A Student's History of England, v. 1: B.C. 55-A.D. 1509

Chapter XXIII: Henry VII. 1485--1509 (1)

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LEADING DATES

Accession of Henry VII. 1485
The Battle of Stoke 1487
Poynings' Acts 1494
Capture of Perkin Warbeck 1497
Alliance with Scotland 1503
Death of Henry VII. 1509

1. =The First Measures of Henry VII. 1485--1486.=--Henry VII. owed his success not to a general uprising against Richard, but to a combination of the nobles who had hitherto taken opposite sides. To secure this combination he had promised to marry Elizabeth, the heiress of the Yorkist family. Lest an attempt should be made to challenge her title, Henry imprisoned in the Tower the Earl of Warwick, the son of Clarence, who might possibly maintain that a female was incapable of inheriting. He was indeed unwilling to have it thought that he derived his title from a wife, and when Parliament met on November 7 he obtained from it a recognition of his own right to the throne, though it would have puzzled the most acute controversialist to discover in what that right consisted. Parliament, therefore, contented itself with declaring that the inheritance of the crown was to 'be, rest, and abide in King Henry VII. and his heirs,' without giving any reasons why it was to be so.[36] As far as the House of Lords was concerned the attendance when this declaration was made was scanty. Only twenty-nine lay peers were present, not because many of the great houses had become extinct, but because some of the principal Yorkist peers had been attainted, and others had been left without a summons. In the quieter times which followed this slur upon them was removed, and the House of Lords was again filled. On January 18, =1486=, Henry married Elizabeth. This marriage and the blending of the white and red rose in the Tudor badge was Henry's way of announcing that he intended to be the king of both parties.

[Footnote 36: Abbreviated genealogy of Henry VII. and his
competitors:--

2. =Maintenance and Livery.=--Henry could not maintain himself on the throne merely by the support of the nobility. The middle classes, as in the days of Edward IV., called out for a strong king, and were ready to overlook violence and cruelty if only order could be secured. Henry was shrewd enough to know that their aid was indispensable, and, Lancastrian as he was, he adopted the policy of the Yorkist kings. Economical and patient, he might succeed where Edward IV. had partially failed. He had no injuries to avenge, no cruelties to repay. He clearly saw that both the throne and the lives and properties of the middle classes were rendered insecure by maintenance and livery--the support given by the great landowners to their retainers, and the granting of badges by which the retainers might recognise one another, and thus become as it were a uniformed army ready to serve their lords in the field. Against these abuses Richard II. had directed a statute, (see p. 281) and that statute had been confirmed by Edward IV. These laws had, however, been inoperative; and Henry, in his first Parliament, did not venture to do more than to make the peers swear to abandon their evil courses.

3. =Lovel's Rising. 1486.=--In =1486= Lord Lovel, who had been one of Richard's ministers, rose in arms and seized Worcester. Henry found warm support even in Yorkshire, where Richard had been more popular than elsewhere. At short warning a 'marvellous great number of esquires, gentlemen, and yeomen' gathered round him, and the rebellion was easily put down. Lovel escaped to Flanders, where he found a protector in Margaret, the dowager Duchess of Burgundy, the sister of Edward IV. and Richard III. Before long a new attack upon Henry was developed. For the first time an English king had to ward off danger from Ireland.

4. =Lancaster and York in Ireland. 1399--1485.=--Since the expedition of Richard II. no king had visited Ireland, and the English colonists were left to defend themselves against the Celtic tribes as best they might. In =1449= Richard, Duke of York, who had not at that time entered on his rivalry with Henry VI., was sent to Dublin as Lord Lieutenant (see p. 319) where he remained till =1450=, and gained friends amongst both races by his conciliatory firmness. In =1459=, after the break-up of his party at Ludlow (see p. 326), he appeared in Ireland in the character of a fugitive seeking for allies. Between him and the English colony a bargain was soon struck. They gave him troops which fought gallantly for him at Wakefield, and he, claiming to be Lord Lieutenant, assented to an act in which they asserted the complete legislative independence of the Parliament of the colony. The colony, therefore, became distinctly Yorkist. Its leader was the Earl of Kildare, the chief of the eastern Fitzgeralds or Geraldines, the Earl of Desmond being the chief of the Geraldines of the West. Between them was the Earl of Ormond, the chief of the Butlers, the hereditary foe of the Geraldines, who, probably merely because his rivals were Yorkist, had attached himself to the Lancastrian party. All three were of English descent, but all three exercised the tribal authority of an Irish chief, and were practically independent of English control. Ormond fought at Towton on the Lancastrian side, and was executed after the battle. Family quarrels broke out amongst his kindred, and for the time Kildare was supreme in the English Pale (see p. 265).

5. =Insurrection of Lambert Simnel. 1487.=--Kildare and the colonists had every reason to distrust Henry, but to oppose him they needed a pretender. They found one in the son of an Oxford tradesman, a boy of ten, named Lambert Simnel, who had been persuaded to give himself out as the Earl of Warwick, who, as it was said, had escaped from the Tower. In =1487= Simnel landed in Ireland, where he was soon joined by Lord Lovel from Flanders, and by the Earl of Lincoln, of the family of Pole or De la Pole,[37] whose mother, Elizabeth, was the eldest sister of Edward IV., and who had been named by Richard III. as his heir after the death of his son (see p. 342). Lincoln and Lovel, after crowning Simnel at Dublin, crossed to Lancashire, taking with them the pretender, and 2,000 trained German soldiers under Martin Schwarz; as well as an Irish force furnished by Kildare. Scarcely an Englishman would join them, and on June 16 they were utterly defeated by Henry at Stoke, a village between Nottingham and Newark. Lincoln and Schwarz were slain. Lovel was either drowned in the Trent or, according to legend, was hidden in an underground vault, where he was at last starved to death through the neglect of the man whose duty it was to provide him with food. Simnel was pardoned, and employed by Henry as a turnspit in his kitchen.

