Chapter IV: The Revolution In The Ecclesiastical And Political Situation (2)

In some pictures of the holy icons, a lamb is painted to which the Forerunner(312) points his finger, and this is received to serve as a type of grace, indicating beforehand through the Law our true lamb, Christ our God. Embracing therefore the ancient types and shadows as symbols and patterns of the truth, which have been given to the Church, we prefer “grace and truth,” receiving it as the fulfilment of the Law. In order, therefore, that what is perfect may be delineated to the eyes of all, at least in colored expression, we decree that the figure of the lamb who taketh away the sin of the world, Christ our God, be henceforth exhibited according to human form in the icons, instead of the ancient lamb, so that all may understand, by means of it, the depth of the humiliation of the Word of God, and that we may recall to our memory His life in the flesh, His passion and salutary death, and the redemption resulting therefrom for the whole world.

(_b_) _Liber Diurnus Romanorum Pontificum_, n. 58.

Notification to the Emperor of an Election of a Pontiff.

The _Liber Diurnus_ was the book of official formulæ used on
occasions such as elections of pontiffs and the conferring of the
pallium. It was composed between 685 and 751, and was employed in
the papal chancellery down to the eleventh century, when it became
antiquated on account of the changes in the position of the popes.
The modern editions of the book are by Rozière, Paris, 1869, and
by Sickel, Vienna, 1889. The text may be found in Mirbt, n. 195,
where may also be found numerous other useful extracts.

Although it has not been without the merciful divine ordering that, after the death of the supreme pontiff, the votes of all should agree in the election of one, and that there be perfect harmony so that no one at all is to be found who would oppose it, it is yet necessary that we ought obediently to pour forth the prayers of our petitions to our most serene and most pious lord, who is known to rejoice in the concord of his subjects, and graciously to grant what has been asked by them in unanimity. And so when our Pope (_name_) of most blessed memory died, the assent of all was given, by the will of God, to the election of (_name_), the venerable archdeacon of the Apostolic See, because from the beginning of his life he had so served the same church, and in all things shown himself so able that he ought deservedly to be placed, with the divine approval, over the ecclesiastical government, especially since by his constant association with the aforesaid most blessed pontiff (_name_), he has been able to attain to the same distinctions of so great merit, by which the same prelate of holy memory is known to have been adorned, who by his words always stirred up his mind, being desirous of heavenly joys, so that whatsoever good we have lost in his predecessor we are confident that we have certainly found in him. Therefore, in tears, all we your servants pray that the piety of the lords may deign to hear the supplication of their servants, and the desires of their petitioners may be granted by the command of their piety, for the benefit of the Empire, that command may be given for his ordination; so that when we have been placed by your sacred and exalted clemency under him as our pastor, we may always pray for the life and empire of our most serene lords to the Lord Almighty and to the blessed Peter, prince of the Apostles, to whose church it has been granted that a worthy ruler be ordained.

Subscription of the priests.

I (_name_), by the mercy of God, presbyter of the holy Roman Church, consenting to this action made by us in regard to (_name_), the venerable archdeacon of the holy Apostolic See and our elected Pope, have subscribed.

Subscription of the laity.

I (_name_), servant of your piety, consenting to this action drawn up by us in regard to (_name_), the venerable archdeacon of the holy Apostolic See and our elected Pope, have subscribed.

(_c_) _Liber Diurnus Romanorum Pontificum_, ch. 60.

Notification of the Election of a Pontiff to the Exarch of
Ravenna.

The text may be found in part in Mirbt, _loc. cit._

To the most excellent and exalted lord, graciously to be preserved to us for a long life in his princely office (_name_), exarch of Italy, the priests, deacons, and all the clergy of Rome, the magistrates, the army, and the people of this city of Rome as suppliants send greeting.

Providence is able to give aid in human affairs and to change the weeping and groaning of the sorrowing into rejoicing.…

Inasmuch as (_name_), of pontifical memory, has been called from present cares to eternal rest, as is the lot of mortals, a great load of sorrow oppressed us, for as guardians we were deprived of our own guardian. But the accustomed kindness of our God did not permit us to remain long in this affliction because we hoped in Him. For after we had humbly spent three days in prayer that the heavenly kindness might, for the merits of all, make known whom as worthy it commanded to be elected to succeed to the apostolic office, with the aid of His grace which inspired the minds of all; and after we had assembled as is customary, that is, the clergy and the people of Rome with the presence of the nobility and the army, from the least to the greatest, so to speak; and the election, with the help of God and the aid of the holy Apostles, fell upon the person of (_name_), the most holy archdeacon of this holy Apostolic See of the Roman Church. The good and chaste life of this man, beloved of God, was in the opinion of all so deserving that none opposed his election, no one was absent, and none dissented from it. For why should not men agree unanimously upon him whom the incomparable and unfailing providence of our God had foreordained to this office? For without doubt this had been determined upon in the presence of God. So solemnly performing his decrees and confirming with our signatures the desires of hearts concerning his election, we have sent you our fellow-servants as the bearers of this letter (_names_), most holy bishop (_name_), venerable presbyter (_name_), regionary notary (_name_), regionary subdeacons (_names_), honorable citizens, and from the most flourishing and successful Roman army (_name_), most eminent consul, and (_names_) chief men, tribunes of the army, begging and praying together that your excellency, whom may God preserve, may with your accustomed goodness agree with our pious choice; because he, who has been unanimously elected by our humility, is such that so far as human discernment is able to see, no spot of reproach appears in him. And therefore we beg and beseech you, by God’s inspiration, to grant our petition quickly, because there are many questions and other matters arising daily which require for remedy the care of pontifical favor. And the affairs of the province and the need of causes connected therewith also seek and await the control of due authority. Besides we need some one to keep the neighboring enemy in check, which can only be done by the power of God, and of the Prince of the Apostles through his vicar, the bishop of Rome; since it is well known that at various times the bishop of Rome has driven off enemies by his warnings, and at other times he has turned aside and restrained them by his prayers; so that by his words alone, on account of their reverence for the Prince of the Apostles, they have offered voluntary obedience, and thus they, whom the force of arms had not overcome, have yielded to the warnings and prayers of the Pope.

