Chapter XI: Part II: VIII (3)

It is easy to say that the native women should go to them, establish friendly social relations, and in this way influence them. The writer observed in the field that such attempts have been made in earnest, but without much result. The first difficulty is the lack of a common language. Next is the difference in the levels of intellectual development. One might question what common grounds for social intercourse there would be between an American farmer's wife with either grammar-school or high-school education and some European peasant's wife, illiterate, impossibly shy, and downtrodden.

Still, there is a way out. In almost every immigrant rural colony one may find a more intelligent immigrant woman, either a mother of a family who has been long in this country or an elder daughter who has received a public-school education, speaks English satisfactorily, and who, at the same time, speaks the immigrants' language and knows the families in the colony more or less thoroughly. Such women should be approached first, should be brought into intimate contact with the native families, and should be induced to take a course of training and become organizers or teachers of the adult immigrant women in the colony. They will be able to effect an organization which might be called the "Women's Club" or "Mother's Club." Instead of creating an entirely new body, such organizations as exist can and should be utilized; there may be clubs, some co-operative association or a benefit society. There may be no organization and one may have to be initiated. In that case it is desirable that the more developed immigrant women be appointed to the directorate of the new organization.

THE HOME TEACHER

It would seem advisable for our high schools, normal schools, and colleges specifically to train their immigrant girl students to become home teachers in the colonies of their respective nationalities. Such home teachers, qualified and trained for their work, should receive an adequate, living salary. Their duty would be to visit the immigrant homes, talk with the mothers, tell them how to rear their children, how to care for the health of the family, how to prepare meals of American food and in American ways, how to can and preserve, and how to work in the home garden. They should organize recreation facilities, reading circles, amateur theatricals, choruses, etc. The home teacher should organize the women into afternoon classes for learning English and should induce them to visit the evening classes with the men. She also would be the intermediary for the establishment of friendly and social relations between the immigrant families of different nationalities and the native American families. She should be attached to the teaching staff of the local public school.

Such home teachers have been employed in California under the direction of the Home Teacher Act passed in 1915. The conditions of employment, the duties and qualifications of the home teachers are outlined by the Act as follows:[50]

Boards of school trustees or city boards of education of any school
district may employ teachers to be known as "home teachers," not
exceeding one such home teacher for every five hundred units of
average daily attendance in the common schools of said district,
as shown by the report of the county superintendent of schools for
the next preceding school year. It shall be the duty of the home
teachers to work in the homes of the pupils, instructing children
and adults in matters relating to school attendance and preparation
therefor; also in sanitation, in the English language, in household
duties--such as purchase, preparation, and use of food, and
clothing--and in the fundamental principles of the American system
of government and the rights and duties of citizenship. The
qualifications of such teachers shall be a regular kindergarten
primary, elementary, or secondary certificate, to teach in the
schools of California, and special fitness to perform the duties of
a home teacher; provided that the salaries of such teachers shall
be paid from the city or district special school funds.

The provisions of the law at present limit its application to congested neighborhoods.

In regard to afternoon classes for the women, one of the home teachers, Mrs. Amanda Mathews Chase, writes as follows:[51]

Organize mothers' classes to meet afternoons at the schoolhouse.
This group work seems to me absolutely necessary in order to cover
the ground efficiently, and also because of the outlook and
inspiration for the mothers.... I would suggest forming classes
from the leading nationalities, each class to meet two afternoons a
week. One afternoon the program can be an English lesson, followed
by cooking, cleaning, or laundry. The other afternoon the program
might comprise English followed by sewing, mending, weaving, or
similar handcraft instruction. Sanitation, including personal
hygiene, and patriotic teaching should be kept in mind.... Every
forenoon will be spent in the homes. After all, the classes will
only be islands in the sea of your visiting. You must visit to
form the classes and visit to hold them. You must visit to see that
the knowledge absorbed at school is actually put into practice at
the home. You must visit to talk over many matters too delicate and
personal to be taken up on class afternoons.

The school system of Los Angeles has, under this law, employed an educated Jewish woman from Russia for work in the colony of the Russian sectarian peasants. The impression of the writer when he visited the colony was that she was doing splendid work in helping the peasant women. The writer's belief is that if she had been of the Russian nationality she would have accomplished still better results, as the writer observed some antisemitic feeling among the peasants in connection with her. One peasant woman told the writer that this home teacher was a good protector for them, but did not recognize that she was their educator. As the colony is large, the home teacher really could not do much educational work other than to supervise the attendance of the children at school and to help disentangle family difficulties. It would be advisable to train and employ home teachers who are of the same nationality as the people of the colony in which they work.

ORGANIZATION OF IMMIGRANT WOMEN

Immigrant women's organizations have been already started here and there on the initiative, and by the efforts of the immigrant women themselves. For instance, Finnish women in Calumet, Michigan, have organized an "Americanization Club" for Finnish women, with the intention of extending the movement into other Finnish colonies in America. The program of the meetings consists of learning American songs, of addresses on America, its history, civics, women's social work, child welfare. The club activities hope to combat disloyalty, which the club members believe to exist among a number of the immigrants of certain nationalities. The main aim of the club, as its leaders state, is to assist in the Americanization of the Finnish women in America--to eliminate the hyphen, to make the Finnish-American women Americans.