[Footnote 37: Genealogy of the De la Poles and Poles:--

Richard, Duke of York
|
+------------------------+--------------------------+
| |
Elizabeth= John de la Pole, George, Duke
| Duke of Suffolk of Clarence,
| died 1477
+--+--------------+----------------------+ |
| | | |
John de la Pole, Edmund de la Pole, Sir Richard Margaret, = Sir Richard
Earl of Lincoln, Earl of Suffolk, de la Pole, Countess | Pole
killed at Stoke, beheaded 1513 killed at of |
1487 Pavia, 1525 Salisbury |
|
+-------------------------------+--------------------+
| |
Henry, Lord Montague, Reginald Pole,
beheaded 1538 Cardinal and Archbishop
of Canterbury, died 1558]

6. =The Court of Star Chamber. 1487.=--Nothing could serve Henry better than this abortive rising. At Bosworth he had been the leader of one party against the other. At Stoke he was the leader of the nation against Irishmen and Germans. He felt himself strong enough in his second Parliament to secure the passing of an act to ensure the execution of the engagements to which the lords had sworn two years before (see p. 345). A court was to be erected, consisting of certain specified members of the Privy Council and of two judges, empowered to punish with fine and imprisonment all who were guilty of interfering with justice by force or intrigue. The new court, reviving, to some extent, the disused criminal authority of the king's Council, sat in the Star Chamber[38] at Westminster. The results of its establishment were excellent. Wealthy landowners, the terror of their neighbours, who had bribed or bullied juries at their pleasure, and had sent their retainers to inflict punishment on those who had displeased them, were brought to Westminster to be tried before a court in which neither fear nor favour could avail them. It was the greatest merit of the new court that it was not dependent on a jury, because in those days juries were unable or unwilling to give verdicts according to their conscience.

[Footnote 38: So called either because the roof was decorated with
stars or because it was the room in which had formerly been kept
Jewish bonds or 'starres.']

7. =Henry VII. and Brittany. 1488--1492.=--Henry VII. was a lover of peace by calculation, and would gladly have let France alone if it had been possible to do so. France, however, was no longer the divided power which it had been in the days of Henry V. When Louis XI. died in =1483=, he left to his young son, Charles VIII., a territory the whole of which, with the exception of Brittany, was directly governed by the king. Charles's sister, Anne of Beaujeu, who governed in his name, made it the object of her policy to secure Brittany. She waged war successfully against its duke, Francis II., and after he died, in =1488=, she continued to wage war against his daughter, the Duchess Anne. In England there was a strong feeling against allowing the Duchess to be overwhelmed. At the beginning of =1489= Henry, having received from Parliament large supplies, sent 6,000 Englishmen to Anne's assistance. Maximilian--whose hold on the Netherlands, where he ruled in the name of his young son, Philip (see p. 337), was always slight--proposed marriage to the young duchess, and in =1490= was wedded to her by proxy. He was a restless adventurer, always aiming at more than he had the means of accomplishing. Though he could not find time to go at once to Brittany to make good his claim, yet in =1491= he called on Henry to assist him in asserting it.

8. =Cardinal Morton's Fork. 1491.=--Henry, who knew how unpopular a general taxation was, fell back on the system of benevolences (see p. 335), excusing his conduct on the plea that the statute of Richard III. abolishing benevolences (see p. 342) was invalid, because Richard himself was a usurper. In gathering the benevolence the Chancellor, Cardinal Morton, who had been helpful to Henry in the days of his exile (see p. 341), invented a new mode of putting pressure on the wealthy, which became known as Cardinal Morton's fork. If he addressed himself to one who lived in good style, he told him that his mode of living showed that he could afford to give money to the king. If he had to do with one who appeared to be economical, he told him that he must have saved and could therefore afford to give money to the king. Before Henry could put the money thus gained to much use, Anne, pressed hard by the French, repudiated her formal marriage with Maximilian, who had never taken the trouble to visit her, and gave her hand to Charles VIII., who on his part refused to carry out his contract to marry Maximilian's daughter Margaret (see p. 337). From that time Brittany, the last of the great fiefs to maintain its independence, passed under the power of the king of France. Feudality was everywhere breaking down, and in France, as in England, a strong monarchy was being erected on its ruins.