Since these things are so, we again and again beseech you, our exalted lord, preserved by God, that, with the aid and inspiration of God in your heart, you may quickly give orders to adorn the Apostolic See by the completed ordination of the same, our father. And we, your humble servants, on seeing our desires fulfilled, may then give unceasing thanks to God and to you, and with our spiritual pastor, our bishop, enthroned in the Apostolic Seat, we may pour out prayers for the life and health and complete victories of our most exalted and Christian lords (_names_), the great and victorious emperors, that the merciful God may give manifold victories to their royal courage, and cause them to triumph over all peoples, and that God may give them joy of heart, because the ancient rule of Rome has been restored. For we know that he whom we have elected Pope can, with his prayers, influence the divine omnipotence; and he has prepared a joyful increase for the Roman Empire, and he will aid you in this, in the government of this province of Italy, which is subject to you, and will aid and protect all of us, your servants, through many years.

Subscription of the priests.

I, (_name_), the humble archpriest of the holy Roman Church, have with full consent subscribed to this document which we have made concerning (_name_), most holy archdeacon, our bishop elect.

And the subscription of the laity.

I, (_name_), in the name of God, consul, have with full consent subscribed to this document which we have made concerning (_name_), most holy archdeacon, our bishop-elect.

(_d_) Paulus Diaconus, _Hist. Langobardorum_, IV, 44. (MSL, 95:581.)

Agilulf may have been a convert to the Catholic faith, _v. supra_,
§ 99. His successors were not. In fact, not until 653, when
Aribert, the nephew of Theodelinda, ascended the throne, were the
Lombards permanently under Catholic rulers.

44. After Ariwald (626-636) had reigned twelve years over the Lombards he departed this life, and Rothari of the family of Arodus took the kingdom of the Lombards. He was a strong, brave man, and walked in the paths of justice; in Christian faith, however, he did not hold to the right way, but was polluted by the unbelief of the Arian heresy. The Arians say, to their confusion, that the Son is inferior to the Father and, in the same way, the Holy Ghost is inferior to the Father and the Son; we, Catholic Christians, on the contrary, confess that the Father and the Son and the Holy Ghost are one true God in three persons, equal in power and glory. In the times of Rothari there were in nearly all the cities of his kingdom two bishops, a Catholic and an Arian.

To this very day there is shown in the city of Ticinus [Pavia] the place where the Arian bishop resided, at the church of St. Eusebius, and held the baptistery while the Catholic bishop was at the head of another church. The Arian bishop, however, who was in this city, whose name was Anastasius, accepted the Catholic faith and afterward ruled the Church of Christ. This king Rothari caused the laws of the Lombards to be reduced to writing and named the book _The Edict_; the law of the Lombards up to that time had been retained merely in memory and by their use in the courts. This took place, as the king in the preface to his law-book says, in the seventy-seventh year(313) after the Lombards came into Italy.

§ 109. Rome, Constantinople, and the Lombards in the Period of the First Iconoclastic Controversy; the Seventh General Council, Nicæa, A. D. 787

By the eight century the veneration of pictures or icons had become wide-spread throughout the Eastern Church. Apart from their due place in the cultus, grave abuses and superstitions had arisen in many parts of the Church in connection with the icons. To Leo III the Isaurian (717-741), and to the army, the veneration of the icons, as practised by the populace, and especially by the monks, seemed but little removed from the grossest idolatry. Accordingly, in an edict issued in 726, Leo attempted to put an end to the abuses by preventing all veneration of the icons. Meeting with opposition, his measures passed from moderate to severe. In Italy, although the use of icons was not developed to the same extent as in the East, sympathy was entirely against the Iconoclasts. Gregory II (715-731) and Gregory III (731-741) bitterly reproached and denounced the action of the Emperor. Nearly all the exarchate willingly passed under the power of the Lombards. Other parts of northern Italy also broke with the Emperor. Leo retaliated by annexing Illyricum to the see of Constantinople and confiscating the papal revenues in southern Italy. From that time the connection between the Pope and the Emperor was very slight. The Emperor Constantine V Copronymus (741-775) was more severe than his father, and in many respects even fiercely brutal in his treatment of the monks. A synod was assembled at Constantinople, 754, attended by three hundred and thirty-eight bishops, who, as was customary in Eastern synods, supported the Emperor. His son, Leo IV Chazarus (775-780) was less energetic and disposed to tolerate the use of icons in private. But his widow, Irene, the guardian of her infant son, Constantine VI, was determined to restore the images or icons. A synod held at Constantinople in 786 was broken up by the soldiery of the capital. In 787 at Nicæa, a council was called at a safe distance and Iconoclasm was condemned.

Additional source material: _St. John Damascene on Holy Images_,
Eng. trans. by Mary H. Allies, 1898; St. John of Damascus,
_Exposition of the Orthodox Faith_, PNF, ser. II, vol. IX;
Percival, _Seven Ecumenical Councils_ (PNF).

(_a_) _Liber Pontificalis, Vita Gregorii_ II. Ed. Duchesne, I, 403.

Disorders in Italy consequent upon Iconoclasm.

The following passage from the _Liber Pontificalis_ gives a vivid
and, on the whole, accurate picture of the confusion in Italy
during the last years of the authority of the Eastern Roman Empire
in the peninsula. It is hardly likely that the Emperor ordered the
death of the pontiff as recorded, and more probable that his
over-officious representatives regarded it as a means of
ingratiating themselves with their master. The passage is strictly
contemporaneous, as the _Liber Pontificalis_, at least in this
part, is composed of brief biographies of Popes written
immediately after their decease and in some instances during their
lives. For a fuller statement of the whole period, see Hefele, §§
332 _ff._, who gives an abstract of the following and also of two
letters alleged to have been written by Gregory II to the Emperor,
which Hefele accepts as genuine. For a criticism of these letters,
see Hodgkin, _op. cit._, VI, 501-505. Hodgkin gives an excellent
account of King Liutprand in ch. XII of the same volume, pp.
437-508, and throws much light on the following passage.

For the events immediately preceding this, see Paulus Diaconus,
_Hist. Langobardorum_, VI, 46-48, given above in § 106. Paulus
refers to the capture of Narnia in the last sentence of ch. 48.
and his next chapter is apparently a condensation of the following
sections of the official papal biography.