The Council of Jewish Women in Newark, New Jersey, has established an Americanization center for the Jewish women, mothers and grown-up Jewish girls; while this center is in the city it illustrates the principle involved. The activities of the "center" consist of an afternoon English class for mothers, in order that they may "overtake their children on the long road of learning," and of an English class in the evening for Jewish girls who work in the factories. The chairman of the council states that they have found a way to make the learning of English really interesting to the foreign-born woman, that until now the woman who wanted to keep up with her children in English had had to go to the evening school, where she found a mixture of men and women of all races and all ages. She soon fell behind the younger and smarter pupils, and lost her interest. In these English classes of the "center" the women are practically all of the same age, the same race, and have the same interests.

These attempts at Americanization by the immigrant women themselves, under the stress of the tragedies caused by the estrangement of their children through the American schooling, point the way to the remedy above outlined. Help the immigrant mothers to keep pace with their children. This is even more important, the writer believes, than work with the immigrant fathers.

THE PUBLIC EVENING SCHOOL

When the writer visited an immigrant rural colony and found there a large number of old-time immigrants still unnaturalized, there were two explanations given. There was, first, the red tape in the naturalization proceedings; and second, ignorance of English and of American geography, history, and form of government. There had been no opportunity to learn all these things, although the colonists had wanted to. Only in a few cases did their own neglect seem to be a cause for their not being naturalized.

The following field notes of the writer, taken at random, illustrate the situation in regard to the knowledge of English and the naturalization of the settlers in the immigrant colonies.

Italian colony, Canastota, New York. Writer's observations:

A large number of the men spoke very little English. The women did
not speak English at all. All the children spoke English.

Statement by their leader, a storekeeper:

The settlers have organized an "American-Italian Citizens' Club."
All the Italian voters, 117 in number, belong to this club. The
purpose of the club is to educate Italians in citizenship and to
assist them in becoming naturalized. There are about 250
unnaturalized Italians of voting age. Two causes have kept them
from naturalization: first, their ignorance; second, the red tape
of the procedure. Seventy-five per cent of the adults are
illiterate; 50 per cent of them do not understand English; only
about 25 per cent of the adults write and read English.

Portuguese colony, Portsmouth, Rhode Island. Statement by the priest:

Seventy per cent of the adults understand English; 50 per cent
speak English; 10 per cent speak and write English; about 80 per
cent are illiterate, not only in English, but in their own language
as well. The lack of education and culture of the adults is the
main obstacle in the way of their becoming Americans. For promotion
of Americanization, settlers should learn English and American ways
of life--attend evening schools.

Statement of a native storekeeper:

The only trouble with these Portuguese is that they lack even
elementary education. The vast majority do not know how to read and
write even in their own language. As a result, quite a number of
families live in dirt in their homes, and these are a source of
danger in the spreading of disease. I do not believe that school
would help these old people, for they never have been in any school
and it would be very hard to teach them anything. The only hope is
in the second and future generations.

Russian sectarian peasant colony, San Francisco, California. Statement by one of their leaders:

Five per cent have second papers; from 30 to 40 per cent have first
papers.

Russian sectarian peasant colony, Los Angeles, California. Statements made to the writer by the peasants themselves at a general meeting of the colony members:

All but one of the members of the colony are unnaturalized. About 5
per cent have taken first papers. In explanation as to why they are
not naturalized, they brought several reasons. First, lack of
English; second, they have not felt so far that they are settled
permanently; third, they fear compulsory military service in case
they are citizens; fourth, their religion is opposed to violence,
which the government often uses in enforcing laws. During the
discussion the writer felt that they believed that their not being
citizens had helped keep their sons from being drafted into
military service. The writer explained that their sons were not
drafted solely because of their religion, as conscientious
objectors, and not at all because they were not citizens. For their
own benefit and the benefit of the country the writer advised them
to become citizens as rapidly as possible. They did not either
approve or reject the proposal, but the writer felt that there was
some suspicion.

Statement by the home teacher working among these peasants:

There ought to be schools to teach English to the parents at which
their attendance would be compulsory. The children now think they
are above their parents. The parents would gain by the compulsory
school. The children obey the teachers in school, but will not obey
their parents. The children go home and tell their parents that
they don't have to obey them. They lie to their parents. For
instance, the parents are opposed to dancing, but the children
dance just the same. The parents are so ignorant! They read the
Bible, but they don't know what is in the Bible.

Russian sectarian peasant colony, Glendale, Arizona. Statements made by the peasants at a general meeting:

Not a single one of them is naturalized. Not one has taken first
papers. To the question why, they explained that they are firm
believers in the Kingdom of God, which is immeasurably higher than
the human kingdom and human governments. They are interested in the
spiritual kingdom and do not care for politics in any way.

Polish colony, Posen, Michigan. Statements by the local priest and the settlers themselves:

About thirty men of voting age are not citizens. This is due purely
to neglect and the red tape in acquiring papers. Both Republican
and Democratic organizations exist, but most vote the Republican
ticket, believing that the Republicans keep the country's business
going better.

Polish colony, South Deerfield, Massachusetts. Statements by their leaders:

Almost every adult Pole understands English to a certain degree and
is able to make himself understood. About half of the adults can
write English, including those who can only write their own names.
About 50 per cent of the Poles are illiterate even in the Polish
language.

Large, long-established Italian colony, Vineland, New Jersey. Statements by their leaders:

A large number, possibly two thirds, of the adults do not speak
English. All Italian farmers have first papers and intend to become
Americans, and about two thirds have second papers.

So it goes through all the rural colonies of immigrant settlers. Everywhere the crying need is for education and training in English, in citizenship, in agriculture, in everything. For the remedy, everyone turns to the evening school for adults.

