words in different parts _out of their order_, to take care that he does not repeat by rote.

At every new lesson he must learn to read the words which precede it, and to read them _well_ before beginning. The great design of his reading being to collect the ideas conveyed by the words, his doing so is greatly facilitated by his learning to read the words before beginning to the lesson. It is only necessary to remark, that the homely nature of the lessons tends greatly to produce the effect here designed, and which would not perhaps be so successfully accomplished at this stage in any other way.

Children may be taught to _write_ almost as soon as they can read a few of their lessons. Care being taken that they hold the pen properly, they will soon learn to form the letters as an amusement;--and when these are known, they will soon be able to combine them into words. When they begin to write sentences, it ought to be from their own minds, or memories, but not from copies. Writing is merely an imitation of Nature in her operation of conveying ideas by speech; and the nearer the imitation can be made to correspond with the original, the more perfect will it be. Speech is intended solely for the communication of our ideas;--and so should writing. We teach children words and the names of things, but we never teach them to express their own thoughts, by rehearsing after us either long or short speeches of our own. Neither can we so readily teach children to express their own thoughts by writing, if we attempt to do it by making them copy words which others have thought for them, and the ideas of which they themselves perhaps do not perceive. Copy-lines are a great hinderance to the young; and even for teaching the correct and elegant formation of the letters they do not appear to be always necessary.

Note V, p. 320.--Arithmetic, and numerical calculations of every kind, are wrought by what have been termed "the four simple Rules," viz. Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication, and Division. They who are expert and accurate in working _these_, have only to learn the several rules by which they are applied to all the varied purposes of life, to be perfect arithmeticians.

But when the working of these four rules is analysed, we find that, with the exception of the multiplication table, the whole four are merely different applications of the rule of addition. Subtraction is wrought by _adding_ a supposed sum to the figure to be subtracted;--multiplication (with the exception mentioned above,) it wrought simply by _adding_ the carryings and the aggregate of the several lines;--and division, with the same exception, is also in practice wrought by a series of _additions_. If then we shall suppose the multiplication table fully mastered, it follows, that the person who has attained greatest expertness _in addition_, will be the most expert in the working of any and every arithmetical exercise to which he may be called.

But _expertness_ in arithmetical calculations, is by no means so valuable as _accuracy_;--and upon the above principle, it also follows, that the person who acquires the greatest degree of accuracy and confidence in working _addition_, must, of course, be most accurate in all his calculations. The importance of this principle will be much more prized by and bye than it can be at present;--we shall however shew here how it may be taken advantage of.

Upon the principle of Individuation, we have seen, that a child will learn one thing much better and sooner _by itself_, than when it is mixed up with several others; and therefore we come to the conclusion, that a child, when taught the practice of addition by itself, till he is fully master of it, both as respects rapidity and accuracy, has afterwards little more to do than to get a knowledge of rules. One month's systematic exercise in _this way_, will do more in forming a desirable accountant for a desk, than a whole year's exercise otherwise. In the one case, the pupil starts to the race without preparation, and with all his natural impediments clinging to him, which he has to disentangle and throw off one by one during the fatigues and turmoil of the contest; while the other, on the contrary, delays his start till he has deliberately searched them out and cast them aside, and thus prepared himself for the course. He then starts vigorous and light, to outstrip his labouring and lumbering competitors, not only in this, but in every after trial of strength and skill of a similar kind.

To follow out this plan with success, the "Arithmetic Rod," containing three sides, has been provided. On one side there is a single line of figures, on the second two, and on the third three. These lines of figures for a school, ought to be painted on three boards sufficiently large for all to see them distinctly. The first line is to be mastered perfectly, before the second or the third is to be taught.

The way to begin with the first line, is to make the pupil mentally add a certain sum to each figure on the board, say two, or seven, or fourteen, or any other sum, beginning always with a small one. He is besides to add the carryings also to each figure, and to write down the sum as he goes on. The beginner may be exercised with the sum of two, or even one, and have the sum increased, as he acquires a knowledge of the method. These sums, as the pupils advance, may be extended to any amount. The Key will shew, in every case, whether the exercise has been accurately performed; and by marking the time in any particular case, the teacher can measure exactly, every week or month, the advance of each pupil.

The mental advantages of this exercise are numerous. Among other things it trains to a great command of the mind; and brings into exercise an important principle formerly illustrated, (Part III. ch. xi. p. 288,) by which the pupil acquires the ability to think one thing, and to do another.

When the pupil is sufficiently expert at one line of figures, he should be exercised upon the B side of the rod, containing the double line. He is to practise adding each pair of the figures at a glance,--till he can run them over without difficulty, as if they were single figures. He is then to add a sum to _them_, as he did on the single line, till he can add the sum and the double figure as readily as he did one. The C side of the rod is to be treated in the same way;--first by adding all the three figures at a glance, and naming the sum of each, till he can do it as readily as if there was but one; and then he is to add any special sum to them as before.