At that time [_circa_ A. D. 725] Narnia(314) was taken by the Lombards. And Liutprand, the king of the Lombards, advanced upon Ravenna with his entire army, and besieged it for some days. Taking the fortress of Classis, he bore off many captives and immense booty. After some time the duke Basilius, the chartularius Jordanes, and the subdeacon John, surnamed Lurion, conspired to kill the Pope; and Marinus, the imperial spatarius, who at that time held the government of the duchy of Rome, having been sent by the command of the Emperor to the royal city, joined their conspiracy. But they could not find an opportunity. The plot was broken up by the judgment of God, and he therefore left Rome. Later Paulus, the patrician, was sent as exarch to Italy, who planned how at length he might accomplish the crime; but their plans were disclosed to the Romans, These were so enraged that they killed Jordanes and John Lurion. Basilius, however, became a monk and ended his life hidden in a certain place. But the exarch Paulus, on the command of the Emperor, tried to kill the pontiff because he hindered the levying of a tax upon the province, intending to strip the churches of their property, as was done in other places, and to appoint another [Pope] in his place. After this another spatarius was sent with commands to remove the pontiff from his seat. Then again the patrician Paulus sent, for the accomplishment of this crime, such soldiers as he could withdraw from Ravenna, with his guard and some from the camps. But the Romans were aroused, and from all sides the Lombards gathered for the defence of the pontiff at the bridge of Solario, in the district of Spoleto, and the dukes of the Lombards, surrounding the Roman territories, prevented this crime.

In a decree afterward sent, the Emperor ordered that there no longer should be in any church an image(315) of any saint, or martyr, or angel (for he said that all these were accursed); and if the pontiff assented he should enjoy his favor, but if he prevented the accomplishment of this also he should fall from his position. The pious man, despising therefore the profane command of the prince, armed himself against the Emperor as against an enemy, rejecting this heresy and writing everywhere to warn Christians of the impiety which had arisen.

Aroused by this, the inhabitants of the Pentapolis(316) and the armies of Venetia resisted the command of the Emperor, saying that they would never assent to the murder of the pontiff, but on the contrary would strive manfully for his defence. They anathematized the exarch Paulus, him who had sent him, and those who sided with him, refusing to obey them; and throughout Italy all chose leaders(317) for themselves, so eager were all concerning the pontiff and his safety. When the iniquities of the Emperor were known, all Italy started to choose for itself an emperor and conduct him to Constantinople, but the pontiff prevented this plan, hoping for the conversion of the prince.

Meanwhile, in those days, the duke Exhiliratus,(318) deceived by the instigation of the devil, with his son Adrian, occupied parts of Campania, persuading the people to obey the Emperor and kill the pontiff. Then all the Romans pursued after him, took him, and killed both him and his son. After this they chased away the duke Peter [governor of Rome under the Emperor], saying that he had written against the pontiff to the Emperor. When, therefore, a dissension arose in and about Ravenna, some consenting to the wickedness of the Emperor and some holding to the pontiff and those faithful to him, a great fight took place between them and they killed the patrician Paulus [exarch at that time]. And the cities of Castra Æmilia, Ferrorianus, Montebelli, Verabulum, with its towns, Buxo, Persiceta, the Pentapolis, and Auximanum, surrendered to the Lombards.(319) After this the Emperor sent to Naples Eutychius Fratricius, the eunuch, who had formerly been exarch, to accomplish what the exarch Paulus, the spatarii, and the other evil counsellors had been unable to do. But by God’s ordering his miserable craft was not so hidden but that his most wicked plot was disclosed to all, that he would attempt to violate the churches of Christ, to destroy all, and to take away the property of all. When he had sent one of his own men to Rome with written instructions, among other things, that the pontiff should be killed, together with the chief men of Rome, this most bloody outrage was discovered, and the Romans would at once have killed the messenger of the patrician if the opposition of the Pope had not prevented them. But they anathematized the same exarch Eutychius, binding themselves, great and small, by an oath, never to permit the pontiff, the zealous guardian of the Christian faith and the defender of the churches, to be killed or removed, but to be ready all to die for his safety. Thereupon the patrician [Eutychius], promising many gifts to the dukes and to the king of the Lombards, attempted to persuade them by his messengers to abandon the support of the pontiff. But they despised the man’s detestable wiles contained in his letters; and the Romans and the Lombards bound themselves as brothers in the bond of faith, all desiring to suffer a glorious death for the pontiff, and never to permit him to receive any harm, contending for the true faith and the salvation of Christians. While they were doing this that father chose, as a stronger protection, to distribute with his own hand such alms to the poor as he found; giving himself to prayers and fastings, he besought the Lord daily with litanies, and he remained always more supported by this hope than by men; however, he thanked the people for their offer, and with gentle words he besought all to serve God with good deeds and to remain steadfast in the faith; and he admonished them not to renounce their love and fidelity to the Roman Emperor.

At that time in the eleventh indiction,(320) the castle of Sutri was taken by the Lombards by craft, and was held by them for a period of forty days,(321) but urged by the constant letters of the pontiff and warnings sent to the king, when very many gifts had been made, as a gift at least for all the towns, the king of the Lombards restored them and gave them as a donation to the most blessed Apostles Peter and Paul. At the same time, in the twelfth indiction [A. D. 729], in the month of January, for ten days and more, a star, called Gold-bearing,(322) with rays, appeared in the west. Its rays were toward the north and reached to the midst of the heavens. At that time, also, the patrician Eutychius and King Liutprand made a most wicked agreement, that when an army had been gathered the king should subject Spoleto and Beneventum,(323) and the exarch of Rome, and they should carry out what was already commanded concerning the pontiff. When the king came to Spoleto, oaths and hostages were received from both [_i.e._, the dukes of Spoleto and Beneventum], and he came with all his troops to the Campus Neronis.(324) The pontiff went forth and presented himself before him and endeavored to the extent of his ability to soften the mind of the king by pious warnings, so that the king threw himself at his feet and promised to harm no one; and he was so moved to compunction by the pious warnings that he abandoned his undertaking and laid on the grave of the Apostle his mantle, his military cloak, his sword belt, his short two-edged sword, and his golden sword, as well as a golden crown and a silver cross. After prayer he besought the pontiff to consent to make peace with the exarch, which also was done. So he departed, for the king forsook the bad designs with which he had entered into the plot with the exarch. While the exarch remained in Rome, there came into Tuscany to Castrum Maturianense,(325) a certain deceiver, Tiberius by name, called also Petasius,(326) who attempted to usurp the rule of the Roman Empire and deceived some of the less important, so that Maturianum, Luna, and Blera [Bieda] took oath to him. The exarch, hearing of this, was troubled, but the most holy Pope supported him, and, sending with him his chief men and an army, he advanced and came to Castrum Maturianense. Petasius was killed, his head was cut off and sent to Constantinople, to the prince; nevertheless the Emperor showed no great favor to the Romans.