A large majority of the rural immigrant colonies in the country, including small country towns, are without evening schools, without libraries, without any educational facilities by which the adult immigrant settler might learn the country's language, ways of life, the meaning of citizenship, or better farming methods.

The public evening schools up to this time have been a city institution.[52] Only during recent years have they made their appearance in the centers of a few rural immigrant colonies. These have been temporary establishments undertaken either privately by native Americans in co-operation with the local immigrants, or publicly on the initiative of the local government authorities. The money required has been raised by collections or the local government has made temporary appropriations. Usually the idea of a school for adult immigrants was taken up by some public-spirited and patriotic local leader, a meeting was held, money secured, a teacher employed, and the immigrants invited to attend the schools. Almost in every case the enterprise seemed to be successful at its beginning. The school was well attended and the teaching and studying enthusiastically started. But after a week or two the students began to drop out. Then, owing either to the decrease of students or to the lack of money, the school was closed.

In a large Portuguese colony at Portsmouth, Rhode Island, a township evening school was established in 1917-18. It was well attended, but after two months the school was closed on account of lack of funds, though it was very much needed.

In regard to an experience in establishing a Methodist evening school in the Italian colony at Canastota, New York, the county school superintendent made the following statement:

The greatest problem in the education of Italians here is how to
educate the parents. In 1915 they organized at the Methodist church
an evening school for the Italians. About forty students appeared,
and attended the school for about three or four weeks. They then
gradually ceased to attend the school. The causes were several:
there appeared a doubt with them whether the teachers and
supporters of the school were not trying to induce them to join the
Methodist church; second, there were no regular teachers, the
lessons were given by volunteers, and this resulted in
irregularity in teaching; third, a certain amount of shyness was
apparent. If such an evening school were to be organized for them
with no religious connections, and if it were a regular school, the
Italians would attend it.

In Holland, Michigan, where there is a large, long-established Dutch colony, there was an evening school, but the attendance declined, the people claiming that they had no time to attend it.

At South Deerfield, Massachusetts, in a Polish colony, there was established an evening school a year or so ago.

It was a good thing for us [explained an elderly, bearded leader of
the colony]. Quite a number of our people attended it, but the
great majority did not. They simply did not want to, for they had
lots of work to do at home. Perhaps their bashfulness was the main
obstacle. You see, people with beards and lots of children do not
feel well in school. Look at me. Wouldn't I feel awful there?

In Woodbine, New Jersey, a large Jewish colony, the local manager of the Baron de Hirsch fund, in charge of the financial affairs of the colony, stated that there are evening classes held in the public schools during the winter. Adults may attend these classes, but they do not. General subjects are taught in these classes.

A prominent Italian in the Italian colony at Vineland, New Jersey, said that evening schools were needed there. A year ago they had one with two teachers, but the funds gave out. The people attended. These night schools would teach voting, civics, etc., to the adults. The superintendent of schools in the town said there were no classes in English for the adult immigrants, but suggested that for Americanization purposes classes should be organized and that the Italian leaders should be approached and persuaded to bring in Italian people to the classes.

In the Bohemian and Slovak colonies at Willington, Connecticut, there were no evening classes or schools, though several of the settlers thought it would be a good thing to have such a school and believed that the people would go if they had a chance.

In interviews, the rural evening-school students usually explained that they felt "funny" and were shy and awkward in the school. They went to the same school which their children attended, sat on the same benches, had the same teacher, and read the same books which their children did. Finally, they stopped, deciding that their children could do the learning of English for both themselves and their parents. They also explained that their time was too limited to allow of school attendance. After the daily farm work they have to do chores.

Around a farm, especially a new, developing farm, there are countless things to be cared for. There is no moment when a settler can say: "Now everything is done and I am free." Besides, even if he does take time and goes to the evening school, he feels tired there and is restless about the work left undone at home. Another explanation given by the immigrants in regard to their failure to attend the school was that the school did not teach anything useful to them in their farming, and that the progress in learning English was slow, almost imperceptible. It seemed to them that never would they be able to master the language, and they grew disappointed and discouraged.

The impression made upon the writer was that the complaint about lack of time and weariness was not well founded. There are certain seasons, especially in winter, when the settlers have time to go to the evening school. Even in the heavy working season they might attend school, for their fatigue from farm work is rather physical than nervous or mental.

EDUCATION MADE INTERESTING

The root of the trouble is in inadequate programs, in defective teaching methods and unsuitable teachers. The knowledge of English, American ways and standards of living might well be developed in the immigrant settlers during the process of teaching them something useful, necessary, and interesting. A simple course on farming methods, local conditions, and useful information could be given, with the probable result of awakening their enthusiasm and taste for more.

Such a program makes it essential that the evening-school teacher know farming and rural conditions in general and be familiar with the home life of the students and their racial peculiarities, to which he has to adjust his methods. Possibly the best teacher would be a settler's son or daughter who, after high school, has had training in agriculture and teaching methods. The students should be graded according to their race, level of mental development, and learning ability, whenever this is possible.

The ordinary method now in use consists in imitating and repeating the words and sentences, often disconnected one from another, and the stories told by the teacher. The formal copying of the words and sentences written on the blackboard by the teacher, and reading children's books are sufficient to discourage the most ambitious student. Conversation is more successful than the story-telling method, and exercises in the reading of popular textbooks on farming and of popular essays on American history, geography, etc., are far more interesting to the adult settlers than children's stories.

