Chapter XXXIX: Part II: The Middle Ages and the Reformation. A.D. 1381-1593 (38)

VĪNUM (οἴνος). The general term for the fermented juice of the grape. In the Homeric poems the cultivation of the grape is represented as familiar to the Greeks. It is worth remarking that the only wine upon whose excellence Homer dilates in a tone approaching to hyperbole is represented as having been produced on the coast of Thrace, the region from which poetry and civilisation spread into Hellas, and the scene of several of the more remarkable exploits of Bacchus. Hence we might infer that the Pelasgians introduced the culture of the vine when they wandered westward across the Hellespont, and that in like manner it was conveyed to the valley of the Po, when at a subsequent period they made their way round the head of the Adriatic. It seems certain that wine was both rare and costly in the earlier ages of Roman history. As late as the time of the Samnite wars, Papirius the dictator, when about to join in battle with the Samnites, vowed to Jupiter only a small cupful (_vini pocillum_) if he should gain the victory. In the times of Marius and Sulla foreign wines were considered far superior to native growths; but the rapidity with which luxury spread in this matter is well illustrated by the saying of M. Varro, that Lucullus when a boy never saw an entertainment in his father’s house, however splendid, at which Greek wine was handed round more than once, but when in manhood he returned from his Asiatic conquests he bestowed on the people a largess of more than a hundred thousand cadi. Four different kinds of wine are said to have been presented for the first time at the feast given by Julius Caesar in his third consulship (B.C. 46.), these being Falernian, Chian, Lesbian, and Mamertine, and not until after this date were the merits of the numerous varieties, foreign and domestic, accurately known and fully appreciated. But during the reign of Augustus and his immediate successors the study of wines became a passion, and the most scrupulous care was bestowed upon every process connected with their production and preservation. Pliny calculates that the number of wines in the whole world deserving to be accounted of high quality (_nobilia_) amounted to eighty, of which his own country could claim two-thirds; and that 195 distinct kinds might be reckoned up, and that if all the varieties of these were to be included in the computation, the sum would be almost doubled.--The process followed in wine-making was essentially the same among both the Greeks and the Romans. After the grapes had been gathered they were first trodden with the feet in a vat (ληνός, _torcular_); but as this process did not press out all the juice of the grapes, they were subjected to the more powerful pressure of a thick and heavy beam (_prelum_) for the purpose of obtaining all the juice yet remaining in them. From the press the sweet unfermented juice flowed into another large vat, which was sunk below the level of the press, and therefore called the _under wine-vat_, in Greek ὑπολήνιον, in Latin _lacus_. A portion of the must was used at once, being drunk fresh after it had been clarified with vinegar. When it was desired to preserve a quantity in the sweet state, an amphora was taken and coated with pitch within and without, and corked so as to be perfectly air-tight. It was then immersed in a tank of cold fresh water or buried in wet sand, and allowed to remain for six weeks or two months. The contents after this process were found to remain unchanged for a year, and hence the name ἀεὶ γλεῦκος, _i.e._ _semper mustum_. A considerable quantity of must from the best and oldest vines was inspissated by boiling, being then distinguished by the Greeks under the general names of ἕψημα or γλύξις, while the Latin writers have various terms according to the extent to which the evaporation was carried. Thus, when the must was reduced to two-thirds of its original volume it became _carenum_, when one-half had evaporated _defrutum_, when two-thirds _sapa_ (known also by the Greek names _siraeum_ and _hepsema_), but these words are frequently interchanged. Similar preparations are at the present time called in Italy _musto cotto_ and _sapa_, and in France _sabe_. The process was carried on in large caldrons of lead (_vasa defrutaria_), over a slow fire of chips, on a night when there was no moon, the scum being carefully removed with leaves, and the liquid constantly stirred to prevent it from burning. These grape-jellies, for they were nothing else, were used extensively for giving body to poor wines and making them keep, and entered as ingredients into many drinks, such as the _burranica potio_, so called from its red colour, which was formed by mixing _sapa_ with milk. The whole of the mustum not employed for some of the above purposes was conveyed from the _lacus_ to the _cella vinaria_, an apartment on the ground-floor or a little below the surface. Here were the _dolia_ (πίθοι), otherwise called _seriae_ or _cupae_, long bell-mouthed vessels of earthenware, very carefully formed of the best clay, and lined with a coating of pitch. They were usually sunk (_depressa_, _defossa_, _demersa_) one-half or two-thirds in the ground; to the former depth, if the wine to be contained was likely to prove strong, to the latter if weak. In these _dolia_ the process of fermentation took place, which usually lasted for about nine days, and as soon as it had subsided, and the _mustum_ had become _vinum_, the dolia were closely covered. The lids (_opercula doliorum_), were taken off about once every thirty-six days, and oftener in hot weather, in order to cool and give air to the contents, to add any preparation required to preserve them sound, and to remove any impurities that might be thrown up. The commoner sorts of wine were drunk direct from the dolium, and hence draught wine was called _vinum doliare_ or _vinum de cupa_, but the finer kinds were drawn off (_diffundere_, μεταγγίζειν), into _amphorae_. On the outside the title of the wine was painted, the date of the vintage being marked by the names of the consuls then in office. [AMPHORA.] The amphorae were then stored up in repositories (_apothecae_, _horrea_, _tabulata_), completely distinct from the _cella vinaria_, and usually placed in the upper story of the house (whence _descende_, _testa_, and _deripere horreo_ in Horace), for a reason explained afterwards. It is manifest that wine prepared and bottled in the manner described above must have contained a great quantity of dregs and sediment, and it became absolutely necessary to separate these before it was drunk. This was sometimes effected by fining with yolks of eggs, those of pigeons being considered most appropriate by the fastidious, but more commonly by simply straining through small cup-like utensils of silver or bronze perforated with numerous small holes. Occasionally a piece of linen cloth (σάκκος, _saccus_) was placed over the _colum_, and the wine filtered through. [COLUM.] In all the best wines hitherto described the grapes are supposed to have been gathered as soon as they were fully ripe, and fermentation to have run its full course. But a great variety of sweet wines were manufactured by checking the fermentation, or by partially drying the grapes, or by converting them completely into raisins. _Passum_ or _raisin-wine_ was made from grapes dried in the sun until they had lost half their weight, or they were plunged into boiling oil, which produced a similar effect, or the bunches after they were ripe were allowed to hang for some weeks upon the vine, the stalks being twisted or an incision made into the pith of the bearing shoot so as to put a stop to vegetation. The stalks and stones were removed, the raisins were steeped in must or good wine, and then trodden or subjected to the gentle action of the press. The quantity of juice which flowed forth was measured, and an equal quantity of water added to the pulpy residuum, which was again pressed, and the product employed for an inferior _passum_ called _secundarium_. The passum of Crete was most prized, and next in rank were those of Cilicia, Africa, Italy, and the neighbouring provinces. The kinds known as _Psythium_ and _Melampsythium_ possessed the peculiar flavour of the grape and not that of wine. The grapes most suitable for passum were those which ripened early, especially the varieties _Apiana_, _Scirpula_, and _Psithia_. The Greeks recognised three colours in wines: _red_ (μέλας), _white_, i.e. pale straw-colour (λευκός), and brown or amber-coloured (κιῤῥός). The Romans distinguish four: _albus_, answering to λευκός, _fulvus_ to κιῤῥός, while μέλας is subdivided into _sanguineus_ and _niger_, the former being doubtless applied to bright glowing wines like Tent and Burgundy, while the _niger_ or _ater_ would resemble Port. We have seen that wine intended for keeping was racked off from the dolia into amphorae. When it was necessary in the first instance to transport it from one place to another, or when carried by travellers on a journey, it was contained in bags made of goat-skin (ἀσκοί, _utres_) well pitched over so as to make the seams perfectly tight.