Note W, p. 321.--Children generally delight in music, and seldom weary in its exercise. It forms therefore, when judiciously managed, a most useful exercise in a school for the purposes of relaxation and variety, and for invigorating their minds after a lengthened engagement in drier studies. It thus not only becomes desirable to teach music in the seminary as a branch of education for after life, but for the purposes of present expediency.

That music may be taught to the young in a manner much more simple than it has yet generally been done, is now matter of experience. The notes are only _seven_, and these are each as precise and definite in proportion to the key note as any letter in the alphabet. There is obviously no difficulty in teaching a child seven figures,--and there is in reality as little difficulty in teaching him seven notes; so that, having the key note, he will, in reading a tune, sound each in its order when presented to him, as readily and accurately as he would read so many figures.

To render this exercise more simple to children, and more convenient in a school, the notes have been represented by figures, 1 being the key note. The other notes rise in the common gradation from 1 to 8, which is the key note in alt. By this means, the teacher by writing on the common black board a few figures, gives the children the tune, which a very little practice enables them to read as readily as they would the words to which they adapt it.

For particulars as to time, &c. see "Shorter Catechism Hymn Book," p. 23 and 24.

Note X, p. 264.--There is perhaps no department in the family economy which ought to be so cautiously filled up as the _nursery maid_; and yet we generally find, that the duties of this office are frequently handed over to any thoughtless giddy girl, whose appearance is "shewy," although she be without education, without experience, and often without principle. Why there has been as yet no regular seminary for the training of young persons of good principles, for the responsible duties of the nursery, is not a little remarkable. Not one of the many valuable institutions for particular classes is so much wanted, and which, if properly conducted, would be a greater blessing to families and to society generally. One of the most beautiful features in our infant schools is the circumstance, that they have tended greatly to lessen this evil, and in some measure to supply the desideratum.

Note Y, p. 268.--The question of rewards and punishments in a public school is a difficult one; and although there has of late been an obvious improvement in this respect, we are afraid that the principles which ought to regulate them are not yet very clearly understood. Hence the contrariety of sentiments on the subject, with little more than mere _opinions_ offered to support them. The following few crude thoughts on the subject, may perhaps lead others better qualified to consider it more extensively.

We can all readily enough distinguish the difference between _physical_ efforts, _intellectual_ efforts, and _moral_ efforts; but we are very ready to confound the rewards which, we think, Nature has pointed out as most appropriate to each. For physical exertions, such as the race, or the wrestling match, physical returns appear natural and appropriate enough; and therefore, money, decorations, or other physical honours, are the ordinary rewards for excelling in any of them. But to desire money as a return for intellectual excellence, appears to every well constituted mind as sordid and unseemly. The reward for the exertion of intellect must partake of intellectual dignity; and hence it is, that esteem, applause, or admiration,--the incense of the _mind_,--appears to be the natural return for such exertions. In proof of this, we may instance the sensible degradation which is felt, when the reward proffered for mental efforts, even in children, takes the form of food, or clothing, or money;--and the kind of estimation in which students hold their medals, books, and other prizes, acquired at their several seminaries. These are never valued for their intrinsic worth, but only as permanent signs of _approbation_, or _admiration_,--feelings which are purely intellectual in their character, and perfectly distinct from the grossness of physical rewards on the one hand, and the affections--the moral incense of the _heart_,--on the other.

All this appears pretty evident; and it obviously leads us to the next and concluding step, which is, that the natural and proper reward for _moral_ actions, ought to partake of the moral character. It is the love and affection of those we serve, or who are called on to estimate, or to decide on the character of our actions,--that is the proper, the natural, the desirable return. A little consideration, we think, will shew us, that this, as a general principle, is really correct; and that applause, admiration, or wonder, when they are afforded without _affection_, do not satisfy the heart, that in the exercise of love, seeks love in return.--It is the friendship, the fellowship, the affections of those whom we aim at pleasing, that alone can approve itself to our minds as the appropriate returns for moral actions.

Note Z, p. 299.--The following are a few specimens of the paraphrastic exercise, as employed upon different subjects:--

"But Martha was [_cumbered_] [_about much serving_,] and came to [_him_,] and said, Lord, [_dost thou not care_] that my sister hath left me to [_serve_] alone? [_bid_] her, therefore, that she [_help_] me."

This verse is paraphrased in the Help to Luke by substituting the explanation of the words printed in Italics, and within brackets, for the words themselves, in the following manner:

"_But Martha was_ [much incommoded and harassed] [to get every thing in order for the temporal accommodation of Jesus and his disciples,] _and came to_ [Jesus,] _and said, Lord_, [art thou indifferent or careless about the circumstance] _that my sister hath left me to_ [prepare the victuals, and do all the work of the house] _alone_? [Command] _her, therefore, that she_ [leave her seat at thy feet, and come to assist] _me_."