The evening school in the rural immigrant colonies should be provided and attendance for the adult non-English-speaking immigrants urged, until they have mastered simple English, the elements of citizenship, and a rudimentary knowledge of farming.

In almost every colony visited the writer discussed with the settlers the advisability of compulsory attendance at evening or afternoon classes. No one was against compulsion, though a number suggested qualifications. For instance, the evening school should operate in the wintertime; the teaching should include subjects useful in farming; in the case of hired men, the school time must be paid for by the employer; the evening school should be a public institution, not a private, charitable, or religious enterprise; if private organizations wish to establish evening schools, they should do so only under public regulation and control; the purpose of the evening school should be to teach English, civics, and other useful subjects, not to serve any special or private interests, party, or class; the evening school should be free of charge to immigrants.

A few settlers wanted the evening school to teach the operation and repair of automobiles and tractors; some wanted singing, music, and theatricals taught; some wanted to be instructed in the growing and harvesting of special crops, as, for instance, onions, tobacco, and cotton. In general, the immigrants expect from the evening school more than English and citizenship. They want practical knowledge which helps them in their farming.

[50] _The Home Teacher; the Act, with a Working Plan_, the Commission of Immigration and Housing of California.

[51] _A Manual for Home Teachers_; the Commission of Immigration and Housing of California, pp. 20-21.

[52] See Frank V. Thompson, _Schooling of the Immigrant_, chap. iii.

XIII

LIBRARY AND COMMUNITY WORK

So far as Americanization is a question of education and so far as the printed word is an instrument of education, the reading of American literature by the immigrant is of inestimable value. It might be safely stated that almost every time an immigrant reads something in English, be it only a trade label on a tomato can or an advertisement in a street car, he learns something about the country, at least a word or two of the country's language.

PLACE OF THE PRINTED WORD

As a rule a newly arrived immigrant is eager to learn English. It gives him a new sensation and a feeling of pride to know and speak another tongue. When he has succeeded in mastering a few of the most common words and expressions, like "no," "yes," "how do you do," "good-by," "street," "lunch," and others, he likes to use these words in his conversation with fellow immigrants. When he says to his friend in his native tongue, "Let us go to lunch," the last word is in English. His eagerness to learn English is increased by the practical needs of everyday life--to get a job, to understand the foreman's directions, to buy or sell something, to travel, to apply for licenses, or to make agreements. Everywhere the immigrant confronts English.

In addition to the signs on streets and shops, a newly arrived immigrant soon becomes acquainted with the great American daily, especially its "help-wanted ads." Here he looks for a job, reading the "ads." with the aid either of a dictionary or of some one of his fellow immigrants who has already mastered the "ad." language with its queer abbreviations. When he has established himself in a job, perhaps he begins to think of taking up a systematic study of English. He enters an evening school if there is one in his town. There he makes his first acquaintance with the American book--too often a children's reader containing stories such as "Puss and Her Kittens," "Patty and the Squirrel," "The Dormouse," "Lullaby," "Andy and the Worm," which, though perhaps very interesting to children, do not correspond to the requirements of his mental development. Nevertheless, the stories are related in good English and he goes ahead.

As time passes and his mastery of English grows, he begins to read items in the daily papers and stories in the Sunday editions. Later he takes up the reading of books, perhaps first those related to his trade, or the subjects which are connected with his future plans in America. Still later he begins to read books about America in general, its history, geography, nature, social life, etc. An immigrant seldom takes to American fiction. He ardently tries to be practical, being mainly interested in that which is useful and helpful. When he reads general literature about America he does this for the purpose of learning to know his new country, knowledge which would help him to make a success here. The writer has often been approached by immigrants with requests that he recommend literature on, for instance, making a certain kind of candy, or pickles, or on hog raising or concrete building. Frequently he has had to translate or assist in the interpretation of various formulas and receipts.

RURAL NEEDS FOR BOOKS

A demand of this kind for literature by the immigrants indicates three problems in connection with their education through the printed word: first, the immigrant should be advised in his selection of publications, told which might be the most useful to him. He is quite unable to make this selection for himself; second, the means for acquiring the desired publications should be supplied. As a rule the immigrant has little money to spare for books; third, there should be encouragement and cultivation of the reading habit among the immigrants as an efficient means of their general education and, through this, of their Americanization.

All these problems can be met through the institution of the public library--a great agency for socializing knowledge in a modern democracy. Though America is one of the countries most advanced in the development of public libraries, still the development has not kept pace with the requirements. This is especially true in regard to the rural communities. Particularly in rural immigrant communities, the public library is still lacking. Out of about forty rural immigrant colonies visited by the writer during the past year, about thirty had no library facilities at their disposal, while the remaining ten were able to pride themselves on some sort of a library, either school or parish.

Both these kinds of libraries appear to be very unsatisfactory. As a rule the school libraries are small and contain mainly children's books, so that the adults have not much interest in using them. The parish libraries contain mainly ecclesiastical literature and books on the old country's history and general affairs. The majority of these last-named books are in a foreign tongue.

An old Polish settler stated that the children sometimes bring books home from the school, but that there is nothing in them for the older people, while the church library is not much, either, for who cares to read of one Sigismund or of one Friedrich der Grosse? The settler concluded by saying that he and his fellow immigrants would like to read American books about America. His colony needed an American public library.

The dean of the extension division of the University of Wisconsin reports that there are 72 per cent of rural communities which are without public libraries. This is in a state where the library facilities are comparatively highly developed. It has been the writers impression, while visiting the Wisconsin backwoods immigrant communities, that though the various traveling and package libraries and library "stations" are successfully operating in other parts of the state, they have not yet reached these wilderness communities to any extent. As a rule the rural immigrants do not even know of the existence of such libraries.