As the process of wine-making among the ancients was for the most part conducted in an unscientific manner, it was found necessary, except in the case of the finest varieties, to have recourse to various devices for preventing or correcting acidity, heightening the flavour, and increasing the durability of the second growths. The object in view was accomplished sometimes by merely mixing different kinds of wine together, but more frequently by throwing into the dolia or amphorae various condiments or seasonings (ἀρτύσεις, _medicamina_, _conditurae_). The principal substances employed as _conditurae_ were, 1. sea-water; 2. turpentine, either pure, or in the form of pitch (_pix_), tar (_pix liquida_), or resin (_resina_). 3. Lime, in the form of gypsum, burnt marble, or calcined shells. 4. Inspissated must. 5. Aromatic herbs, spices, and gums; and these were used either singly, or cooked up into a great variety of complicated confections. But not only were spices and gums steeped in wine or incorporated during fermentation, but even the precious perfumed essential oils (_unguenta_) were mixed with it before it was drunk (μυῤῥίνη, _murrhina_.) Of these compound beverages the most popular was the _oenomeli_ (οἰνόμελι) of the Greeks, the _mulsum_ of the Romans. This was of two kinds; in the one honey was mixed with wine, in the other with must. The former was said to have been invented by the legendary hero Aristaeus, the first cultivator of bees, and was considered most perfect and palatable when made of some old rough (_austerum_) wine, such as Massic or Falernian (although Horace objects to the latter for this purpose), and new Attic honey. The proportions were four, by measure, of wine to one of honey, and various spices and perfumes, such as myrrh, cassia, costum, malobathrum, nard, and pepper, might be added. The second kind was made of must evaporated to one half of its original bulk, Attic honey being added in the proportion of one to ten. This, therefore, was merely a very rich fruit syrup, in no way allied to wine. _Mulsum_ was considered the most appropriate draught upon an empty stomach, and was therefore swallowed immediately before the regular business of a repast began and hence the whet (_gustatio_) coming before the cup of mulsum was called the _promulsis_. _Mulsum_ was given at a triumph by the imperator to his soldiers. _Mulsum_ (sc. _vinum_) or _oenomeli_ (οἰνόμελι) is perfectly distinct from _mulsa_ (sc. _aqua_). The latter, or _mead_, being made of honey and water mixed and fermented, is the _melicraton_ (μελίκρατον) or _hydromeli_ (ὑδρόμελι) of the Greeks. The ancients considered old wine not only more grateful to the palate, but also more wholesome and invigorating. Generally speaking the Greek wines do not seem to have required a long time to ripen. Nestor in the Odyssey, indeed, drinks wine ten years old; but the connoisseurs under the empire pronounced that all transmarine wines arrived at a moderate degree of maturity in six or seven. Many of the Italian varieties, however, required to be kept for twenty or twenty-five years before they were drinkable (which is now considered ample for our strongest ports), and even the humble growths of Sabinum were stored up for from four to fifteen. Hence it became a matter of importance to hasten, if possible, the natural process. This was attempted in various ways, sometimes by elaborate condiments, sometimes by sinking vessels containing the must in the sea, by which an artificial mellowness was induced (_praecox vetustas_) and the wine in consequence termed _thalassites_; but more usually by the application of heat. Thus it was customary to expose the amphorae for some years to the full fervour of the sun’s rays, or to construct the _apothecae_ in such a manner as to be exposed to the hot air and smoke of the bath-furnaces, and hence the name _fumaria_ applied to such apartments, and the phrases _fumosos_, _fumum bibere_, _fuligine testae_, in reference to the wines. If the operation was not conducted with care, and the amphorae not stoppered down perfectly tight, a disagreeable effect would be produced on the contents. In Italy, in the first century of the Christian aera, the lowest market price of the most ordinary quality of wine was 300 sesterces for 40 urnae, that is, 15 sesterces for the amphora, or 6_d._ a gallon nearly. At a much earlier date, the triumph of L. Metellus during the first Punic war (B.C. 250), wine was sold at the rate of 8 asses the amphora. The price of native wine at Athens was four drachmas for the metretes, that is, about 4½_d._ the gallon, when necessaries were dear, and we may perhaps assume one half of this sum as the average of cheaper times. On the other hand, high prices were given freely for the varieties held in esteem, since as early as the time of Socrates a metretes of Chian sold for a mina.--With respect to the way in which wine was drunk, and the customs observed by the Greeks and Romans at their drinking entertainments, the reader is referred to the article SYMPOSIUM.--The wine of most early celebrity was that which the minister of Apollo, Maron, who dwelt upon the skirts of Thracian Ismarus, gave to Ulysses. It was red (ἐρυθρόν), and honey-sweet (μελιηδέα), so precious, that it was unknown to all in the mansion save the wife of the priest and one trusty house-keeper; so strong, that a single cup was mingled with twenty of water; so fragrant, that even when thus diluted it diffused a divine and most tempting perfume. Homer mentions also more than once _Pramnian wine_ (οἴνος Πραμνεῖος), an epithet which is variously interpreted by different writers. In after times a wine bearing the same name was produced in the island of Icaria, around the hill village of Latorea in the vicinity of Ephesus, in the neighbourhood of Smyrna, near the shrine of Cybele, and in Lesbos. But the wines of greatest renown at a later period were grown in the islands of Thasos, Lesbos, Chios, and Cos, and in a few favoured spots on the opposite coast of Asia, such as the slopes of Mount Tmolus, the ridge which separates the valley of the Hermus from that of the Caÿster, Mount Messogis, which divides the tributaries of the Caÿster from those of the Meander, the volcanic region of the Catacecaumene, which still retains its fame, the environs of Ephesus, of Cnidus, of Miletus, and of Clazomenae. Among these the first place seems to have been by general consent conceded to the _Chian_, of which the most delicious varieties were brought from the heights of Ariusium in the central parts, and from the promontory of Phanae at the southern extremity of the island. The _Thasian_ and _Lesbian_ occupied the second place, and the _Coan_ disputed the palm with them. In Lesbos the most highly prized vineyards were around Mytilene and Methymna. There is no foundation whatever for the remark that the finest Greek wines, especially the products of the islands in the Aegean and Ionian seas, belonged for the most part to the luscious sweet class. The very reverse is proved by the epithets αὐστηρός, σκληρός, λεπτός, and the like, applied to a great number, while γλυκύς and γλυκάζων are designations comparatively rare, except in the vague language of poetry.--The most noble Italian wines, with a very few exceptions, were derived from Latium and Campania, and for the most part grew within a short distance of the sea. In the first rank we must place the _Setinum_, which fairly deserves the title of _Imperial_, since it was the chosen beverage of Augustus and most of his courtiers. It grew upon the hills of Setia, above Forum Appii, looking down upon the Pomptine marshes. Before the age of Augustus the _Caecubum_ was the most prized of all. It grew in the poplar swamps bordering on the gulf of Amyclae, close to Fundi. In the time of Pliny its reputation was entirely gone, partly in consequence of the carelessness of the cultivators, and partly from its proper soil, originally a very limited space, having been cut up by the canal of Nero extending from Baiae to Ostia. It was full-bodied and heady, not arriving at maturity until it had been kept for many years. The second rank was occupied by the _Falernum_, of which the _Faustianum_ was the most choice variety, having gained its character from the care and skill exercised in the cultivation of the vines. The _Falernus ager_ commenced at the Pons Campanus, on the left hand of those journeying towards the Urbana Colonia of Sulla, the _Faustianus ager_ at a village about six miles from Sinuessa, so that the whole district in question may be regarded as stretching from the Massic hills to the river Vulturnus. Falernian became fit for drinking in ten years, and might be used until twenty years old, but when kept longer gave headaches, and proved injurious to the nervous system. Pliny distinguishes three kinds, the rough (_austerum_), the sweet (_dulce_), and the thin (_tenue_). Others arranged the varieties differently; that which grew upon the hill tops they called _Caucinum_, that on the middle slopes _Faustianum_, and that on the plain _Falernum_. In the third rank was the _Albanum_, from the Mons Albanus, of various kinds, very sweet (_praedulce_), sweetish, rough, and sharp; it was invigorating (_nervis utile_), and in perfection after being kept for fifteen years. Here too we place the _Surrentinum_, from the promontory forming the southern horn of the bay of Naples, which was not drinkable until it had been kept for five-and-twenty years, for, being destitute of richness, and very dry, it required a long time to ripen, but was strongly recommended to convalescents, on account of its thinness and wholesomeness. Of equal reputation were the _Massicum_, from the hills which formed the boundary between Latium and Campania, although somewhat harsh, and the _Gauranum_, from the ridge above Baiae and Puteoli, produced in small quantity, but of very high quality, full-bodied, and thick. In the same class are to be included the _Calenum_ from Cales, and the _Fundanum_ from Fundi. The _Calenum_ was light and better for the stomach than Falernian; the _Fundanum_ was full-bodied and nourishing, but apt to attack both stomach and head; therefore little sought after at banquets. This list is closed by the _Veliturninum_, _Privernatinum_, and _Signinum_, from Velitrae, Privernum, and Signia, towns on the Volscian hills; the first was a sound wine, but had this peculiarity, that it always tasted as if mixed with some foreign substance; the second was thin and pleasant; the last was looked upon only in the light of a medicine valuable for its astringent qualities. We may safely bring in one more, the _Formianum_, from the Gulf of Caieta, associated by Horace with the Caecuban, Falernian, and Calenian. The fourth rank contained the _Mamertinum_, from the neighbourhood of Messana, first brought into fashion by Julius Caesar. The finest was sound, light, and at the same time not without body.