After these things the malice of the Emperor became evident, on account of which he had persecuted the pontiff. For he compelled all the inhabitants of Constantinople, by force and persuasion, to displace the images of the Saviour as well as of His holy mother, and of all saints, wherever they were, and (what is horrible to tell) to burn them in the fire in the middle of the city, and to whitewash all the painted churches. Because very many of the people of the city withstood the commission of such an enormity, they were subjected to punishment; some were beheaded, others lost a part of their body. For this reason also, because Germanus, the prelate of the church of Constantinople, was unwilling to consent to this, the Emperor deprived him of his pontifical position, and appointed in his place the presbyter Anastasius, an accomplice. Anastasius sent to the Pope a synodical letter, but when that holy man saw that he held the same error, he did not regard him as brother and fellow-priest, but wrote him warning letters, commanding him to be put out of his sacerdotal office unless he returned to the Catholic faith. He also charged the Emperor, urging wholesome advice, that he should desist from such execrable wickedness, and he warned him by letter.(327)

(_b_) John of Damascus, _De Fide Orthodoxa_, IV, 16. (MSG, 94:1168.)

John of Damascus (_ob. ante_ 754) was the last of the Church
Fathers of the East. He became the classical representative of the
theology of the Eastern Church, and his system forms the
conclusion and summing up of the results of all the great
controversies that had distracted that part of the Church. His
greatest work, _De Fide Orthodoxa_, may be found translated in
PNF. In the following chapter John sums up briefly the arguments
which he uses in his three orations _In Defence of Images_ (to be
found in MSG, 94:1227 _ff._; for translation see head of section).
By images one should understand pictures rather than statues. The
latter were never common and fell entirely out of use and were
forbidden. They seemed too closely akin to idols. In the
translation, the phrase “to show reverence” is the equivalent of
the Greek προσκυνέω.

Since some find fault with us for showing reverence and honoring the image of our Saviour and that of our Lady, and also of the rest of the saints and servants of Christ, let them hear that from the beginning God made man after His own image. On what other grounds, then, do we show reverence to each other than that we are made after God’s image? For as Basil, that most learned expounder of divine things, says: “The honor given to the image passes over to the prototype.”(328) Now a prototype is that which is imaged, from which the form is derived. Why was it that the Mosaic people showed reverence round about the tabernacle which bore an image and type of heavenly things, or rather the whole creation? God, indeed, said to Moses: “Look that thou make all things after the pattern which was shewed thee in the mount” [Ex. 33:10]. The Cherubim, also, which overshadowed the mercy-seat, are they not the work of men’s hands? What is the renowned temple at Jerusalem? Is it not made by hands and fashioned by the skill of men? The divine Scriptures, however, blame those who show reverence to graven images, but also those who sacrifice to demons. The Greeks sacrificed and the Jews also sacrificed; but the Greeks to demons; the Jews, however, to God. And the sacrifice of the Greeks was rejected and condemned, but the sacrifice of the just was acceptable to God. For Noah sacrificed, and God smelled a sweet savor of a good purpose, receiving, also, the fragrance of a good-will toward Him. And so the graven images of the Greeks, since they were the images of demon deities, were rejected and forbidden.

But besides this, who can make an imitation of the invisible, incorporeal, uncircumscribed, and formless God? Therefore to give form to the Deity is the height of folly and impiety. And therefore in the Old Testament the use of images was repressed. But after God, in the bowels of His mercy, became for our salvation in truth man, not as He was seen by Abraham in the semblance of a man, or by the prophets, but He became in truth man, according to substance, and after He lived upon earth and dwelt among men, worked miracles, suffered, and was crucified, He rose again, and was received up into heaven; since all these things actually took place and were seen by men, they were written for the remembrance and instruction of us who were not present at that time, in order that, though we saw not, we may still, hearing and believing, obtain the blessing of the Lord. But since all have not a knowledge of letters nor time for reading, it appeared good to the Fathers that those events, as acts of heroism, should be depicted on images(329) to be a brief memorial of them. Often, doubtless, when we have not the Lord’s passion in mind and see the image of Christ’s crucifixion, we remember the passion and we fall down and show reverence not to the material but to that which is imaged; just as we do not show reverence to the material of the Gospel, nor to the material of the cross, but that which these typify.(330) For wherein does the cross that typifies the Lord differ from a cross that does not do so? It is the same also as to the case of the Mother of God.(331) For the honor which is given her is referred to Him who was incarnate of her. And similarly also the brave acts of holy men stir us to bravery and to emulation and imitation of their valor and to the glory of God. For, as we said, the honor that is given to the best of fellow servants is a proof of good-will toward our common lady, and the honor rendered the image passes over to the prototype. But this is an unwritten tradition, just as is also to show reverence toward the East and to the cross, and very many similar things.(332)

A certain tale is told also that when Augarus [_i.e._, Abgarus] was king over the city of the Edessenes, he sent a portrait-painter to paint a likeness of the Lord; and when the painter could not paint because of the brightness that shone from His countenance, the Lord himself put a garment over His divine and life-giving face and impressed on it an image of Himself, and sent this to Augarus to satisfy in this way his desire.

Moreover, that the Apostles handed down much that was unwritten, Paul the Apostle of the Gentiles writes: Therefore, brethren, stand fast and hold the traditions which ye have been taught of us, whether by word or by epistles [II Thess. 2:14]. And to the Corinthians he writes: Now I praise you, brethren, that ye remembered me in all things and keep the traditions as I have delivered them to you [I Cor. 2:2].

(_c_) Basil the Great, _De Spiritu Sancto_, ch. 18. (MSG, 32:149.)

Basil is speaking of the three persons of the Trinity, and says
that although we speak of the Father, Son and Holy Spirit, we must
not count up “by way of addition gradually increasing from unity
to multitude,” but that number must be understood otherwise in
speaking of the three divine persons.

How then, if one and one, are there not two Gods? Because we speak of a king and of the king’s image, and not of two kings. The power is not parted nor the glory divided. The power ruling over us is one, and the authority one, and so also the doxology ascribed by us is one and not plural; because the honor paid to the image passes over to the prototype.

Now what in the one case the image is by reason of imitation, that in the other case the Son is by nature; and as in works of art the likeness is dependent upon the form, so in the case of the divine and uncompounded nature the union consists in the communion of the godhead.

(_d_) The Seventh General Council, Nicæa, A. D. 787, _Definition of Faith_. Mansi, XIII, 398 _ff._

In addition to Hefele, and PNF, ser. II. vol. XIV, see Mendham,
_The Seventh General Council, the Second of Nicæa, in which the
Worship of Images was Established; with copious notes from the
__“__Caroline Books,__”__ compiled by order of Charlemagne for its
Confutation_, London, n. d.