PACKAGE LIBRARIES IN WISCONSIN

Yet the demand for literature among the rural population is great and growing rapidly. Take, for instance, the package library of the extension division of the above-mentioned university. It has more than 10,000 packages. Each package contains collected literature--books, newspaper, and magazine clippings, statistical tables, etc.--dealing with a certain subject. It is sent, under certain conditions, to anyone who requests it. The demand for such packages has more than doubled each year. During 1908 and 1909 there were sent out 524 packages on 116 subjects to 136 localities, and during 1915 and 1916 there were sent out 5,948 packages on 2,404 subjects to 483 localities. The reason why such wonderful carriers of knowledge do not reach the rural immigrants is obvious; the immigrants do not know of their existence. Even if they do know, they do not understand how to order them. In many other states conditions are much worse.

What must be done to make the library common to every rural settlement? What kind of a library is best suited to the needs, and how shall it be extended to the backwoods rural communities?

The recommendation of the writer is that the school libraries be developed and put on a higher level, with special adult and children's sections. A library board should be created in each county as a unit operating under a state law for the purpose of directing and developing a county library system. A library tax should be levied upon each county. Schools, community halls, and stores should be made library stations, so that the settlers could have easy access to the books.

SELECTION OF BOOKS

Then there is the question of the selection of publications for the libraries intended for immigrant communities. In this, the conditions and requirements of the immigrant settlers have to be taken into consideration, for it would be useless and wasteful to select books in which the settlers are not interested and which they do not want to read.

First place must be taken by publications concerning farming. Particularly should there be included in such libraries the publications of Federal and state Departments of Agriculture. Then comes the literature for the learning of the English language: dictionaries, grammars, textbooks on composition, etc. Recreation literature--books on sports in the open, plays, music, etc.--would be also in demand. Then come the publications related to American history, geography, nature, economics, government, and social life, and other serious publications containing information about the country's past and present.

Finally comes fiction. A few immigrants who have acquired the habit of reading fiction prefer to read stories and poems of a more realistic character, like those of Jack London, Upton Sinclair, Ernest Poole, Mark Twain, Arnold Bennett, Longfellow. The traveling libraries need not be voluminous so much as of good quality. Aside from being practically useful, they should try to help the rural immigrant settlers to improve their standards of living and to broaden their intellectual horizon.

But who is going to stimulate and lead such an extension of the libraries into the backwoods communities? The national and state-wide library associations would be the ones to undertake this work. As they succeeded in the extension of the American library to the battlefields of Europe, so they without doubt will succeed in the extension of the library to the firing line in our own country--to the line where future America is in the making.

There is no doubt that rural communities will respond to national assistance and greatly benefit by it. Even if only a small beginning could be made very soon, increased demand and local initiative would undoubtedly justify the project.

The day is not distant when the need of community books in every American community will be recognized as an indispensable supplement to all schooling work. In the new colonies that are being planned by colonization companies the library as a part of the general community scheme must not be overlooked. As the advantages of having book supplies available become manifest, it may be possible to provide local housing facilities as well as trained assistants.

There may be a room or even a separate building that can be given over to this purpose. If there is a general community building, no better use could be devised for a portion of it than a small, practical, accessible library. If not the primary object of such a community building it would certainly be an important one.

A COMMUNITY HALL

A public recreation hall in a rural community may be made one of the most effective Americanizing agencies. Public meetings, lectures, amateur theatrical performances, dancing, public celebrations, games, sports, etc., may be held there. It is the neutral place where all community members, natives and immigrants of various races, religions, and tongues, meet one another and learn to know one another, where the much-needed social visiting among the natives and immigrants may have its inception.

One of the characteristics of the European immigrants is their inclination toward singing, music, and amateur theatricals. In the old country there is rarely a village which does not pride itself on some sort of an amusement organization, be it a choir, a band, or a drama group. These are to European people what sport, baseball, football, and the like are to the mass of Americans. When the European immigrants come over they are strange and unsettled, they have little opportunity for amusement, they even neglect church attendance. But when they are settled and have begun to make ends meet, they usually take up their former amusement activities, perhaps singing first, then soon a band, and then the stage.

Under present conditions the natives seldom mix with the immigrants in their amateur amusement enterprises. The immigrants conduct these in their own tongue and select mostly their own songs, airs, and plays. It is equally true that the grown-up immigrants seldom acquire interest in the American sports like baseball and football. Their children, through the influence of the school and their intercourse with the American children, quickly become interested in the American sports, so much so that the parents fail to understand and appreciate their enthusiasm. "It's all right to a certain degree, but my boys seem to be already crazy for baseball, neglecting everything else. I am afraid for their future!" complained an elderly Italian settler to the writer.

Country life is poor in amusements and social intercourse as compared with city life. Still, through organized efforts, the rural social life can be made much richer and even very attractive. It was common testimony given to the writer by the local community leaders that they have succeeded in keeping their boys and girls at home, on the farms, by building a community hall, organizing singing, games, and theatricals.

The community dances exert a great attraction in bringing the native and the immigrant boys and girls together for common pleasure. It is quite a sight to watch these dances: the village band is playing, the boys and girls are dancing, while the elderly people are sitting around the walls of the hall and watching the fun of youth, forgetting their daily sorrows and worries and remembering perhaps their own youthful days somewhere beyond the ocean. All, dressed in their Sunday finery, are in a festive mood.