VIRGĬNES VESTĀLES. [VESTALES VIRGINES.]

VIS. Leges were passed at Rome for the purpose of preventing acts of violence. The Lex Plotia or Plautia was enacted against those who occupied public places and carried arms. The lex proposed by the consul Q. Catulus on the subject, with the assistance of Plautius the tribunus, appears to be the Lex Plotia. There was a Lex Julia of the dictator Caesar on this subject, which imposed the penalty of exile. Two Juliae Leges were passed as to this matter in the time of Augustus, which were respectively entitled De Vi Publica and De Vi Privata.

VISCĔRĀTĬO. [FUNUS, p. 190, _b_.]

VĪTIS. [CENTURIO.]

VITRUM (ὕαλος), glass. A story has been preserved by Pliny, that glass was first discovered accidentally by some merchants who, having landed on the Syrian coast at the mouth of the river Belus, and being unable to find stones to support their cooking-pots, fetched for this purpose from their ships some of the lumps of nitre which composed the cargo. This being fused by the heat of the fire, united with the sand upon which it rested, and formed a stream of vitrified matter. No conclusion can be drawn from this tale, even if true, in consequence of its vagueness; but it probably originated in the fact, that the sand of the district in question was esteemed peculiarly suitable for glass-making, and exported in great quantities to the workshops of Sidon and Alexandria, long the most famous in the ancient world. Alexandria sustained its reputation for many centuries: Rome derived a great portion of its supplies from this source, and as late as the reign of Aurelian we find the manufacture still flourishing. There is some difficulty in deciding by what Greek author glass is first mentioned, because the term ὕαλος unquestionably denotes not only artificial glass but rock-crystal, or indeed any transparent stone or stone-like substance. Thus the ὕελος of Herodotus, in which the Ethiopians encased the bodies of their dead, cannot be glass, for we are expressly told that it was dug in abundance out of the earth; and hence commentators have conjectured that rock-crystal or rock-salt, or amber, or oriental alabaster, or some bituminous or gummy product, might be indicated. But when the same historian, in his account of sacred crocodiles, states that they were decorated with ear-rings made of melted stone, we may safely conclude that he intends to describe some vitreous ornament for which he knew no appropriate name. Glass is, however, first mentioned with certainty by Theophrastus, who notices the circumstance alluded to above, of the fitness of the sand at the mouth of the river Belus for the fabrication of glass. Among the Latin writers Lucretius appears to be the first in which the word _vitrum_ occurs; but it must have been well known to his countrymen long before, for Cicero names it along with paper and linen, as a common article of merchandise brought from Egypt. Scaurus, in his aedileship (B.C. 58), made a display of it such as was never witnessed even in after-times; for the _scena_ of his gorgeous theatre was divided into three tiers, of which the under portion was of marble, the upper of gilded wood, and the middle compartment of glass. In the poets of the Augustan age it is constantly introduced, both directly and in similes, and in such terms as to prove that it was an object with which every one must be familiar. Strabo declares that in his day a small drinking-cup of glass might be purchased at Rome for half an as, and so common was it in the time of Juvenal and Martial, that old men and women made a livelihood by trucking sulphur matches for broken fragments. When Pliny wrote, manufactories had been established not only in Italy, but in Spain and Gaul also, and glass drinking-cups had entirely superseded those of gold and silver; and in the reign of Alexander Severus we find _vitrearii_ ranked along with curriers, coachmakers, goldsmiths, silversmiths, and other ordinary artificers whom the emperor taxed to raise money for his thermae. The numerous specimens transmitted to us prove that the ancients were well acquainted with the art of imparting a great variety of colours to their glass; they were probably less successful in their attempts to render it perfectly pure and free from all colour, since we are told that it was considered most valuable in this state. It was wrought according to the different methods now practised, being fashioned into the required shape by the blowpipe, _cut_, as we term it, although _ground_ (_teritur_) is a more accurate phrase, upon a wheel, and engraved with a sharp tool like silver. The art of etching upon glass, now so common, was entirely unknown, since it depends upon the properties of fluoric acid, a chemical discovery of the last century. The following were the chief uses to which glass was applied:--1. Bottles, vases, cups, and cinerary urns. 2. Glass pastes, presenting fac-similes either in relief or intaglio of engraved precious stones. 3. Imitations of coloured precious stones, such as the carbuncle, the sapphire, the amethyst, and, above all, the emerald. 4. Thick sheets of glass of various colours appear to have been laid down for paving floors, and to have been attached as a lining to the walls and ceilings of apartments in dwelling houses, just as scagliuola is frequently employed in Italy, and occasionally in our own country also. Rooms fitted up in this way were called _vitreae camerae_, and the panels _vitreae quadraturae_. Such was the kind of decoration introduced by Scaurus for the scene of his theatre, not columns nor pillars of glass as some, nor bas-reliefs as others have imagined. 5. Glass was also used for windows. [DOMUS, p. 144.]