9. =The Invasion of France. 1492.=--Maximilian's alliance had proved but a broken reed, but there was now arising a formidable power in the south of Europe, which might possibly give valuable support to the enemies of France. The peninsula to the south of the Pyrenees had hitherto been divided amongst various states, but in =1469= a marriage between Ferdinand, king of Aragon, and Isabella, the heiress of Castile, united the greater part under one dominion. Ferdinand and Isabella were, for the present, fully occupied with the conquest of Granada, the last remnant of the possessions of the Moors in Spain, and that city did not surrender till early in =1492=. In the meanwhile all England was indignant with the king of France on account of his marriage with the heiress of Brittany. Money was voted and men were raised, and on October 2, =1492=, Henry crossed to Calais to invade France. He was, however, cool enough to discover that both Ferdinand and Maximilian wanted to play their own game at his expense, and as Anne of Beaujeu was ready to meet him half-way, he concluded a treaty with the French king on November 3 at Etaples, receiving large sums of money for abandoning a war in which he had nothing to gain. In =1493= the Spaniards followed Henry's example, and made a peace with France to their own advantage.[39]

[Footnote 39: Genealogy of the Houses of Spain and Burgundy:--

10. =Perkin Warbeck. 1491--1494.=--Henry's prudent relinquishment of a war of conquest was not likely to bring him popularity in England, and his enemies were now on the watch for another pretender to support against him. Such a pretender was found in Perkin Warbeck, a Fleming of Tournay, who had landed at Cork in the end of =1491= or the beginning of =1492=, and who had been pressed by the townsmen to give himself some name which would attach him to the Yorkist family. He allowed them to call him Richard, Duke of York, the younger of the princes who had been murdered in the Tower. He received support from Desmond, and probably from Kildare, upon which Henry deprived Kildare of the office of Lord Deputy. Perkin crossed to France, and ultimately made his way to Flanders, where he was supported by Margaret of Burgundy. In =1493= Henry demanded his surrender, and on receiving a refusal broke off commercial intercourse between England and Flanders. The interruption of trade did more harm to England than to Flanders, and gave hopes to the Yorkist party that it might give rise to ill-will between the nation and the king. For some time, however, no one gave assistance to Perkin, and in =1494= Charles VIII. crossed the Alps to invade Italy, and drew the attention of the Continental powers away from the affairs of England.

11. =Poynings' Acts. 1494.=--Henry seized the opportunity to bring into obedience the English colony in Ireland. He sent over as Lord Deputy Sir Edward Poynings, a resolute and able man. At a Parliament held by him at Drogheda two acts were passed. By the one it was enacted that all English laws in force at that time should be obeyed in Ireland; by the other, known for many generations afterwards as Poynings' Law, no bill was to be laid before the Irish Parliament which had not been previously approved by the king and his Council in England. At the same time the greater part of the Statute of Kilkenny (see p. 265) was re-enacted; and restricted the authority of the Government at Dublin to the English Pale.

12. =Perkin's First Attempt on England. 1495.=--Henry's firm government in England had given offence even to men who were not Yorkists. Early in =1495= he discovered that Sir William Stanley, who had helped him to victory at Bosworth, had turned against him. Stanley, who was probably involved in a design for sending Perkin to invade England, was tried and executed. In the summer of =1495= Perkin actually arrived off Deal. Being no warrior, he sent a party of his followers on shore, though he remained himself on shipboard to see what would happen. The countrymen fell upon the invaders, who were all slain or captured. Then Perkin sailed to Ireland, was repulsed at Waterford, and ultimately took refuge in Scotland, where King James IV., anxious to distinguish himself in a war with England, acknowledged him as the Duke of York, and found him a wife of noble birth, Lady Catherine Gordon. It was probably in order to rally even the most timid around him, in face of such a danger, that Henry obtained the consent of Parliament to an act declaring that no one supporting a king in actual possession of the crown could be subjected to the penalty of treason in the event of that king's dethronement.

13. =The Intercursus Magnus. 1496.=--The danger of a Scottish invasion made Henry anxious to be on good terms with his neighbours. Maximilian had become Emperor in =1493= upon his father's death. In the Netherlands, however, his influence had declined, as his son, the young Archduke Philip, was now growing up, and claimed actually to rule the country which he had inherited from his mother, Mary of Burgundy (see p. 337), his father having merely the right of administering the government of it till he himself came of age. It was therefore with Philip, and not with Maximilian, that Henry concluded, in =1496=, a treaty known as the _Intercursus Magnus_, for the encouragement of trade between England and the Netherlands, each party engaging at the same time to give no shelter to each other's rebels.

14. =Kildare Restored to the Deputyship. 1496.=--In Ireland also Henry was careful to avert danger. The government of Poynings had not been entirely successful, and the Geraldines had taken good care to show that they could be troublesome in spite of the establishment of English government. The Earl of Kildare was at the time in England, and a story is told of some one who, having brought a long string of charges against him, wound up by saying that all Ireland could not govern the Earl, whereupon the king replied that then the Earl should govern all Ireland. The story is untrue, but it well represents the real situation. In =1496= Henry sent Kildare back as Lord Deputy. A bargain seems to have been struck between them. Henry abandoned his attempt to govern Ireland from England, and Kildare was allowed to use the king's name in any enterprise upon which his heart was set, provided that he did not support any more pretenders to the English throne.

15. =Perkin's Overthrow. 1496--1497.=--In the autumn of =1496= James IV. made an attack on England in Perkin's name, but it was no more than a plundering foray. Henry, however, early in =1497=, obtained from Parliament a grant of money, to enable him to resist any attempt to repeat it. This grant had unexpected consequences. The Cornishmen, refusing payment, marched up to Blackheath, where on June 18 they were overpowered by the king's troops. James IV., thinking it time to be quit of Perkin, sent him off by sea. In July Perkin arrived at Cork, but there was no shelter for him there now that Kildare was Lord Deputy, and in September he made his way to Cornwall. Followed by 6,000 Cornishmen he reached Taunton, but the news of the defeat of the Cornish at Blackheath depressed him, and the poor coward ran away from his army and took sanctuary in Beaulieu Abbey. He was brought to London, where he publicly acknowledged himself to be an impostor. Henry was too humane to do more than place him in confinement.