AMATEUR THEATRICALS

Perhaps the most beneficial enterprise in the community work is the amateur theater. It gives the richest opportunity for self-expression. It includes acting, literature, singing, music, and painting. It amuses and teaches--it reflects and analyzes the social life and directs it in its entirety toward higher levels of achievements. Whatever the shortcomings and the sins of the Russian Bolsheviks, in one thing they have struck, the writer is sure, the right road. This is in placing the stage at the forefront in popular education, if only in an experimental and theoretical way as yet. A properly directed amateur theater is second only to the school. In a rural community it brings together varied elements, brings out the best in each, and unites them by developing common aims and ideals.

The amateur country theater has made much headway in the state of North Dakota. The State Agricultural College at Fargo took the lead in the movement. The president of the college attributes the success of the country theater there not only to the influence of the college leadership, but also to the deep need for entertainment and the hunger for social life among the prairie people who are living on farms at long distances from one another. The fact that the population is largely foreign-born stock and has inherited an inclination toward stage plays is another reason.

Professor Arvold of the same college, who is in charge of the development of the country theater, stated to the writer that their little country theater has a strong Americanizing influence upon the population. It brings together both native born and immigrants of various nationalities. They learn to know one another. They learn about America, its history, present conditions, and future aspirations more than in any other way. The theater teaches them the country's tongue, for the plays are given in English. He believed that every large rural community and groups of smaller communities in the same neighborhood should have an amateur theater.

The theater, public lectures, exhibitions, and the American outdoor sports should be centered in and around the community hall. Such highly varied activities in community life require a trained director. He should be a person with a good general education, with experience in rural life and affairs and in organizing group activities. He must be a good mixer and a lover of the work. For his work he should receive an attractive salary. Colonization companies have initiated such work, which should be taken over and maintained by the community itself.

COMMUNITY TEAMWORK

To put the community work in the rural districts on an organized and permanent basis the writer recommends that a community board be created in each county as a unit operating under a state law for the purpose of directing and developing rural community work, similar to that which the writer recommends for the development of rural libraries. A community tax should be levied upon each county, the money received to be used for community work among the population in the county.

In community union there is strength. Working and planning together for any undertaking, however limited and comparatively humble its dimensions, inevitably ties its promoters in bonds of greater understanding and sympathy. Native and foreign born united for enriching and enhancing their common life act as a powerful force for Americanization. Better than any artificially devised scheme is the spontaneous pulling together for a common need of all elements of the community. This constitutes real amalgamation in a democracy.

INDEX

A

Americanization:
Factors, 145, 164
Instruments
Finnish women's club, 232
Parochial schools, 169, 171

Anderson, Vic, 184

Arizona:
Colony
Glendale, 30-31, 217, 236
Illiteracy, 146-147
Inability to speak English, 147
Schools
Attendance, 212-213
Aron, J., 160
Arvold, Professor, 255

B

Banks:
Settler's, 57-58

Baron de Hirsch Fund, 176, 180, 239

Bohemians:
Colony
Willington, Connecticut, 15-16, 240

Brommer, C. F., 160-161, 185

Brooks, John Graham, viii

C

California:
Colonies
Durham, 87-91
Los Angeles, 24-31, 231, 235
San Francisco, 152, 235
Home teacher, 229-231
Illiteracy, 146-147
Inability to speak English, 148
Land settlement, 31-33, 86-91
Dealers, 117-119
Legislation
Co-operatives, 141
Home teacher, 229
Land settlement, 87
Real-estate brokers, 117
Soldiers, 94
Schools
Private, 175
Public, 195, 215-217

California Commission on Immigration and Housing, 23, 229, 230

California Commission on Land Colonization:

Colonies, 31-33, 86

Cary, C. P., 173, 204, 209

Chase, Amanda Mathews, 230-231

Chicago, 158
Colonization company, 44-45

Child Labor:
On farms, 65-66

Churches:
Foreign language, 182-194
Immigrant pastors, 192-193
"Interfaith" marriages, 189-192

Clarke, W. T., 28

Colonization Board:
Federal legislation, 68
Functions, 127-128

Colonization Companies (_see_ Settlers):
A typical one, 52-65
Credit required, 66-68
McAlester, Oklahoma, 33-35
Methods, 49-52
Policy, 44-45
Promotion, 14-19
Regulation, 112-121

Colony:
Composition, 90, 132-133
List, xxvii-xxix
Size, 69-70, 131

Commissioner General of Immigration, 7

Community (_see_ Colony):
Rural
Hall, 252
Theater, 254-256
Work, 49, 63-65, 252, 256-257

Connecticut:
Colony
Willington, 15-16, 240

Conservation:
By colonization companies, 68-69

Cook, K. M., 219

Co-operation:
For land settlement, 136

Co-operatives:
California, 141
Michigan
Finnish colony, 136-137
Nebraska, 141
Wisconsin, 138-141

Credit:
Land companies, 67, 135
Settlers
Need, 66-68, 110, 135
Soldier
Foreign countries, 105-106
United States, 91-93

D

Department of Agriculture:
Land exchange, 122-124
Land settlement
California, 19, 23
Wisconsin, 19-23

Department of Interior, 92-93
Reclamation service, 95-98, 104

Detroit, Michigan, 167

District of Columbia:
Real-estate brokers, 121

Dutch:
Colony
Holland, Michigan, 171, 180, 188, 198, 239
Schools, private, 171

E

Education (_see_ Schools):
Effect of parochial schools, 153-155
Immigrant women, 226-228
Rural agencies, 149