VITTA, or plural VITTAE, a ribbon or fillet, is to be considered, 1. As an ordinary portion of female dress. 2. As a decoration of sacred persons and sacred things. 1. When considered as an ordinary portion of female dress, it was simply a band encircling the head, and serving to confine the tresses (_crinales vittae_), the ends when long (_longae taenia vittae_) hanging down behind. It was worn by maidens, and by married women also, the vitta assumed on the nuptial day being of a different form from that used by virgins. The Vitta was _not_ worn by libertinae even of fair character, much less by meretrices; hence it was looked upon as an _insigne pudoris_, and, together with the _stola_ and _instita_, served to point out at first sight the freeborn matron. The colour was probably a matter of choice: white and purple are both mentioned. When employed for sacred purposes, it was usually twisted round the infula [INFULA], and held together the loose flocks of wool. Under this form it was employed as an ornament for 1. Priests, and those who offered sacrifice. 2. Priestesses, especially those of Vesta, and hence _vittata sacerdos_ for a vestal, κατ’ ἐξόχην. 3. Prophets and poets, who may be regarded as priests, and in this case the vittae were frequently intertwined with chaplets of olive or laurel. 4. Statues of deities. 5. Victims decked for sacrifice. 6. Altars. 7. Temples. 8. The ἱκετήρια of suppliants. The sacred vittae, as well as the infulae, were made of wool, and hence the epithets _lanea_ and _mollis_. They were white (_niveae_), or purple (_puniceae_), or azure (_caeruleae_), when wreathed round an altar to the manes.

VŎLŌNES is synonymous with _Voluntarii_ (from _volo_), and might hence be applied to all those who volunteered to serve in the Roman armies without there being any obligation to do so. But it was applied more especially to slaves, when in times of need they offered or were allowed to fight in the Roman armies. Thus when during the second Punic war, after the battle of Cannae, there was not a sufficient number of freemen to complete the army, about 8000 young and able-bodied slaves offered to serve. Their proposal was accepted; they received armour at the public expense, and as they distinguished themselves they were honoured with the franchise. In after times the name volones was retained whenever slaves chose or were allowed to take up arms in defence of their masters, which they were the more willing to do, as they were generally rewarded with the franchise.

VŎLŪMEN. [LIBER.]

VŎLUNTĀRĬI. [VOLONES.]

VŎMĬTŌRĬA. [AMPHITHEATRUM.]

VULCĀNĀLĬA, a festival celebrated at Rome in honour of Vulcan, on the 23rd of August, with games in the circus Flaminius, where the god had a temple. The sacrifice on this occasion consisted of fishes, which the people threw into the fire. It was also customary on this day to commence working by candle-light, which was probably considered as an auspicious beginning of the use of fire, as the day was sacred to the god of this element.

VULGĀRES. [SERVUS.]

XĔNĀGI (ξεναγοί). The Spartans, as being the head of that Peloponnesian and Dorian league, which was formed to secure the independence of the Greek states, had the sole command of the confederate troops in time of war, ordered the quotas which each state was to furnish, and appointed officers of their own to command them. Such officers were called _Xenagi_. The generals whom the allies sent with their troops were subordinate to these Spartan _xenagi_, though they attended the council of war, as representatives of their respective countries. After the peace of Antalcidas, the league was still more firmly established, though Argos refused to join it; and the Spartans were rigorous in exacting the required military service, demanding levies by the _scytale_, and sending out _xenagi_ to collect them. The word _Xenagus_ may be applied to any leader of a hand of foreigners or mercenaries.

XĔNĒLĂSĬA (ξενηλασία). The Lacedaemonians appear in very early times, before the legislation of Lycurgus, to have been averse to intercourse with foreigners. This disposition was encouraged by the lawgiver, who made an ordinance forbidding strangers to reside at Sparta without special permission, and empowering the magistrate to expel from the city any stranger who misconducted himself, or set an example injurious to public morals.

XĔNĬAS GRĂPHĒ (ξενίας γραφή). As no man could be an Athenian citizen except by birth or creation (γένει or ποιήσει), if one, having neither of those titles, assumed to act as a citizen, either by taking part in the popular assembly, or by serving any office, judicial or magisterial, or by attending certain festivals, or doing any other act which none but a citizen was privileged to do, he was liable to a γραφὴ ξενίας, which any citizen might institute against him; or he might be proceeded against by εἰσαγγελία.

XĔNUS (ξένος). [HOSPITIUM.]

XESTES (ξέστης), a Greek measure of capacity, both fluid and solid, which contained 12 cyathi or 2 cotylae, and was equal to ⅙ of the chous, 1/48 of the Roman amphora or quadrantal, and 1/72 of the Greek amphora or metretes; or, viewing it as a dry measure, it was half the choenix and 1/96 of the medimnus. It contained ·9911 of a pint English. At this point the Roman and Attic systems of measures coincide; for there is no doubt that the Attic xestes was identical with the Roman sextarius.

ZĂCŎRI. [AEDITUI.]

ZĒTĒTAE (ζητηταί), _Inquisitors_, were extraordinary officers, appointed by the Athenians to discover the authors of some crime against the state, and bring them to justice. They were more frequently appointed to search for confiscated property, the goods of condemned criminals and state debtors; to receive and give information against any persons who concealed, or assisted in concealing them, and to deliver an inventory of all such goods (ἀπογράφειν) to the proper authorities.