The holy, great and ecumenical synod which, by the grace of God and the command of the pious and Christ-loving Emperors, Constantine, and Irene his mother, was gathered together for the second time at Nicæa, the illustrious metropolis of the eparchy of Bithynia, in the holy Church of God which is named Sophia, having followed the tradition of the Catholic Church, hath defined as follows:

Christ our Lord, who hath bestowed upon us the light of the knowledge of Himself, and hath redeemed us from the darkness of idolatrous madness, having espoused to Himself His holy Catholic Church without spot or defect, promised that He would so preserve her; and assured His holy disciples, saying, “I am with you always, even unto the end of the world” [Matt. 28:20], which promise He made, not only to them, but to us also who through them should believe in His name. But some, not considering this gift, and having become fickle through the temptation of the wily enemy, have fallen from the right faith; for, withdrawing from the tradition of the Catholic Church, they have erred from the knowledge of the truth, and as the proverb saith: “The husbandmen have gone astray in their own husbandry, and have gathered in their hands sterility,” because certain priests in deed, but not priests in reality, had dared to slander the God-approved ornaments of the sacred monuments. Of whom God cries aloud through the prophet: “Many pastors have corrupted my vineyard, they have polluted my portion” [Jer. 12:10; _cf._ LXX]. And, forsooth, following profane men, trusting to their own senses, they have calumniated His holy Church espoused to Christ our God, and have not distinguished between holy and profane, styling the images of the Lord and of His saints by the same name as the statute of diabolical idols. Seeing which things, our Lord God (not willing to behold His people corrupted by such manner of plague) hath of His good pleasure called us together, the chief of His priests, from every quarter, moved with a divine zeal and brought hither by the will of our Emperors, Constantine and Irene, to the end that the divine tradition of the Catholic Church may receive stability by our common decree. Therefore, with all diligence, making a thorough examination and investigation, and following the trend of the truth, diminishing naught, adding naught, we preserve unchanged all things which pertain to the Catholic Church, and following the six ecumenical synods, especially that which met in this illustrious metropolis of Nicæa, as also that which was afterward gathered together in the God-preserved royal city.

We believe in one God … life of the world to come. Amen.(333)

We detest and anathematize Arius and all who agree with him and share his absurd opinion; also Macedonius and those who, following him, are well styled foes of the Spirit.(334) We confess that our lady, St. Mary, is properly and truly the Theotokos, because she bore, after the flesh, one of the Holy Trinity, to wit, Christ our God, as the Council of Ephesus has already defined, when it cast out of the Church the impious Nestorius with his allies, because he introduced a personal [προσωπικὴν] duality [in Christ]. With the Fathers of this synod we confess the two natures of Him who was incarnate for us of the immaculate Theotokos and ever-Virgin Mary, recognizing Him as perfect God and perfect man, as also the Council of Chalcedon hath promulgated, expelling from the divine Atrium as blasphemers, Eutyches and Dioscurus; and placing with them Severus, Peter, and a number of others blaspheming in divers fashions. Moreover, with these we anathematize the fables of Origen, Evagrius, and Didymus, in accordance with the decision of the Fifth Council held at Constantinople. We affirm that in Christ there are two wills and operations according to the reality of each nature, as also the Sixth Council held at Constantinople taught, casting out Sergius, Honorius, Cyrus, Pyrrhus, Macarius, and those who are unwilling to be reverent and who agree with these.

To make our confession short, we keep unchanged all the ecclesiastical traditions handed down to us, written or unwritten, and of these one is the making of pictorial representations, agreeable to the history of the preaching of the Gospel, a tradition useful in many respects, but especially in this, that so the incarnation of the Word of God is shown forth as real and not merely fantastic, for these have mutual indications, and without doubt have also mutual significations.

We, therefore, following the royal pathway and the divinely inspired authority of our holy Fathers and the traditions of the Catholic Church for, as we all know, the Holy Spirit dwells in her, define with all certitude and accuracy, that just as the figure of the precious and life-giving cross, so also the venerable and holy images, as well in painting and mosaic, as of other fit materials, should be set forth in the holy churches of God, and on the sacred vessels and on the vestments and on hangings and in tablets both in houses and by the wayside, to wit, the figure of our Lord God and Saviour Jesus Christ, of our spotless lady, the Theotokos, of the venerable angels, of all saints, and of all pious people. For by so much the more frequently as they are seen in artistic representation, by so much the more readily are men lifted up to the memory of their prototypes, and to a longing after them; and to these should be given due salutation and honorable reverence [ἀσπασμὸν καὶ τιμητικὴν προσκύνησιν], not indeed that true worship [τὴν ἀληθινὴν λατρείαν] which pertains alone to the divine nature; but to these, as to the figure of the precious and life-giving cross, and to the book of the Gospels and to other holy objects, incense and lights may be offered according to ancient pious custom. For the honor which is paid to the image passes on to that which the image represents, and he who shows reverence [προσκυνεῖ] to the image shows reverence to the subject represented in it. For thus the teaching of our holy Fathers, which is called the tradition of the Catholic Church, which from one end of the earth to the other hath received the Gospel, is strengthened. Thus we follow Paul, who spake in Christ, and the whole divine Apostolic company and the holy Fathers, holding fast the traditions which we have received. So we sing prophetically the triumphal hymns of the Church: Rejoice greatly, O daughter of Sion; Shout, O daughter of Jerusalem. Rejoice and be glad with all thy heart. The Lord hath taken away from thee the oppression of thy adversaries; thou art redeemed from the hand of thy enemies: The Lord is a king in the midst of thee; thou shalt not see evil any more, and peace be unto thee forever.

Those, therefore, who dare to think or teach otherwise, or as wicked heretics dare to spurn the traditions of the Church and to invent some novelty, or else to reject some of those things which the Church hath received, to wit, the book of the Gospels, or the image of the cross, or the pictorial icons, or the holy relics of a martyr, or evilly and sharply to devise anything subversive of the lawful traditions of the Catholic Church, or to turn to common uses the sacred vessels and the venerable monasteries, if they be bishops or clerics we command that they be deposed; if religious(335) or laics, that they be cut off from communion.

INDEX

The Analytical Table of Contents at the opening of this volume should be used to supplement this Index.

Acacius of Constantinople, 526, 536.

Adoptionists, 172.

Advent, second. See “Chiliasm.”

Ælia Capitolina, 361.

Æons. See “Gnosticism,” “Basilides,” “Valentinus.”

Africa, North, Church of, 157, 281.
See also “Tertullian,” “Cyprian,” “Donatism,” “Augustine.”

_Agape_, 41.

Agatho of Rome, 652.

Agde, council of (A. D. 506), canons, 616.

Alexander of Alexandria, 300 _f._, 302.

Alexander of Jerusalem, 207.

Alexandria, catechetical school of, 189-202.