16. =European Changes. 1494--1499.=--In =1494= Charles VIII. had passed through Italy as a conqueror to make good his claims to the kingdom of Naples. In =1495= he had returned to France, and in =1496= the French army left behind had been entirely destroyed. Yet the danger of a renewed attack from France made the other Continental powers anxious to unite, and in =1496= the Archduke Philip married Juana, the eldest daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella, whilst his sister was sent to Spain to be married to their only son, Juan. In =1497= the death of the young prince led to consequences unexpected when the two marriages were arranged. Philip, who held Franche Comte and the Netherlands, and who was through his father Maximilian heir to the German dominions of the House of Austria, would now, that his wife had become the heiress of Spain, be able to transmit to his descendants the whole of the Spanish monarchy as well. That monarchy was no longer confined to Europe. Portugal at the end of the fourteenth century had led the way in maritime adventure, and Portuguese navigators discovered a way to India round the Cape of Good Hope. Spain was anxious to do as much, and in =1492= Columbus had discovered the West Indies, and the kings of Spain became masters of the untold wealth produced by the gold and silver mines of the New World. It was impossible but that the huge power thus brought into existence would one day arouse the jealousy of Europe. For the present, however, the danger was less than it would be after the deaths of Ferdinand and Isabella, as the actual combination of their territories with those which Philip was to inherit from Maximilian had not been effected. In =1499= France gave a fresh shock to her neighbours. Charles VIII. had died the year before, and his successor, Louis XII., invaded Italy and subdued the duchy of Milan, to which he had set up a claim. Naturally the powers jealous of France sought to have Henry on their side. There had been for some time a negotiation for a marriage between Henry's eldest son, Arthur, Prince of Wales, and Catherine of Aragon, the youngest daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella, but hitherto nothing had been concluded.

17. =Execution of the Earl of Warwick. 1499.=--Perkin had long been eager to free himself from prison. In =1498= he was caught attempting to escape, but Henry contented himself with putting him in the stocks. He was then removed to the Tower, where he persuaded the unhappy Earl of Warwick (see p. 343) to join him in flight. It is almost certain that Warwick was guilty of no more, but Henry, soured by the repeated attempts to dethrone him, resolved to remove him from his path. On trumped-up evidence Warwick was convicted and executed, and Perkin shared his fate.

18. =Prince Arthur's Marriage and Death. 1501--1502.=--Warwick's death was the one judicial murder of Henry's reign. To the Spaniards it appeared to be a prudent action which had cleared away the last of Henry's serious competitors. The negotiations for the Spanish marriage were pushed on, and in =1501= Catherine, a bride of fifteen, gave her hand to Arthur, a bridegroom of fourteen. In =1502= the prince died, and the attempt to bind England and Spain together seemed to have come to an end.

19. =The Scottish Marriage. 1503.=--Another marriage treaty proved ultimately to be of far greater importance. Henry was sufficiently above the prejudices of his time to be anxious to be on good terms with Scotland. For some time a negotiation had been in progress for a marriage between James IV. and Henry's daughter, Margaret. The marriage took place in =1503=. To the counsellors who urged that in the case of failure of Henry's heirs in the male line England would become subject to Scotland Henry shrewdly replied that there was no fear of that, as 'the greater would draw the less.'

20. =Maritime Enterprise.=--Henry's chief merit was that he had re-established order. Commercial prosperity followed, though the commerce was as yet on a small scale. It is probable that the population of England was no more than 2,500,000. London contained but 130,000 inhabitants, whilst Paris contained 400,000. There was no royal navy, as there was no royal army, but merchant vessels were armed to protect themselves. The company of Merchant Adventurers made voyages to the Baltic, and the men of Bristol sent out fleets to the Iceland fishery. Henry did what he could to encourage maritime enterprise. He had offered to take Columbus into his service before the great navigator closed with Spain, and in =1497= he sent the Venetian, John Cabot, and his sons across the Atlantic, where they landed in Labrador before any Spaniards had set foot on the American continent. England however, was as yet too poor to push these discoveries farther, and the lands beyond the sea were for the present left to Spain.

21. =Growth of the Royal Power.=--The improvement in the general well-being of the country had been rendered possible by the extension of the royal power, and the price paid for order was the falling into abeyance of the constitutional authority of Parliaments. The loss indeed was greater in appearance than in reality. In the fifteenth century the election of members of the House of Commons depended more upon the will of the great lords than upon the political sentiments of the community. In the first half of the sixteenth century they depended on the will of the king. The peculiarity of the Tudor rule was that its growing despotism was exercised without the support of the army. It rested on the goodwill of the middle classes. Treading cautiously in the steps of Edward IV., Henry VII. recognised that in order to have a full treasury it was less dangerous to exact payments illegally from the few than to exact them legally from the many. Hence his recourse in times of trouble to benevolences. Hence, too, the eagerness with which he gathered in fines. The Cornish rebels were fined individually. The great lords who persisted in keeping retainers were fined. On one occasion the king visited the Earl of Oxford, and found, when he went away, a band of retainers drawn up to do him honour. "My lord," he said, "I thank you for your entertainment, but my attorney must speak with you." If there was a man in England who had deserved well of Henry it was Oxford, but Oxford had to pay 15,000_l._, a sum worth perhaps 180,000_l._ at the present day, to atone for his offence. No services rendered to Henry were to excuse from obedience to the law.