Elmira, California:
Farms, 29

Ely, Richard T., xxvi

F

Fargo, North Dakota:
State Agricultural College, 255

Farm laborers:
California
Allotments, 88
Foreign born, 6-7
Naturalization, 148

Federal Farm Loan Board, 135

Finnish:
Colonies
Calumet, Michigan, 232
Rudyard, Michigan, 136-137, 167-168, 197
Schools, private, 167-168

Flag:
Display, 81, 160

Florer, Alice, 159

Foght, H. W., 205

Ford, Henry, 52

Fosdick, Raymond, viii

France:
Soldier settlement, 105

Fresno, California:
Land company, 26

G

Gavit, John P., 148

Gay, Edwin F., viii

German:
Colony
Au Gres, Michigan, 172
Schools, private
Michigan, 167, 172
Minnesota, 165
Nebraska, 159-160
North Dakota, 161-164
South Dakota, 174-175
Wisconsin, 174

Glenn, John M., viii

Grabner, W., 158

Gross, John P., 186

H

Hensick, H. F., 184

Honolulu:
Russian peasants, 29

Hrbkova, Sarka, 159

I

Illiteracy:
Urban-rural, 146

Immigration Bureau:
Land settlement, 18-19

Inability to speak English:
In colonies visited, 234, 236-237
Settlers, 71, 166, 234, 236-237
Urban-rural, 147-148

Italian:
Colonies
Canastota, New York, 198, 234, 238
Vineland, New Jersey, 151, 210, 237, 239
Document
Land settler, 10

J

Jenks & Lauck, 6

Jewish:
Center in Newark, New Jersey, 232
Colony
Woodbine, New Jersey, 180, 239

K

Kelly, M. Clyde, 99

Kenyon, W. S., 99

Knutson, Harold, 68, 102, 103, 135

Kreutzer, George C., 90

Kuehne, Richard, 184

Kuizinga, Reverend, 198

Kunzendorf, Reverend, 160

L

Land dealers:
Regulation, 112-121
Types, 39-45
"Realtors," 45-48
Sharks, 37-39

Land exchange:
In Maryland, 122-123
Proposed Federal, 124

Land settlement (_see_ California, Legislation, Wisconsin):
Available land, 111
Policy, 3-13
Program, 107-122
Promotion
By Federal Immigration Bureau, 18-19
By State Immigration Bureau, 18-19
Settlers' terms, 55-56
Stages, 50-52

Lane, Franklin K., 111

Legislation:
Co-operatives
State, 140-141
Land
Federal
Colonization Board, 68
Credit, 68, 135
Reclamation Service Act, 95-97, 126-127
Settlement, 101, 103
Soldiers, 98, 102-103
Foreign countries, 105-106
State
Credit, 68
Dealers, 114-122
Settlement, California, 87
Soldiers, 92-93
School
State, 215-217
Home teacher, 229-230
Regulation, private, 180-181

Lehninger, M., 184

Library:
Rural, 247, 251-252
Wisconsin, 248-249

Lincoln, Nebraska:
State Americanization Committee, 160, 183

Link, Professor, 159

M

McAlester, Oklahoma:
Colonization company, 33-34

Maryland:
Land Exchange, 122-123

Massachusetts:
Colony
South Deerfield, 153, 236, 239

Matzner, Adolph, 185

Mead, Elwood, 87

Michigan:
Colonies
Au Gres, 172
Calumet, 232
Holland, 171, 180, 188, 198, 239
Posen, 77, 168-170, 187, 198, 236
Rudyard, 136-137, 167-168, 197
Schools, private, 167, 172

Minnesota:
Colony
St. Cloud, 166
Land Regulation Bill, 119
Schools
Attendance, 213-214, 217
Private, 154, 164-166
Public, 200, 209

Missouri:
Legislation
Soldier settlement, 94

Monahan, A. C., 219

Mondell, Frank W., 102

Myers, Henry, 99

N

National Association of Real Estate Exchanges, 120

Naturalization:
Farm laborers, 148
Settlers, 79, 234-237

Nebraska:
Americanization Committee, 160, 183
Council of Defense, 158-160
Foreign-language church, 183-186
"Interfaith" marriage, 191
Immigrant pastors, 192-193
Legislation
Co-operatives, 141
Schools
Attendance, 215
Private, 159-161
Public, 209, 218

Nemac, Matt W., 193

Nevada:
Legislation
Soldier settlement, 94

New Jersey:
Colonies
Newark, Jewish center, 232
Vineland, 151, 210, 237, 239
Woodbine, 180, 239

New Mexico:
Illiteracy, 146, 147
Inability to speak English, 147

New South Farm and Home Company, 17

New York:
Colony
Canastota, 198, 234, 238
Legislation
Real-estate dealers, 119
Occupation tax, 117
Real Estate Association, 119

New York City:
Population, by nationality, 130

North Dakota:
Agricultural College, 255
Americanization work, 164
Country theaters, 255
Foreign-language church, 183
Languages spoken, 131
Schools
Attendance, 214
Private, 161-162
Public, 200, 201-202, 206-207, 209

O

Occupation:
Farm laborers, 6-7
Tax, 116-117, 121

P

Packer, B. G., 20-23, 115

Parochial (_see_ Schools, private)

Pennsylvania:
Occupation license, 116

Piper, A., 158

Polish:
Colonies
Posen, Michigan, 77, 168-170, 187, 198, 236
South Deerfield, Massachusetts, 153, 236, 239
Schools, private, 167-170