Alexandria, councils of (A. D. 320), 304;
(A. D. 362), 349-352;
(A. D. 430), anathematisms, 505 _ff._

Allegorism, or Allegorical Exegesis, 15 _f._, 120;
Origen on, 199 _f._;
Nepos on, 219 _f._;
Methodius on, 230;
Augustine on, 442 _f._

Alms, as expiation of sin, 48, 169-171.

Ambrose of Milan, reply to Symmachus, 342-346;
epistle to Theodosius, 390 _f._;
invocation of saints, 397;
patron of monasticism, 409;
on Fall of Man, 438.

Anastasius, emp., 527, 530, 575.

Anastasius of Rome, condemnation of Origen, 487 _f._

Ancyra, council of (A. D. 358), 348, 412, 675.

Angels, invocation of, 400.

Anicetus of Rome, 164.

Anointing, 484.

Anthony, hermit, 248-251, 409.

Antioch, council of (A. D. 269), 225 _ff._;
(A. D. 341), creed, 313 _f._;
canons, 362-364, 675.

Antioch, school of, 504, 511.

Apelles, 105.

Aphthartodocetism, 553.

Apollinaris the Elder, 334.

Apollinaris of Laodicæa, 354, 494 _f._, 498.

Apollinarius of Hierapolis, 111.

Apollonius, Antimontanist, 108.

Apologist, 69 _ff._;
theology of, 130 _ff._

Apostles, 8 _ff._, 40.

Apostles’ Creed, 123-126.

Apostolic Age, 5-12.

Apostolic churches, 111 _ff._

Apostolic Fathers, 13.

Apostolic succession, 112-115, 122.

Appeals to Emperor, 359, 370;
to Rome, Sardica on, 364-366;
rescript of Gratian and Valentinian on, 366 _f._

Archelaus, 82.

Arian controversy, 297-320, 348-356.

Arianism among the Germans: among the Goths, 426 _f._;
among the Lombards, 683 _f._

Aristides, Apology of, 69-72.

Aristotelian philosophy, 174.

Arius, 269, 293, 299 _f._;
epistle to Eusebius of Nicomedia, 302;
_Thalia_, 303;
confession, 307, 308.

Arles, council of, 289-292.

Artemon, 173.

Asceticism, 46 _ff._, 105, 248.

Asia Minor, theology of, 30-32, 135-139, 229 _ff._

Askidas, Theodore of, 546.

Athanasius, on Sabellianism, 180;
on Dionysius of Alexandria, 223-225;
exile, 308, 310.

Athenagoras, 133.

_Audientia Episcopalis_, 380, 382 _f._

Augustine of Canterbury, 602-605.

Augustine of Hippo, life and conversion, 433-436;
his type of piety, 437;
on Fall of Man and original sin, 438;
predestination, 440;
allegory, 442;
merit, 444;
on baptism, 448;
sacraments, 449;
repression of heresy, 450-453.

Aurelian, emp., 227.

Baptism, 39, 116, 167, 179 _f._, 184, 186, 213, 231-234, 292, 447 _f._,
450, 452, 464.

Baptism, rite of, 33, 38, 232, 484 _f._

Baptism of heretics, 243, 245-248, 292.

Barbarian invasions, 420-423.

Bardesanes, 54.

_Barnabas, epistle of_, 14.

Bartholomew, Apostle, 55.

Basil of Cæsarea, on Sabellianism, 181;
his charities, 395;
monastic rule, 405;
on tradition, 484;
on reverence shown images, 693.

Basilides the Gnostic, 82 _ff._, 89, 91, 120.

Basiliscus, emp., _Encyclion_ of, 523-526.

Bede, the Venerable, 566, 569, 603 _ff._;
his Penitential, 629 _f._

Benedict of Nursia, _Rule_ of, 631-641.

Bishops, apostolic appointment of, 37;
authority of, 31, 41, 42, 237-239, 265-270, 361-364;
election of, 556, 580 _f._;
State service of, 383 _f._;
succession of, 111, 115, 122, 128.

Boniface II of Rome, 473.

Braga, council of (A. D. 572), 619.

Britain, Church in, 53, 566-570, 602-614.

Cælestinus, the Pelagian, 455 _f._, 460.

Cæsarius of Arles, 621 _f._

Cæsaropapism, 552 _ff._

Caius of Rome, 8.

Callistus of Rome, 69, 175-177, 186.

Canon. See “Council.”

Canon law, Quinisext Council on, 674-676.

Canon of New Testament, 117 _ff._, 120, 122 _f._, 532.

Caracalla, emp., 142 _f._, 149.

Carthage, councils of (A. D. 256), 238;
(A. D. 390), 417;
(A. D. 418), 463-466.

Cassian, on grace, 467-469;
on secular studies, 646 _f._

Cassiodorus, 530.

Cassius, Dio, 11.

Cataphrygians. See “Montanists.”

Cathari. See “Novatians.”

Celestinus of Rome, 374.

Celibacy, laws permitting, 285;
of clergy, 411-418, 676.

Celsus, 55-59, 158.

Celtic Church in British Isles, 566-570.

Cerdo, 102 _f._

Cerinthus, 81, 114.

Chalcedon, council of (A. D. 451), 511-522.

Character, doctrine of, 452.

Charity, 24, 35, 41, 48, 71 _f._, 145, 157, 333, 394 _ff._

Chastity, 47, 344.

Chiliasm, 25-27, 219-221.

_Chorepiscopoi_, 364.

Christology. See “Apollinaris,” “Logos,” “Monarchians,” “Monophysites,”
“Monotheletes,” “Sabellius.”

Christotokos, Mary as the, 501.

Chrysostom, John, 372, 491 _f._

Church, authority of, Augustine on, 454.

Church, organization of, Post-Apostolic age, 36-42.

Church and State, mutual relations, 530, 554.

_Circumcelliones_, 323.

Classical Literature, Christian use of, 334 _ff._, 645-648.

Clemens, Flavius, 11 _f._

Clement of Alexandria, on Gnosticism, 84, 89, 92, 189;
on Greek philosophy, 190;
Christian Gnosticism, 191 _ff._

Clement of Rome, 7, 24, 36, 47, 129.

Clergy, distinguished from laity, 167, 181 _f._;
exemption from civil burdens, 283 _f._;
subjection to bishops, 361.
See “Ordination.”

Clovesho, council of (A. D. 747), 611, 621.

Clovis, king, 570-575.

Code, of Justinian, 541;
of Theodosius II, 424.

Cœnobites, 405.

Columba, 569.

Columbanus, 585-590.

Commodus, emp., 69.