22. =Empson and Dudley.=--As Henry grew older the gathering of money became a passion. His chief instruments were Empson and Dudley, who under pretence of enforcing the law established the worst of tyrannies. Even false charges were brought for the sake of extracting money. At the end of his reign Henry had accumulated a hoard of 1,800,000_l._, mainly gathered by injustice and oppression. The despotism of one man was no doubt better than the despotism of many, but the price paid for the change was a heavy one.

23. =Henry and his Daughter-in-law. 1502--1505.=--On the death of Prince Arthur in =1502=, Ferdinand and Isabella proposed that their daughter Catharine should marry her brother-in-law, Henry, the only surviving son of the king of England, though the boy was six years younger than herself. They had already paid half their daughter's marriage portion, and they believed, probably with truth, that they had little chance of recovering it from Henry VII., and that it would therefore be more economical to re-marry their daughter where they would get off with no more expense than the payment of the other half. Henry on the other hand feared lest the repayment of the first half might be demanded of him, and consequently welcomed the proposal. In =1503= a dispensation for the marriage was obtained from Pope Julius II., but in =1505=, when the time for the betrothal arrived, the young Henry protested, no doubt at his father's instigation, that he would proceed no farther.

24. =The Last Years of Henry VII. 1505--1509.=--Circumstances were changed by the death of Isabella in =1504=, when her son-in-law, the Archduke Philip, claimed to be sovereign of Castile in right of his wife Juana. Philip, sailing from the Netherlands to Spain in =1506=, was driven into Weymouth by a storm, and Henry seized the opportunity of wringing from him commercial concessions as well as the surrender of Edmund de la Pole, a brother of the Earl of Lincoln who perished at Stoke, and a nephew of Edward IV. Henry was himself now a widower on the look-out for a rich wife, and Philip promised him the hand of his sister, Margaret, who had formerly been betrothed to Charles VIII. (see p. 337). Once more, however, the conditions of the game changed. Philip died a few months after his arrival in Spain, leaving a mad widow, and as Ferdinand then regained his authority Catharine's marriage was again discussed. Other schemes were also proposed, amongst them one for marrying Catharine, not to the young prince, but to her old father-in-law, the king. In =1509=, before any of these plans could take effect, Henry VII. died. He deserves to be reckoned amongst the kings who have accomplished much for England. If he was not chivalrous or imaginative, neither was the age in which he lived. His contemporaries needed a chief constable to keep order, and he gave them what they needed.

25. =Architectural Changes and the Printing Press.=--Architecture, which in England, as upon the Continent, had been the one great art of the Middle Ages, was already, though still instinct with beauty, giving signs in its over-elaboration of approaching decadence. To the tower of Fotheringhay Church (see p. 311) had succeeded the tower of St. Mary's, Taunton. To the roof of the nave of Winchester Cathedral (see p. 276) had succeeded the roof of the Divinity School at Oxford (see p. 319), and of the chapel of King's College, Cambridge (see p. 355). Art in this direction could go no farther. The new conditions in which the following age was to move were indicated by the discovery of America and the invention of printing. New objects of knowledge presented themselves, and a new mode of spreading knowledge was at hand. In the reign of Edward IV., Caxton, the earliest English printer, set up his press at Westminster, and the king and his nobles came to gaze at it as at some new toy, little knowing how profoundly it was to modify their methods of government. Henry VII. had enough to do without troubling himself with such matters. It was his part to close an epoch of English history, not to open a fresh one.

_Books recommended for further study of Part IV._

GREEN, J. R. History of the English People. Vol. i. p. 521-Vol. ii. p. 77.

STUBBS, W. (Bishop of Oxford). Constitutional History of England. Vol. ii. from p. 441, and Vol. iii.

HALLAM, H. Constitutional History of England. Vol. i. pp. 1-15.

ROGERS, J. E. THOROLD. History of Agriculture and Prices. Vols. iii. and iv.

CUNNINGHAM, W. The Growth of English Industry and Commerce. Vol. i. pp. 335-449.

WYLIE, J. H. History of England under Henry IV.

GAIRDNER, JAMES. Lancaster and York.

-------- Richard III.

-------- Henry VII.

RAMSAY, SIR JAMES. Lancaster and York.

OMAN, C. The Political History of England. Vol. iv. From the Accession of Richard II. to the Death of Richard III. (1377-1485).

FISHER, H. A. L. The Political History of England. Vol. v. From the Accession of Henry VII. to the Death of Henry VIII. (1485-1547).

INDEX

THE FIRST VOLUME

Aaron, martyrdom of, 23.

Aclea, battle of, 57.

Acre, captured by the Crusaders, 161;
Edward I. at, 204.

Adrian IV. grants Ireland to Henry II., 152.

Adulterine castles, 137.

Aedan, king of the Scots, is defeated at Degsastan, 42.

AElfgar, earl of the Mercians, 90.

AElfgifu, wife of Eadwig, 65, 66.

AElfheah, Archbishop, murdered by the Danes, 82.

AElfred, his struggle with the Danes, 58;
his position after the Treaty of Wedmore, 59;
gains London, _ib._;
character of his work, 60.

AElfred the AEtheling, murder of, 85, 86.

AElfthryth, wife of Eadgar, 78.

AElla, king of Deira, slave-boys from his kingdom found at Rome, 38.

AEscesdun, battle of, 58.

AEthelbald, king of the Mercians, 53.

AEthelbald, king of the West Saxons, 57.