ZŌNA, also called CINGŬLUM (ζώνη, ζῶμα, ζωστῆρ, μίτρα), a girdle or zone, worn about the loins by both sexes. The chief use of this article of dress was to hold up the tunic (ζώννυσθαι), which was more especially requisite to be done when persons were at work, on a journey, or engaged in hunting. The zona is also represented in many statues and pictures of men in armour as worn round the cuirass. The girdle, mentioned by Homer, seems to have been a constituent part of the cuirass, serving to fasten it by means of a buckle, and also affording an additional protection to the body, and having a short kind of petticoat attached to it, as is shown in the figure of the Greek warrior in p. 240. The cut at p. 4 shows that the ancient cuirass did not descend low enough to secure that part of the body which was covered by the ornamental kilt or petticoat. To supply this defect was the design of the _mitra_ (μίτρα), a brazen belt lined probably on the inside with leather and stuffed with wool, which was worn next to the body. Men used their girdles to hold money instead of a purse. As the girdle was worn to hold up the garments for the sake of business or of work requiring despatch, so it was loosened and the tunic was allowed to fall down to the feet to indicate the opposite condition, and more especially in preparing to perform a sacrifice (_veste recincta_), or funeral rites (_discincti_, _incinctae_). A girdle was worn by young women, even when their tunic was not girt up, and removed on the day of marriage, and therefore called ζώνη παρθενική.

ZŌPHŎRUS (ζωφόρος or διάζωμα), the frieze of an entablature.

TABLES

OF

GREEK AND ROMAN MEASURES, WEIGHTS, AND MONEY.

TABLE Page

I. GREEK MEASURES OF LENGTH.
(1) Smaller Measures 424

II. ROMAN MEASURES OF LENGTH.
(1) Smaller Measures 424

III. GREEK MEASURES OF LENGTH.
(2) Land and Itinerary 425

IV. ROMAN MEASURES OF LENGTH.
(2) Land and Itinerary 426

V. GREEK MEASURES OF SURFACE 426

VI. ROMAN MEASURES OF SURFACE 427

VII. GREEK MEASURES OF CAPACITY.
(1) Liquid Measures 428

VIII. ROMAN MEASURES OF CAPACITY.
(1) Liquid Measures 429

IX. GREEK MEASURES OF CAPACITY.
(2) Dry Measures 430

X. ROMAN MEASURES OF CAPACITY.
(2) Dry Measures 430

XI. GREEK WEIGHTS 431

XII. GREEK MONEY 432

XIII. ROMAN WEIGHTS.
(1) The As and its Uncial Divisions 433

XIV. ROMAN WEIGHTS.
(2) Subdivisions of the Uncia 433

XV. ROMAN MONEY.
(1) Before Augustus 434

XVI. ROMAN MONEY.
(2) After Augustus 434

TABLE I.

GRECIAN MEASURES OF LENGTH.

Column headings:

F: Feet.

Row labels:

O: ὈΡΓΥΙΆ

+--------------------------------------------------------+-+---------+
| I. SMALLER MEASURES. |F| Inches. |
+--------------------------------------------------------+-+---------+
| Δάκτυλος |”| ·7584375|
+--+ | | |
| 2| Κόνδυλος |”| 1·516875|
+--+---+ | | |
| 4| 2 | Παλαιστή, Δῶρον, Δοχμή, or Δακτυλοδοχμή |”| 3·03375 |
+--+---+---+ | | |
| 8| 4 | 2 | Διχάς, or Ἡμιπόδιον |”| 6·0675 |
+--+---+---+---+ | | |
|10| 5 | 2½| 1¼| Διχάς |”| 7·584375|
+--+---+---+---+------+ | | |
|11| 5½| 2¾| 1⅜|1-1/10| Ὀρθοδῶρον |”|8·3428125|
+--+---+---+---+------+------+ | | |
|12| 6 | 3 | 1½| 1⅕ |1-1/11| Σπιθαμή |”| 9·10125 |
+--+---+---+---+------+------+---+ | | |
|16| 8 | 4 | 2 | 1⅗ |1-5/11| 1⅓| ΠΟῩΣ |1| 0·135 |
+--+---+---+---+------+------+---+---+ | | |
|18| 9 | 4½| 2¼| 1⅘ |1-7/11| 1½| 1⅛| Πυγμή |1| 1·651875|
+--+---+---+---+------+------+---+---+-----+ | | |
|20| 10| 5 | 2½| 2 |1-9/11| 1⅔| 1¼|1-1/9| Πυγών |1| 3·16875 |
+--+---+---+---+------+------+---+---+-----+---+ | | |
|24| 12| 6 | 3 | 2⅖ |2-2/11| 2 | 1½| 1⅓ | 1⅕| ΠΗΧΥΣ |1| 6·2025 |
+--+---+---+---+------+------+---+---+-----+---+-+ | | |
|72| 36| 18| 9 | 7⅕ |6-6/11| 6 | 4½| 4 | 3⅗|3| Ξύλον |4| 6·6075 |
+--+---+---+---+------+------+---+---+-----+---+-+---+ | | |
|96| 48| 24| 12| 9⅗ |8-8/11| 8 | 6 | 5⅓ | 4⅘|4| 1⅓| O |6| 0·81 |
+--+---+---+---+------+------+---+---+-----+---+-+---+---+-+---------+

N.B.--_Approximate Values._ From the above Table, it will be seen that the Greek _Foot_, _Cubit_, and _Orguia_, only exceed the English _Foot_, _Foot and a half_, and _Fathom_, by about 1-10th, 2-10ths, and 8-10ths of an inch respectively.

TABLE II.

ROMAN MEASURES OF LENGTH.

+----------------------------------------------+-------+---------+
| I. SMALLER MEASURES. | Feet. | Inches. |
+----------------------------------------------+-------+---------+
| Digitus | ” | ·7281 |
+----+ | | |
| 1⅓ | UNCIA or Pollex | ” | ·9708 |
+----+----+ | | |
| 4 | 3 | Palmus | ” | 2·9124 |
+----+----+---+ | | |
| 12 | 9 | 3 | Palmus Major (of late times) | ” | 8·7372 |
+----+----+---+----+ | | |
| 16 | 12 | 4 | 1⅓ | PES | ” | 11·6496 |
+----+----+---+----+----+ | | |
| 20 | 15 | 5 | 1⅔ | 1¼ | Palmipes | 1 | 2·562 |
+----+----+---+----+----+----+ | | |
| 24 | 18 | 6 | 2 | 1½ | 1⅕ | CUBITUS | 1 | 5·4744 |
+----+----+---+----+----+----+-----------------+-------+---------+

N.B.--_Approximate Values._ The Roman _Uncia_, _Pes_, and _Cubitus_ only fall short of our _Inch_, _Foot_, and _Foot and a half_, by less than 1-10th, 4-10ths, and 6-10ths of an inch respectively.

TABLE III.

GRECIAN MEASURES OF LENGTH.

Column headings:

M: Miles.
F: Feet.
I: Inches.