Confession, auricular, 384 _f._;
public, see “Penitential Discipline.”

Constans II, _Typos_ of, 662-664.

Constantine I, Edict of Milan, 263;
fiscal policy, 277-281;
ecclesiastical patronage, 281-285;
repression of heathenism, 285-287;
ecclesiastical policy, 289-296.

Constantinople, councils of (A. D. 381), 353, 369, 480;
(A. D. 382), 359, 498;
(A. D. 448), 512 _f._;
(A. D. 553), 551 _f._;
(A. D. 681), 665-671;
(A. D. 691), 673-679.

Constantinople, see of, 354, 477-480, 521 _f._

Constantius, emp., 326-329, 331.

Corinth, church of, 7-9.

Cornelius of Rome, 157, 217.

Councils, ecclesiastical, 110 _f._, 157, 177, 289;
general, in North Africa, 463;
provincial, 359 _f._;
relation of, to secular rulers, 369 _f._, 580.

Creed, forms approximating to the Apostles’, 32, 123-126.

Creeds and confessions of faith, of Gregory Thaumaturgus, 222;
of Eusebius of Cæesarea, 305;
of Nicæa (A. D. 325), 305;
of Arius, 307;
II Antioch (A. D. 341), 313;
IV Antioch (A. D. 341), 314;
Nice (A. D. 359), 318;
Cyril of Jerusalem, 354;
Epiphanius of Salamis, 355;
Ulfilas, 426;
Antioch (A. D. 433), 510.

Cyprian, on almsgiving, 169-171;
on the lapsed, 208-210, 214-217;
on the eucharist, 234-237;
on the episcopate, 237-242;
on the unity of the Church, 240-245;
on baptism by heretics, 245-248.

Cyril of Alexandria, 373, 494, 504;
anathematisms against Nestorius, 505-507, 510, 520, note.

Cyril of Jerusalem, 348, 354.

Cyrus of Alexandria, 520, 660;
formula of union, 661 _f._

Dacia, Church in, 53.

Damasus of Rome, 270, 366, 380 _f._

Deacon, 35, 37, 41.

Deaconess, 21.

Dead, prayers for, 169, 444 _f._, 624.

Decius, emp., persecution under, 206-212.

Decretals, Siricius on the force of, 417.

_Decretum Gelasii_, 532-536.

Demiurge, 90, 96.

Deposition, 230, 363.

_Didache_, 37, 46.

Dio Cassius, on Domitian persecution, 11.

Diocese, 354, 362, 611, 616-620.

Diocletian, reorganization of the Empire, 257 _f._

Diocletian persecution, 258-262.

_Diognetus, Epistle to_, 28.

Dionysius of Alexandria, 219 _f._, 223 _ff._

Dionysius the Areopagite, 560-564.

Dionysius of Corinth, 9, 24.

Dionysius Exiguus, 530, 611, note.

Dionysius of Rome, 223 _ff._, 226.

Dioscurus of Alexandria, 511 _f._

Discipline, penitential, 42-49, 166 _f._, 169 _f._, 183-188, 213, 215
_ff._, 362, 384 _f._, 624-630.

Divorce, 169, 391, 393, 612.

Docetism, 32, 92.

Domitian, emp., 7, 11.

Donatus and Donatism, 245, 287 _f._, 289 _ff._, 322-325, 445-454.

Dynamistic Monarchianism, 172-175, 221, 225-229, 298.

Easter, worship on, 164.

Easter, controversy as to date, 161-165, 291, 295, 375, 570, 605 _ff._

Ecumenical Patriarch, Gregory the Great on the title, 592-595.

Edessa, Christianity in, 54.

Elvira, council of (A. D. 309), 386, 415.

Emanations, Gnostic theory of, 85 _f._, 94 _f._

Encratites, 105.

_Encyclion_. See “Basiliscus.”

Ephesus, church of, 9 _ff._, 116.

Ephesus, council of (A. D. 431), 507-509;
(A. D. 449), 512.

Epiphanius of Salamis, 228, 355.

Episcopal courts of arbitration. See “_Audientia Episcopalis_.”

Episcopate, 237-239.

_Epistula pacis_, 215.

Eucharist, 18, 21, 30 _f._, 34, 38, 41, 42, 116, 138 _f._, 231-237, 449,
622-624.

Eusebius of Cæsarea, 8, 305, 309.

Eusebius of Nicomedia, 299, 302, 308, 310.

Eusebius of Rome, 270.

Eustathius, 309, 348.

Eutyches and Eutychian controversy, 511-522.

Evagrius Scholasticus, 274.

_Exomologesis_, 185.

Extension of Christianity, 18, 52-55, 156-159, 425-429, 566-570, 570-573,
602-605.

Fasting, 33, 38, 48 _f._, 71, 99, 166, 171, 232, 678.

Felicissimus, 212, 215-217.

Felicitas. See “Perpetua.”

Felix of Aptunga, 291.

_Fihrist_ of An Nadim, on Mani, 252-256.

_Filioque_, addition of, to the Creed, 577.

Firmilian, epistle of, on Stephen of Rome, 242-245.

Flavian of Constantinople, 512 _ff._

Flora, Epistle of Ptolemæus to, 95-102.

_Formula Macrostichos_, 180.

Franks, conversion of, 570 _ff._

Galen, 174.

Galerius, emp., 260, 262.

Gangra, council of, canons, 386, 413.

Gelasius of Rome, 531, 532-536.

Germans, Christianity among, 53.

Germanic State Church, 579-589.

Gladiatorial combats, abolishment of, 389.

Gnosticism, 50, 75-106, 126 _f._ See also “Simon,” “Menander,” “Cerdo,”
“Basilides,” “Valentinus,” “Ptolemæus.”

Gospels, 35, 118, 120, 123.

Grace, controversy on. See “Augustine,” “Pelagian Controversy,”
“Semi-Pelagian Controversy.”

Gratian, emp., 366.

Gregory of Nazianzus, 353, 496 _f._

Gregory of Nyssa, 502 _f._

Gregory of Tours, 571 _ff._, 581 _ff._

Gregory Thaumaturgus, 221 _f._

Gregory the Great, 388, 590-602.

Hadrian, emp., 153.

Hatfield, council of (A. D. 680), 612.

Heathen slanders against Christianity, 61-64.

Heathenism, repression of, 285-287, 320-322, 346 _f._, 370-374, 557.

Heathenism, revival of, 330-336, 339.

Heathenism in the Church, 396 _f._, 400 _f._

Heliogabalus, emp., religious policy of, 152.

_Henoticon_ of Zeno, 526-529.

Heraclius, emp., 540, 660.