AEthelberht, king of Kent, his supremacy, 38;
becomes a Christian, 39;
helps Augustine to set up bishoprics, 40;
death of, 41.

AEthelberht, king of the West Saxons, 57.

AEthelflaed, the Lady of the Mercians, 62.

AEthelfrith, king of North-humberland, his struggle with the northern
Welsh, 41;
defeats the Scots at Degsastan, 42;
and the Kymry near Chester, 43;
is defeated and slain by Eadwine, _ib._

AEthelred, ealdorman of Mercia, 60.

AEthelred, king of the West Saxons, his struggle with the
Danes, 58, 62.

AEthelred the Unready, his relations with the Danes, 79;
and with the Normans, 80;
orders a massacre of the Danes, 81;
flies to Normandy, 82;
returns and dies, 83.

AEthelric unites North-humberland, 41.

AEthelstan, reign of, 63.

AEthelstan, the Half-King, 73.

AEthelwold drives secular canons from Winchester, 68.

AEthelwulf defeats the Northmen, 57.

Aetius refuses help to the Britons, 26.

Agincourt, battle of, 302.

Agricola, campaigns of, 16;
forts built by, 17.

Agriculture in Eadgar's time, 75.

Aidan establishes himself in Holy Island, 47;
his relations with Oswald, _ib._;
and with Oswine, _ib._

Alban, martyrdom of, 23.

Albany, the Duke of, suspected of the murder of the Duke of
Rothesay, 295;
is regent of Scotland, 296.

Albigeois, the, crusade against, 193.

Albin, probable Iberian derivation of the name, 6.

Albion, _see_ Albin.

Alcluyd (Dumbarton), the capital of Strathclyde, 43.

Alexander, bishop of Lincoln, 134.

Alexander III., king of Scotland, death of, 214.

Alexander III., Pope, shrinks from supporting Archbishop
Thomas, 145.

Alexander IV., Pope, confirms a grant of Sicily to Edmund
Crouchback, 197.

Allectus asserts a claim to the Empire, 22.

Alnwick, Malcolm Canmore slain at, 119;
William the Lion captured at, 154;
dismantled, 296.

Ambresbyrig (Amesbury) named from Ambrosius, 34.

Ambrosius fights with the West Saxons, 34.

Ambrosius Aurelianus, fights with the Jutes, 27.

Amiens, the mise of, 200.

Anderida destroyed by the South Saxons, 28.

Andred's Wood covers the Weald, 27.

Angevin kings, Church and State under, 165;
growth of learning under, 167;
growth of commerce under, 168;
architectural changes under, 170.

Angles ravage Roman Britain, 24;
settle in Britain, 28;
advance gradually, 36;
_see_ Bernicia, Deira, East Anglia, Mercia, North-humberland.

Anglesea, _see_ Mona.

Anjou, Geoffrey, Count of, 131;
united with Normandy, 137;
declares for Arthur, 174;
conquered by Philip II., 176;
English forays in, 317.

Anne of Beaujeu, policy of, 348.

Anne of Bohemia marries Richard II., 278.

Anne of Brittany is married to Maximilian by proxy, 349;
married to Charles VIII., 349.

Anselm acknowledges AElfheah to be a martyr, 82;
character of, 117;
becomes Archbishop of Canterbury, 118;
quarrels with William II., _ib._;
his relations with Henry I., 125.

Antoninus Pius, wall of, 17.

Appellant, the Lords, 279.

Aquitaine, Duchy of, passes to Henry II. by his marriage, 137;
is given to Richard, 155;
divided in language and character from the North of France, 176;
intrigues of Philip IV. in, 218;
efforts of Philip VI. to gain, 234;
ceded to Edward III., 253;
the Black Prince made Duke of, 254;
resistance to the Black Prince in, 256;
almost wholly lost, 257;
complete loss of, 320.

Aquae Sulis (Bath) subdued by the West Saxons, 35.

Archers employed at Senlac, 96;
armed with the long bow at Falkirk, 221;
improperly employed at Bannockburn, 226;
effect of, at Halidon Hill, 234;
drawn from the yeomen, 236;
win the battle of Crecy, 242;
are successful at Poitiers, 251.

Architecture before the Conquest, 51;
Norman, 89;
under the Angevins, 170;
Early English style of, 207;
Decorated and Perpendicular styles of, 247;
later development of, 358.

Arles, Council of, 23.

Armagnac, the Count of, establishes a reign of terror, 303;
murder of, 304.

Armagnacs, party of the, oppose the Burgundians, 296;
relations of Henry IV. with, 299;
make war with the Burgundians, 301;
insurrection of the Parisians against, 304.

Army, the, the folk-moot in arms, 33;
AElfred's organisation of, 60;
under William I., 104, 106;
reorganised by Henry II., 141;
its condition under Edward III., 236.

Arras, congress at, 313;
Treaty of, 337.

Arteveldt, Jacob van, 235.

Arteveldt, Philip van, 278.

Arthur, legend of, 33.

Arthur, nephew of John, descent of, 173;
murder of, 174.

Arthur, Prince of Wales, marriage and death of, 356.

Arundel, Archbishop of Canterbury, banished, 282;
his position under Henry IV., 292;
deprived of the Chancellorship, 299;
Oldcastle tried before, 300.

Arundel, the Earl of, opposes Richard II., 279;
executed, 282.

Aryans, the, 5.

Assandun, battle of, 83.

Asser, life of AElfred by, 61.

Assize of Arms, 154.

Assize of Clarendon, _see_ Clarendon.