Pomp, F. E., 193

Population:
Comparative, 130
Urban-rural, 1920, 11

Portland, Oregon:
Real-estate brokers, 121

Portuguese:
Colony
Portsmouth, Rhode Island, 234, 238

Promotion:
Land settlement
Private, 14-19
Public, 18-23

R

Real Estate:
Regulation of dealers, 112-121

Reclamation:
Federal service, 95-97
Investigation, 104
Legislation, 92-94, 98, 99, 100, 126-127

Rhode Island:
Colony
Portsmouth, 234, 238

Robb, J. W., 161

Roosevelt, Theodore, viii

Rural:
Colonies studied, xxvii-xxix
Community work, 49, 63-65, 252, 256-257
Educational agencies, 149
Illiteracy, 146
Inability to speak English, 147-184, 234, 236-237
Libraries, 247, 251-252
Population, 1920, 11
Schools
Private, 153-181
Public
Elementary, 164, 195-225
Evening, 233-243

Russian:
Colony
Glendale, Arizona, 30-31, 217, 236
Los Angeles, California, 24-31, 231, 235
San Francisco, California, 152, 235

S

Schools, private, 153-181
Foreign language, 159-170, 172, 174-175

Schools, public:
Rural
Elementary, 154-155, 164, 195-225
Immigrant, 233-243

Settlers:
Aid to, 22-23
Banks, 57-58
Documents, 72-76, 80, 83
Inability to speak English, 71, 166, 234, 236-237
Naturalization, 79, 234-237
Progress record, 59-61
Selection, 88, 129
Terms, 55-56
Types, 133-134

Slovenian:
Colony
St. Cloud, Minnesota, 166

Soldiers:
Land settlement
France, 105
Legislation, 91-103
United Kingdom, 106

South Dakota:
Legislation
Soldier settlement, 94
Schools
Attendance, 215
Private, 154, 175
Public, 203-204, 209, 215, 221

Speek, Frances Valiant, xxvii

Stager, John H., 185

Strasburg, North Dakota, 163

T

Taylor, E. T., 101

Teachers:
Home teacher in California, 229-231
Rural, 203-211

Teaching:
Rural, 195-199

Texas:
Illiteracy, 146-147
Inability to speak English, 147
Land settlement Dealers, 119-120
Realty Association, 119

Theater:
North Dakota country, 255

Thompson, Frank V., 181, 237

U

United Kingdom:
Soldier settlement, 106

United States Bureau of Education, 196, 204, 205, 219

United States Census, 6, 11

United States Immigration Commission, 6, 7

University of Wisconsin:
Package libraries, 249

Urban (_see_ Rural)

Utah:
Legislation
Real-estate brokers, 121
Russian peasants' settlement, 29

V

Voll, John A., viii

Votava, Joseph G., 186, 193

W

Walsh, Thomas J., 103

War, 11, 67, 91

Washington:
Interstate Realty Association of Pacific Northwest, 121
Land purchase, 26
Legislation
Real estate, 121
Soldier settlement, 94

Weller, George, 159, 161

Williams, Talcott, viii

Wisconsin:
Co-operatives, 138-139
Land settlement, 20-22
Colonization companies, 52-65
Sharks, 38
Legislation
Co-operatives, 140-141
Real-estate brokers, 114
Libraries, rural, 248-249
Schools
Private, 173-174
Public, 154-155, 196, 204, 209

Women:
Immigrant
Document, 164
Education, 226-228
Organization, 232

_Americanization Studies_

SCHOOLING OF THE IMMIGRANT.
Frank V. Thompson, Supt. of Public Schools, Boston

AMERICA VIA THE NEIGHBORHOOD.
John Daniels

OLD WORLD TRAITS TRANSPLANTED.
Robert E. Park, Professorial Lecturer, University of Chicago
Herbert A. Miller, Professor of Sociology, Oberlin College

A STAKE IN THE LAND.
Peter A. Speek, in charge, Slavic Section, Library of
Congress

IMMIGRANT HEALTH AND THE COMMUNITY. (In press)
Michael M. Davis, Jr., Director, Boston Dispensary

NEW HOMES FOR OLD. (In press)
S. P. Breckinridge, Assistant Professor of Household Administration,
University of Chicago

ADJUSTING IMMIGRANT AND INDUSTRY. (In preparation)
William M. Leiserson, Chairman, Labor Adjustment Board,
Rochester

THE IMMIGRANT PRESS AND ITS CONTROL. (In preparation)
Robert E. Park, Professorial Lecturer, University of Chicago

THE IMMIGRANT'S DAY IN COURT. (In preparation)
Kate Holladay Claghorn, Instructor in Social Research,
New York School of Social Work

AMERICANS BY CHOICE. (In preparation)
John P. Gavit, Vice-President, New York _Evening Post_

SUMMARY. (In preparation)
Allen T. Burns, Director, Studies in Methods of Americanization

_Harper & Brothers Publishers_

[Transcriber's Note:

* The footnotes have been moved to the end of the relevant chapter.

* Americanization Studies section moved from the beginning to the end of the book.

* p. 106: Table III was broken into four parts due to size.

* p. 193 "Nemec" ("Rev. Matt W. Nemec") and p. 263 "Nemac" ("Nemac, Matt W.") retained as printed.

* Added "period" to the ending of Chapter XI, Footnote 14.

End of Project Gutenberg's A Stake in the Land, by Peter Alexander Speek