Heraclius, schism of, 270.

Heresy, laws against, 368, 372, 450-453.

Heretics, baptism of. See “Baptism.”

Hermas, 43, 47, 48, 184.

Hertford, council of (A. D. 672), 609 _ff._

Hierapolis, council of, 110.

Hierarchy, 128 _f._, 237 _f._, 360 _ff._, 562 _f._

Hieronymus. See “Jerome.”

Hilary of Poitiers, 316, 319.

Hippolytus, 68, 105, 108, 175-178.

Homoiousian party, rise of, 315-320.

_Homoiousios_, 316, 319, 348.

_Homoousios_, 306, 309, 316, 319, 348.

Honorius, emp., 420

Honorius of Rome, 671 _f._

Hormisdas of Rome, 536.

Hosius, 299.

Hospitality, 40.

Hylics, 92 _f._

Hymns, Christian, 21, 173.

Hypatia, 373.

_Hypostasis_, 193, 300, 306, 309, 315, 319, 349 _ff._

Ibas. See “Three Chapters, controversy on.”

Iconoclasm, 684 _ff._

Ignatius of Antioch, 22, 30, 41 _f._

Images, controversy on, 684 _ff._

Incorruptibility, 136 _ff._

India, Christianity in, 55.

Irenæus, on John, 26;
on Gnosticism, 78-81, 85 _f._, 92 _f._;
on apostolic tradition and churches, 112-114;
on the gospels, 120;
on Apostles’ Creed, 123 _ff._;
on redemption, 136-138;
on eucharist, 139 _f._;
on Easter controversy, 163 _f._

Irene, empress, 685.

Istrian schism, 596-600.

Jerome, on fall of Rome, 421-423;
on text of New Testament, 485;
on Origen, 486 _f._

Jews, relation of, to the Christians, 14-18.

John, Apostle, death of, 9, 10;
chiliastic teaching, 26 _f._;
in Ephesus, 114, 116, 118;
founds order of bishops, 122.

John of Damascus on images, 691-693.

Jovian, emp., 337, 339.

Julia Mammæa, 153 _f._

Julian, emp., early life, 325-329;
habits, 329 _f._;
opens temples, 330;
his ecclesiastical and religious policy, 330-334;
forbids Christians to teach classics, 334-336.

Julius of Rome, 310;
epistle of, 311;
appeals allowed to, 364.

Justin Martyr, on Jews, 16;
extension of Christianity, 18;
chiliastic views, 27;
on Christian worship, 32-35;
defence of Christianity, 72-75, 135.

Justin I, emp., 540.

Justinian I, emp., 541;
anathematisms against Origen, 542 _f._;
Aphthartodocetism, 553 _f._;
ecclesiastical legislation, 383, 554-560.

Lactantius, 206.

Lamb as image of Christ, 678 _f._

Laodicæa, council of (c. A. D. 343), 399 _f._

_Lapsi_, 208-212, 214-217.

Law, Mosaic, Gnostic conception of, 95 _ff._, 104.

Laws against Christianity, 19-22, 56, 145, 211.

Laws in favor of the Church, 281-285.

Legacy-hunting by clergy forbidden, 381 _f._

Legislation, influence of the Church on, 284 _f._, 385 _f._

Leo of Rome, on the Priscillianists, 378;
on auricular confession, 384;
on clerical celibacy, 417 _f._;
represents Roman people, 476;
on Petrine prerogatives, 476 _f._;
condemns 28th canon of Chalcedon, 478 _f._;
on apostolic sees, 480;
his course in Eutychian controversy, 511 _f._;
his _Tome_, 514.

_Libellatici_, 158, 209 _f._, 214 _f._

_Libelli pacis_, 187, 215, 292.

_Libri pœnitentiales_, 626-630.

Licinius, emp., 263-265.

_Little Labyrinth_, 173-175.

Liutprand, king, 659, 686-690.

Logos, 72 _f._, 130-132, 171, 176, 193 _f._, 227 _ff._, 298 _f._, 304,
313.

Lombard Church, 597 _ff._, 683 _f._

Lombards, 589, 600-602.

Lord’s Day, 41, 232, 284.

Lord’s Prayer with Doxology, 38.

Lord’s Supper. See “Eucharist.”

Lucian of Samosata, 55, 59-61.

Lucian the martyr, 303;
creed of, 313.

Luke, Gospel of, mutilated by Marcion, 103.

Luxeuil, foundation of, 587 _f._

Macedonian heresy, 353 _f._, 524, 552, 666.

Magic among the Gnostics, 80, 87.

Malchion, 225 _ff._

Mani and Manichæanism, 127, 252-256, 372;
laws against, 375, 559 _f._;
persecution of, 376;
Augustine on, 454 _f._

Marcellus of Ancyra, 310 _ff._

Marcia, concubine of Commodus, 69.

Marcian, emp., 510.

Marcion, Gnostic, 103-106, 114, 119, 122.

Marcionites, 127.

Marius Mercator, on Pelagianism, 460.

Mark, Gospel of, 123.

Marriage, Christian, 106, 108, 168 _f._;
compared with virginity, 168, 393;
indissolubility of, 43, 169, 392 _f._, 612;
second, 47, 169, 182.

Martin of Rome, 660.

Martin of Tours, 410, 427 _ff._

Martyrdom, 65 _f._, 66-68.

Martyrs, anniversaries of, 401;
merits of, 167, 187, 212 _f._;
intercession of, 399.

Mary, the Virgin, 30, 70, 81;
is Theotokos, 505, 511, 518, 520.

Massilians, 467.

Maximilla, Montanist prophetess, 107 _f._, 110.

Maximinus Thrax, emp., persecution under, 154 _f._

Maximus the Confessor, 660.

Melchizedek, 173.

Meletius and the Meletian schism, 266-270, 293 _f._

Meletius, Bishop of Antioch, 349.

Memnon of Ephesus, 504.

Menander, 81.

Merovingian Church, 581 _ff._

Methodius of Olympus, his theory of recapitulation, 229 _f._;
on the resurrection of the body, 230.

Metropolitans, 361, 363 _f._

Milan, church of, 596 _ff._

Milan, edict of, 263-265.

Minucius Felix, 61-64.

Miracles, Christian, 56, 153.

Mithras, 34, 150 _f._

Monarchian controversies, 171-181, 221-229.

Monasteries, subject to bishops, 407.
See also “Monasticism.”

Monastic rules. See “Basil,” “Benedict of Nursia,” “Pachomius,”
“Columbanus.”

Monasticism, 248-251, 401-411, 586 _ff._, 617 _f._, 630-644.