Athelney, AElfred takes refuge in, 58.

Augustine preaches to the men of Kent, 39;
becomes Archbishop of Canterbury and founds other bishoprics, 40;
fails to obtain the co-operation of the Welsh bishops, 41.

Aumale, Earl of, surrenders his castles to Hubert de Burgh, 187.

Austria, imprisonment of Richard I. in, 161.

Avice of Gloucester divorced by John, 174.

Avignon, the Popes at, 257.

Badby burnt as a heretic, 298.

Badon, Mount, _see_ Mount Badon.

Balliol, Edward, wins and loses the crown of Scotland, 232, 233.

Balliol, John, descent of, 215;
declared King of Scotland, 216;
is defeated and surrenders the crown, 219.

Bamborough, Ida's fortress at, 36;
Mowbray besieged in, 120.

Bangor-iscoed, monastery at, 42;
slaughter of the monks of, 43.

Bannockburn, battle of, 226.

Barnet, battle of, 334.

Basques, the, Iberian descent of, 5.

Bath, _see_ Aquae Sulis.

Battle Abbey, site of, 96.

Bauge, battle of, 306.

Bayeux Tapestry, the, 98.

Bayonne taken by the French, 320.

Bears, performing, 275.

Beaufort, Henry, Bishop of Winchester, becomes Chancellor, 299;
invites Parliament to support Henry V., 301;
opposes Gloucester, 308;
becomes a cardinal, 309;
continues his opposition to Gloucester, 314;
policy of, 317;
death of, 318.

Bec, Abbey of, 89, 117.

Becket, _see_ Thomas, Archbishop of Canterbury.

Bede, Ecclesiastical History of, 52.

Bedford, West Saxon victory at, 35;
castle of Faukes de Breaute at, 187.

Bedford, John, Duke of, brother of Henry V., sent to secure
Harfleur, 303;
Regent of France, 307;
marries the Duke of Burgundy's sister, _ib._;
defeats the French at Verneuil, 308;
returns to England, 312;
death of, 313.

Belgians land in Britain, 8.

Belleme, _see_ Robert of Belleme.

Benedict of Nursia establishes the Benedictine rule, 40.

Benedictines, monasteries of the, 128.

Benevolences invented by Edward IV., 335;
abolished by Richard III., 342.

Bensington, Mercian victory at, 53.

Berengaria marries Richard I., 161.

Bernard du Guesclin, _see_ Du Guesclin.

Bernicia, formation of the kingdom of, 36;
is merged for a time in North-humberland, 41;
is untouched by the preaching of Paulinus, 46;
is finally merged in North-humberland, 48;
maintains its independence after the Danish conquest, 59.

Bertha obtains from AEthelberht a disused church, 38.

Bigod, Hugh, appointed justiciar by the barons, 199.

Bigod, Roger, Earl of Norfolk, resists Edward I., 220.

Black Death, the, 248, 259.

Black Prince, the, fights at Crecy, 242;
ravages the south of France, and defeats the French at
Poitiers, 251;
his courtesy to King John, 252;
is sent to Aquitaine, 254;
his expedition into Spain, 255;
taxes Aquitaine, 256;
loses Aquitaine, 257;
leads the Good Parliament, and dies, 262.

Blanche Tache, ford of, 240.

Blore Heath, battle of, 326.

Boadicea, insurrection of, 15.

Bohun, Humfrey, Earl of Hereford, resists Edward I., 220.

Boniface VIII., 220.

Boniface of Savoy, Archbishop of Canterbury, 197.

Bordeaux taken by the French, 320.

Boroughbridge, defeat of Thomas of Lancaster at, 228.

Bosworth, battle of, 343.

Bouvines, battle of, 181.

Brabant, the Duke of, captures Jacqueline of Hainault, 308.

Bradford-on-Avon, early stone church at, 51.

Bramham Moor, defeat of Northumberland on, 296.

Brember hanged, 280.

Bretigni, Treaty of, 253.

Bretwalda, title of, 44.

Bridgenorth, Robert of Belleme's castle at, 121;
besieged by Henry I., 124.

Bridges, making and repair of, 272, 273.

Brigantes, the, conquest of, 16.

Brihtnoth slain at Maldon, 79.

Bristol garrisoned by Robert of Gloucester, 134.

Britain, its name derived from the Britons, 6;
tin trade opened to, 8;
Gauls and Belgians in, _ib._;
Caesar's invasion of, 11;
trade of Gaul with, 12;
beginning of the Roman conquest of, 13-17;
condition of the Roman province of, 19-22;
emperors specially connected with, 22;
Christianity in, 23;
ravaged by the Picts and Scots, 23;
and by the Saxons, 24;
military divisions of, _ib._;
end of the Roman government of, 25, 26;
is deserted by the Romans, 26;
its organisation after the departure of the Romans, _ib._;
the English conquest of, 27-29.

Britons, the, succeed the Goidels, 6;
languages spoken by the descendants of, 7;
habits of, 9;
religion of, 10;
introduction of Roman manners amongst, 13;
increased civilisation of, 21;
non-existence of a national feeling amongst, 22;
ask Honorius in vain for help, 25;
the groans of the, 26;
treatment of, by the English conquerors, 29;
are better treated in the West, 31;
slight modification of English language by them, 31;
_see_ Kymry.

Brittany, its relation with Henry II., 155;
Edward III. sends forces to, 240;
annexed to France, 349.

Bruce, Edward, invades Ireland, 264.