Row labels:

RM: ROMAN MILE (μίλιον)
P: ΠαρασάγγηςS: ΣχοῖνοςD: DEGREE

+--------------------------------------------------------------+-----+----+------+
| II. LARGER MEASURES.--LAND AND ITINERARY.[4] | M | F | I |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+-----+----+------+
| ΠΟΥΣ | ” | 1 |0·135 |
+------+ | | | |
| 1½ | ΠΗΧΥΣ | ” | 1 |6·2025|
+------+-------+ | | | |
| 2½ | 1⅔ | Βῦμα | ” | 2 |6·3375|
+------+------+------+ | | | |
| 6 | 4 | 2⅖ | ὈΡΓΥΙΆ | ” | 6 | 0·81 |
+------+------+------+----+ | | | |
| 10 | 6⅔ | 4 | 1⅔ | Κάλαμος, Ἄκαινα, or Δεκάπους | ” | 10 | 1·35 |
+------+------+------+----+----+ | | | |
| 60 | 40 | 24 | 10 | 6 | Ἄμμα | ” | 60 | 8·1 |
+------+------+------+----+----+---+ | | | |
| 100 | 66⅔ | 40 | 16⅔| 10 | 1⅔| Πλέθρον | ” | 101| 1·5 |
+------+------+------+----+----+---+---+ | | | |
| 600 | 400 | 240 | 100| 60 | 10| 6| ΣΤΆΔΙΟΝ or ΣΤΆΔΙΟΣ | ” | 606| 9 |
+------+------+------+----+----+---+---+---+ | | | |
| 1200 | 800 | 480 | 200| 120| 20| 12| 2 | Δίαυλος | ” |1213| 6 |
+------+------+------+----+----+---+---+---+---+ | | | |
| 2400 | 1600 | 960 | 40 | 240| 40| 24| 4 | 2 | Ἱππικόν | ” |2427| ” |
+------+------+------+----+----+---+---+---+---+---+ | | | |
| 4800 | 3200 | 1920 | 800| 480| 80| 48| 8 | 4 | 2 | RM | ” |4854| ” |
+------+------+------+----+----+---+---+---+---+---+---+ | | | |
|18,000|12,000| 7200 |3000|1800|300|180| 30| 15| 7½| 3¾| P | 3 |2362| 6 |
+------+------+------+----+----+---+---+---+---+---+---+--+ | | | |
|36,000|24,000|14,400|6000|3600|600|360| 60| 30| 15| 7½| 2| S | 6 |4735| ” |
+------+------+------+----+----+---+---+---+---+---+---+--+--+ | | | |
|360,000 |144,000 |36,000 |3600 |300 |75 |10|D|68[5]|5110| ” |
| |240,000 |60,000 |6000 |600 |150 |20 |
+------+------+------+----+----+---+---+---+---+---+---+--+--+-+-----+----+------+

FOOTNOTES:

[4] In order to show the relations more clearly, the foreign measures most familiar to the Greeks are included in this Table.

[5] This is, of course, not the true number of English statute miles contained in a degree of a great circle of the earth, but the number _computed_ from the data exhibited in the Table, some of which are only approximate; namely, 1 Degree = 75 Roman miles = 600 Greek Stadia, and 1 Greek foot = 12·135 inches. The true value of a degree in English miles is 69-1/51 = 69·0196, and the difference is only about 7-100ths of a mile.

TABLE IV.

ROMAN MEASURES OF LENGTH.

Column headings:

M: Miles
F: Feet.
I: Inches.

Row labels:

MP: MILLE PASSUUM
GL: Gallic Leuga
D: DEGREE[6]

+---------------------------------------------------------+---+-----+-------+
| II. LARGER MEASURES.--LAND AND ITINERARY. | M | F | I |
+---------------------------------------------------------+---+-----+-------+
| PES | ” | ” |11·6496|
+-------+ | | | |
| 1½ | Cubitus | ” | 1 | 5·4744|
+-------+-------+ | | | |
| 2½ | 1⅔ | Gradus, or Pes Sestertius | ” | 2 | 5·124 |
+-------+-------+-------+ | | | |
| 5 | 3⅓ | 2 | PASSUS | ” | 4 |10·248 |
+-------+-------+-------+------+ | | | |
| 10 | 6⅔ | 4 | 2 | Decempeda, or Pertica | ” | 9 | 8·496 |
+-------+-------+-------+------+------+ | | | |
| 120 | 80 | 48 | 24 | 12 | Actus (in length) | ” | 116 | 5·952 |
+-------+-------+-------+------+------+----+ | | | |
| 5000 | 3333⅓| 2000 | 1000 | 500 | 41⅔| MP | ” | 4854| ” |
+-------+-------+-------+------+------+----+--+ | | | |
| 7500 | 5000 | 3000 | 1500 | 750 | 62½|1½| GL | 1 | 2003| ” |
+-------+-------+-------+------+------+----+--+--+ | | | |
|375,000|250,000|150,000|75,000|37,500|3125|75|50| D |68 | 5110| ” |
+-------+-------+-------+------+------+----+--+--+--------+---+-----+-------+

N.B.--The Roman mile only differs from the English by less than 1-10th.

FOOTNOTE:

[6] See Note to Table III.

TABLE V.

GRECIAN MEASURES OF SURFACE.

Column headings:

P: Perches.
SF: Square Feet.

+---------------------------------------------------+----+-----------+
| ORDINARY LAND MEASURES. | P | SF |
+---------------------------------------------------+----+-----------+
| ΠΟΥΣ (Square Foot) | ” | 1·0226 |
+------+ | | |
| 36 | Ἑξαπόδης | ” | 36·81456 |
+------+--------+ | | |
| 100 | 2-7/9 | Ἄκαινα (Square of the καλαμος) | ” | 102·26266 |
+------+--------+-----+ | | |
| 833⅓| 23-4/27| 8⅓| Ἡμίεκτος | 3 | 35·439 |
+------+--------+-----+----+ | | |
| 1666⅔| 46-8/27| 16⅔| 2 | Ἕκτος | 6 | 70·877 |
+------+--------+-----+----+----+ | | |
| 2500 | 69-4/9| 25 | 3 | 1½ | Ἄρουρα | 9 | 106·318 |
+------+--------+-----+----+----+---+ | | |
|10,000| 277-7/9| 100 | 12 | 6 | 4 | ΠΛΈΘΡΟΝ | 37 | 153·02[7] |
+------+--------+-----+----+----+---+---------------+----+-----------+

FOOTNOTE:

[7] This differs from a rood, or a quarter of an acre, by little more than 2 perches; for the rood contains 40 perches.

TABLE VI.

ROMAN MEASURES OF SURFACE.

Column headings:

A: Acres.
R: Roods.
P: Perches.
SF: Square Feet.