"Every thing [_in nature_] [_shews forth_] God's [_wisdom_,] [_power_,] and [_goodness_;] but the Bible, which is the [_word of God_,] and which was [_written_] by [_holy_] men at [_different times_,] under [_his direction_,] has most [_clearly_] [_revealed_] what [_God is_,] what he has done and what [_we should do_."]

This is paraphrased in the Key to the Second Initiatory Catechism thus:

"_Every thing_ [that has been made in the world and sky] [gives clear and constant proof of] _God's_ [chusing the best ends, and accomplishing these by the best means,] [his being able to do any thing, and every thing,] _and_ [never ceasing to care for, and to promote the happiness of all his creatures;]--_but the Bible,--which is the_ [only declaration of God's mind and will to man,] _and which was_ [composed, and put, with pen and ink, upon parchment or paper,] _by_ [good and pious] _men, at_ [dates long distant from each other,] _under_ [the care of God, who told them what they were to write,]--_has most_ [distinctly and plainly,] [brought into view, and let us know,] _what_ [God's character and perfections are,] _what he has done, and what_ [is our duty, both to God and man."]

"The [_word of God_,] which is contained in the [_Scriptures_] of the Old and New Testament, is the only [_rule_] to [_direct us_] how we may glorify and enjoy him."

This is paraphrased in the Key to the Shorter Catechism in the following manner:

"_The_ [revelation of God's will,] _which is contained in the_ [writings] _of the Old and New Testament, is the only_ [guide] _to_ [give us information] _how we may glorify and enjoy him_."

Note A a, p. 321.--Nature has obviously intended that all men should be both physically and mentally employed; and that, for the proper maintenance of health, the time occupied by _physical_ exercise, ought in general to exceed that which is employed exclusively in study. The combination of both in ordinary cases, however, is still more plainly indicated. In the circumstances of the young, physical exercise is peculiarly necessary. The writer looks forward with confidence to a time, when to every seminary of eminence will be attached a sufficient plot of ground for gardening and agricultural purposes, that the physical energies of the pupils may not be allowed irregularly to run to waste, as at present; but when they shall be systematically directed to interesting, and at the same time to useful purposes. The hand-swing, although an excellent substitute, will never cope in interest, even to a child, with the moderate use of the hoe, the rake, or the spade. Such a system will produce many and valuable advantages to the young. Gardening, by postponing the results of labour, exciting hope, and by its daily advances, encouraging to perseverance, will tend to produce a most beneficial moral effect; and will greatly assist the teacher in establishing and strengthening some of those valuable checks upon the volatility of the young mind, which are exceedingly necessary for the proper conduct of life, but which there is usually but small opportunity of cultivating in youth.

But even then, for the proper conducting of a school, there will, for _in-door exercise_, be something more required than has yet been provided, both as to kind and degree. When we examine a number of children at play, we seldom find them sitting, or even standing for any length of time, when they have space and opportunity to exercise their limbs. The hand-motions of the infant schools, therefore, although excellent so far as they go, do not go far enough; and even the marching of the children is obviously too monotonous, and not sufficiently lively, for throwing off the accumulated mass of animal spirits, which is so speedily formed in young persons while engaged at their lessons. It was to supply this defect that the writer, a number of years ago, made some experiments with a large class of children, and with complete success. The exercise was founded on the singing and marching of the infant schools, and consisted in what is known in certain seminaries, as "Rights and Lefts." The children were taught to meet each other in bands of equal number, and by giving the right and left hand alternately to those who came in the opposite direction, they undulated, as it were, through each others ranks, and passed on to their own music, till they met again on the other side of the room, and proceeded as before. The exercise thus afforded to the upper and lower extremities of each child, the expansion caused to the chest, and the play given to the muscles of the back and body, are exceedingly beneficial; and the whole being regulated by their own song, gives healthy, and not excessive exercise to the lungs and the whole circulation.

It was also found, that this amusing employment for the young, was capable of great variety. Instead of two bands meeting each other in _lines_ in opposite directions, and parting, to meet again at the other side of the room, they were formed into a circle, one-half moving in one direction, and one-half moving in the opposite, by which means the circle was never broken. It was also found, that one of these circles, containing six or eight children only, could move within the other when it contained a larger number, without those in the one interfering in the least with those of the other; and the effect became still more imposing when _between_ these, and _without_ them, two other bands of children joined hands, united in the song, and moved round in opposite directions.

These details may appear trifling to some; but experience will soon convince practical men, that in education, as in Nature, the most simple means often produce the most powerful and the most beneficial results.

THE END.

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A Practical Enquiry into the Philosophy of EducationChapter XVII: Part IV (2)

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