Row labels:

H: Heredium
C: Centuria
S: Saltus

+------------------------------------------------------+---+---+---+----------+
| ORDINARY LAND MEASURES. | A | R | P | SF |
+------------------------------------------------------+---+---+---+----------+
| PES QUADRATUS | ” | ” | ” | ·9445 |
+----------+ | | | | |
| 100 | Scrupulum, or Decempeda Quadrata | ” | ” | ” | 94·245 |
+----------+-------+ | | | | |
| 480 | 4⅘ | ACTUS SIMPLEX | ” | ” | 1 | 180·127 |
+----------+-------+------+ | | | | |
| 2400 | 24 | 5 | Uncia[8] | ” | ” | 8 | 83·885 |
+----------+-------+------+----+ | | | | |
| 3600 | 36 | 7½ | 1½ | Clima | ” | ” |12 | 125·83 |
+----------+-------+------+----+----+ | | | | |
| 14,400 | 144 | 30 | 6 | 4 | ACTUS QUADRATUS | ” | 1 | 9 | 231·07 |
+----------+-------+------+----+----+----+ | | | | |
| 28,800 | 288 | 60 | 12 | 8 | 2 | JUGERUM | ” | 2 |19 |189·89[9] |
+----------+-------+------+----+----+----+---+ | | | | |
| 57,600 | 576 | 120 | 24 | 16 | 4 | 2 | H | 1 | 0 |39 |107·53[10]|
+----------+-------+------+----+----+----+---+---+ | | | | |
| 5,760,000| 57,600|12,000|2400|1600| 400|200|100| C |124| 2 |19 | 135·25 |
+----------+-------+------+----+----+----+---+---+-+ | | | | |
|23,040,000|230,400|48,000|9600|6400|1600|800|400|4| S |498| 1 |37 |268·75[11]|
+----------+-------+------+----+----+----+---+---+-+---+---+---+---+----------+

FOOTNOTES:

[8] The _As_ to which this _Uncia_ and the above _Scrupulum_ belong is the _Jugerum_. The other uncial divisions of the _Jugerum_ may easily be calculated from the _Uncia_. The _Semissis_ is, of course, the _Actus Quadratus_.

[9] _i.e._ almost 5-8ths of an acre.

[10] _i.e._ almost an acre and a quarter.

[11] _i.e._ almost 500 acres.

TABLE VII.

GRECIAN MEASURES OF CAPACITY.

Column headings: G=Gallons. P=Pints.

Row labels:

RA: ROMAN AMPHORA (κεράμιον)
AM: ΑΜΦΟΡΕΥΣ ΜΕΤΡΗΤΗΣ

+----------------------------------------------------------+-+-----+-------+
| | | |Approx-|
| | | |imate. |
| I. ATTIC LIQUID MEASURES. | | | [12] |
| | | +-+-----+
| |G| P |G| P |
+----------------------------------------------------------+-+-----+-+-----+
|Κοχλιάριον |“| ·008|”|1/120|
+----+ | | | | |
| 2 |Χήμη |“| ·016|”|1/60 |
+----+----+ | | | | |
| 2½| 1¼|Μύστρον |“| ·02 |”|1/48 |
+----+----+----+ | | | | |
| 5 | 2½| 2|Κόγχη |“| ·04 |”|1/24 |
+----+----+----+----+ | | | | |
| 10 | 5 | 4| 2|ΚΎΑΘΟΣ |“| ·08 |”|1/12 |
+----+----+----+----+---+ | | | | |
| 15 | 1½| 6| 3| 1½|Ὀξύβαφον |“| ·12 |”| ⅛ |
+----+----+----+----+---+---+ | | | | |
| 30 15 | 12| 6| 3| 2|Τέταρτον |“| ·24 |”| ¼ |
+----+----+----+----+---+---+---+ | | | | |
| 60 | 30 | 24| 12| 6| 4| 2|Κοτύλη, Τρυβλίον or Ἡμίνα |“| ·48 |”| ½ |
+----+----+----+----+---+---+---+---+ | | | | |
| 120| 60 | 48| 24| 12| 8| 4| 2| ΞΈΣΤΗΣ (Sextarius) |“| ·96 |”| 1 |
+----+----+----+----+---+---+---+---+--- | | | | |
| 720| 360| 288| 144| 72| 48| 24| 12| 6 ΧΟΥΣ |“|5·76 |”| 6 |
+----+----+----+----+---+---+---+---+--+--+ | | | | |
|5760|2880|2304|1152|576|384|192| 96|48| 8| RA |5|6·08 |6| ” |
+----+----+----+----+---+---+---+---+--+--+---+ | | | | |
|8640|4320|3456|1728|864|576|288|144|72|12| 1½| AM |8|5·12 |9| ” |
+----+----+----+----+---+---+---+---+--+--+---+------------+-+-----+-+-----+

N.B.--The _Aeginetan_ measures of capacity may be easily calculated from these, according to the ratio given under QUADRANTAL.

FOOTNOTE:

[12] As the _Sextarius_ differs from the English pint by only 1-25th part of the latter, it will be found useful, in ordinary rough calculations, to take it at exactly a pint, and so with the other measures in this table. The results thus obtained may be corrected by subtracting from each of them its 1-25th part.

TABLE VIII.

ROMAN MEASURES OF CAPACITY.

Column headings:

A: Approximate.[13]
G: Gallons.
P: Pints.

Row labels:

Q: Quartarius, _i.e._ 1-4th of the _Sextarius_
S: SEXTARIUS, _i.e._ 1-6th of the _Congius_
AQ: AMPHORA QUADRANTAL
C: Culeus

+-----------------------------------------------+----+-----+-----------+
| | | | A |
| I. LIQUID MEASURES. | G | P +-----+-----+
| | | | G | P |
+-----------------------------------------------+----+-----+-----+-----+
| Ligula | ” | ·02| ” | 1/48|
+------+ | | | | |
| 4 | CYATHUS[14] | ” | ·08| ” | 1/12|
+------+------+ | | | | |
| 6 | 1½ | Acetabulum | ” | ·12| ” | ⅛ |
+------+------+----+ | | | | |
| 12 | 3 | 2 | Q | ” | ·24| ” | ¼ |
+------+------+----+----+ | | | | |
| 24 | 6 | 4 | 2 | Hemina or Cotyla | ” | ·48| ” | ½ |
+------+------+----+----+----+ | | | | |
| 48 | 12 | 8 | 4 | 2 | S | ” | ·96| ” | 1 |
+------+------+----+----+----+---+ | | | | |
| 288 | 72 | 48 | 24 | 12 | 6 | CONGIUS | ” | 5·76| ” | 6 |
+------+------+----+----+----+---+---+ | | | | |
| 1152 | 288 | 192| 96 | 48 | 24| 4 | Urna | 2 | 7·04| 3 | ” |
+------+------+----+----+----+---+---+--+ | | | | |
| 2304 | 576 | 384| 192| 96 | 48| 8 | 2| AQ | 5 | 6·08| 6 | ” |
+------+------+----+----+----+---+---+--+--+ | | | | |
|46,080|11,520|7680|3840|1920|960|160|40|20| C | 115| 1·6 | 120 | ” |
+------+------+----+----+----+---+---+--+--+----+----+-----+-----+-----+

FOOTNOTES:

[13] See the Note to Table VII

[14] According to the uncial division, the _Sextarius_ was the _As_, and the _Cyathus_ the _Uncia_.

TABLE IX.

GRECIAN MEASURES OF CAPACITY.

Column headings:

A: Approximate.[15]
G: Gallons
P: Pints.

Row labels:

H: Ἕκτος (equal to the Roman _Modius_.)
M: ΜΈΔΙΜΝΟΣ

+------------------------------------------+----+------+---------------+
| | | | A |
| II. ATTIC DRY MEASURES. | G | P +-------+-------+
| | | | G | P |
+------------------------------------------+----+------+-------+-------+
| Κοχλιάριον | ” | ·008 | ” | 1/120 |
+------+ | | | | |
| 10 | ΚΎΑΘΟΣ | ” | ·08 | ” | 1/12 |
+------+----+ | | | | |
| 15 | 1½| Ὀξύβαφον | ” | ·12 | ” | ⅛ |
+------+----+---+ | | | | |
| 60 | 6 | 4| ΚΟΤΎΛΗ or Ἡμίνα | ” | ·48 | ” | ½ |
+------+----+---+---+ | | | | |
| 120 | 12| 8| 2| ΞΈΣΤΗΣ (_Sextarius_) | ” | ·96 | ” | 1 |
+------+----+---+---+---+ | | | | |
| 240 | 24| 16| 4| 2 | ΧΟΙΝΙΞ | ” | 1·92 | ” | 2[16] |
+------+----+---+---+---+---+ | | | | |
| 960 | 96| 64| 16| 8 | 4 | Ἡμίεκτον | ” | 7·68 | 1 | ” |
+------+----+---+---+---+---+---+ | | | | |
| 1920 | 192|128| 32| 16| 8 | 2 | H | 1 | 7·36 | 2 | ” |
+------+----+---+---+---+---+---+---+ | | | | |
|11,520|1152|768|192| 96| 48| 12| 6 | M | 11 | 4·16 | 12[17]| ” |
+------+----+---+---+---+---+---+---+------+----+------+-------+-------+

N.B.--Respecting the _Aeginetan_ Measures, see the Note to Table VII.

FOOTNOTES:

[15] See the Note to Table VII.

[16] Or one quart.

[17] Or one bushel and a half.

TABLE X.

ROMAN MEASURES OF CAPACITY.

Column headings:

A: Approximate.[18]
G: Gallons.
P: Pints.

Row labels:

Quart.: Quartarius, _i.e._ 1-4th of the _Sextarius_
Sext.: SEXTARIUS, _i.e._ 1-6th of the _Congius_

+----------------------------------------------+---+------+-------------+
| | | | A |
| II. DRY MEASURES. | G | P +------+------+
| | | | G | P |
+----------------------------------------------+---+------+------+------+
| Ligula | ” | ·02 | ” | 1/48 |
+-----+ | | | | |
| 4 | CYATHUS[19] | ” | ·08 | ” | 1/12 |
+-----+-----+ | | | | |
| 6 | 1½ | Acetabulum | ” | ·12 | ” | ⅛ |
+-----+-----+-----+ | | | | |
| 12 | 3 | 2 | Quart. | ” | ·24 | ” | ¼ |
+-----+-----+-----+----+ | | | | |
| 24 | 6 | 4 | 2 | Hemina, or Cotyla | ” | ·48 | ” | ½ |
+-----+-----+-----+----+----+ | | | | |
| 48 | 12 | 8 | 4 | 2 | Sext. | ” | ·96 | ” | 1 |
+-----+-----+-----+----+----+----+ | | | | |
| 384 | 96 | 64 | 32 | 16 | 8 | Semimodius | ” | 7·68 | 1 | ” |
+-----+-----+-----+----+----+----+---+ | | | | |
| 768 | 192 | 128 | 64 | 32 | 16 | 2 | MODIUS | 1 | 7·36 | 2[20]| ” |
+-----+-----+-----+----+----+----+---+---------+---+------+------+------+

FOOTNOTES:

[18] See the Note to Table VII.

[19] See the Note to Table VIII.

[20] Or a quarter of a bushel.

TABLE XI.

GRECIAN WEIGHTS.

+------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 1. Ratios of the three chief Systems. |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Aeginetan : Euboic or old Attic :: 6 : 5 |
| Aeginetan : Solonian or later Attic :: 5 : 3 |
| Euboic : Solonian :: 138-8/9 : 100 |
| or :: 100 : 72 |
| or :: 25 : 18 |
+========================================================================+
|The Aeginetan Talent=6000 Aeginetan Drachmae=7200 Euboic=10,000 Solonian|
| Euboic ” =5000 ” =6000 ” = 8,333⅓ ” |
| Solonian[21] ” =3600 ” =4320 ” = 6,000 ” |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------+

FOOTNOTE:

[21] Also called the _Attic Silver Talent_. When Attic weights are spoken of without any further distinction, these are generally intended.

Column headings:

L: lb.
O: oz.
G: grs.

+----------------------------------+--------------------+--------------+
| | _Exact._[22] |_Approximate._|
| 2. Aeginetan Weights. +----+---+-----------+-----+---+----+
| | L | O | grs. | lb. |oz.| G |
+----------------------------------+----+---+-----------+-----+---+----+
| Obol (Ὀβολος) | ” | ” | 18·472-2/9| ” | ” | 20 |
+------+ | | | | | | |
| 6 | Drachma (Δραχμή) | ” | ” | 110·83⅛ | ” | ¼ | ” |
+------+----+ | | | | | | |
| 600 | 100| Mina (Μνᾶ) | 1 | 9 |145·83⅓[23]| 1⅔ | ” | ” |
+------+----+--+ | | | | | | |
|36,000|6000|60| Talent (Τάλαντον) | 95 | ” | ” | 100 | ” | ” |
+------+----+--+-------------------+----+---+-----------+-----+---+----+

FOOTNOTES:

[22] In this and the other tables the English weights used are those of the avoirdupois scale as fixed by statute; namely, the grain = the Troy grain, the ounce = 437½ grains, the pound = 16 ounces = 7000 grains.

[23] Or ⅓ of an oz.

Column headings:

L: lb.
O: oz.

+------------------------------+-----------------------+--------------+
| | _Exact._ |_Approximate._|
| 3. Euboic or Attic +----+---+--------------+----+---+-----+
| Commercial Weights. | L | O | grs. | L | O | grs.|
+------------------------------+----+---+--------------+----+---+-----+
| Obol | ” | ” | 15·398-14/27 | | ” | 15½ |
+--------+ | | | | | | |
| 6 | Drachma | ” | ” | 92·3611-1/9 | ” | ” | 93⅓ |
+--------+------+ | | | | | | |
| 600 | 100 | Mina | 1 | 5 | 48·611-1/9 | 1 | ” | ” |
+--------+------+----+ | | | | | | |
| 36,000 | 6000 | 60 | Talent | 79 | 2 | 291·63⅓ | 80 | ” | ” |
+--------+------+----+---------+----+---+--------------+----+---+-----+

Column headings:

L: lb.
O: oz.
G: grs.