Bruce, Robert, claims the crown of Scotland, 215.

Bruce, Robert, grandson of the preceding, _see_ Robert I.

Brunanburh, battle of, 63.

Brut, Layamon's, 207.

Brythons, _see_ Britons.

Buchan, Countess of, imprisoned, 224.

Buckingham, Edward Stafford, Duke of, supports
Richard III., 338, 341;
executed as a rebel, 342.

Burford, West Saxon victory at, 53.

Burgundians, party of the, opposed to the Armagnacs, 296, 299;
are friendly to Henry V., 301.

Burgundy, Charles the Rash, Duke of, marries the sister of
Edward IV., 332;
policy of, 336;
is slain at Nancy, _ib._

Burgundy, John the Fearless, Duke of, has the Duke of Orleans
murdered, 296;
allies himself with Henry V., 301;
holds aloof in the campaign of Agincourt, 302;
makes war upon the Armagnacs, 303;
murder of, 305.

Burgundy, Philip the Good, Duke of, joins the English against
the Dauphin, 306;
allies himself with the Duke of Bedford, 307;
forms a league with Charles VII., 313;
inherits territories in the Netherlands, _ib._

Burhs erected by Eadward the Elder, 62.

Burley, Sir Simon, executed, 280.

Bury St. Edmunds, foundation of the monastery at, 58;
death of Svend at, 82;
meeting of barons at, 181.

CADE, JACK, rebellion of, 322.

Caedmon, poetry of, 52.

Caedwalla, allied with Penda, 46;
is defeated by Oswald, 47.

Caen, burial of William I. at, 114;
stormed by Henry V., 303.

Caerleon upon Usk, _see_ Isca Silurum.

Caesar, Gaius Julius, makes war in Gaul and Germany, 10;
twice invades Britain, 11.

Caint, the, occupied by the Cantii, 8.

Calais taken by Edward III., 243;
besieged by the Duke of Burgundy, 313.

Caledonians, the, wars of Agricola with, 16.

Cambridge, the Earl of, execution of, 301.

Camulodunum, Cunobelin's headquarters at, 12;
Roman colony of, 13;
captured by Boadicea, 15.

Cannon, first use of, 242.

Canterbury, AEthelberht's residence at, 38;
Augustine preaches at, 39;
foundation of the archbishopric of, 40;
murder of Archbishop Thomas at, 150;
Henry II. does penance at, 153;
architecture of the choir of, 171;
disputed election of the Archbishop of, 177.

_Canterbury Tales_, the, 270.

Caractacus, defeat and flight of, 13;
capture of, 14.

Carausius claims to be emperor, 22.

Carham, battle of, 84.

Carlisle fortified by William II., 119.

Carnarvon, Edward I. builds a castle at, 210.

Carriages and carts, 273.

Carucage substituted for Danegeld, 162.

Cashel, synod at, 152.

Cassel, battle of, 235.

Cassiterides, the geographical position of, 8.

Cassivelaunus, resistance to Caesar by, 11.

Castile, intervention of the Black Prince in, 255;
united with Aragon, 349.

Catherine of Aragon married to Prince Arthur, 356;
marriages proposed for, 357.

Catherine of France marries Henry V., 306;
marries Owen Tudor, 335.

Catuvellauni, the, position of, 9;
attacked by Caesar, 11;
subsequent history of, 12.

Caxton, William, establishes a printing press at Westminster, 358.

Ceawlin overruns the Severn Valley, 35;
defeated at Wanborough, 36.

Celibacy of the clergy, early opinion in favour of, 65;
inculcated at Cluny, 67.

Celtic Christianity, influence of, 47, 49.

Celts, the, succeed the Iberians in Western Europe, 5;
are divided into two stocks, 7;
know their conquerors as Saxons, 29.

Ceorls, distinguished from Eorls, 29;
are the tillers of the soil, 30.

Chancellor, the official position of, 127;
becomes a judge, 260.

Charles Martel defeats the Mohammedans, 54.

Charles the Great, Emperor, 55, 63.

Charles the Simple, king of the West Franks, 63;
cedes Normandy to Hrolf, 80.

Charles IV., king of France, death of, 232.

Charles V., king of France, opposes the English in Spain, 255;
summons the Black Prince to Paris, 256;
renews the war against the English, _ib._;
avoids a battle, 257.

Charles VI., king of France, defeats the Flemings, 278;
allies himself with Richard II., 282;
loses his senses, 295;
disinherits the Dauphin, 306;
dies, 307.

Charles VII., king of France, as Dauphin, falls into the hands
of the Armagnacs, 303;
is present at the murder of John, Duke of Burgundy, 305;
is disinherited, 306;
claims to succeed to the crown at his father's death, 307;
his weakness, 309;
is helped by the Maid of Orleans, 310;
is crowned, 311;
consents to a truce, 317;
renews the war, 320.

Charles VIII., king of France, succeeds to the crown, 348;
invades Italy, 352;
death of, 354.

Chateau Gaillard built by Richard I., 165;
lost by John, 354.

Chaucer, Geoffrey, his _Canterbury Tales_, 270.

Chester (_see_ Deva) submits to William I., 103.

Chinon, Henry II. dies at, 157.

Chivalry, 235.

Christ Church, at Canterbury, privileges of, 177;
expulsion of the monks of, 178.

Christianity introduced into Britain, 23;
into England, 39;
character of early English, _see_ England, the Church of.

Chronicle, the, begun under AElfred, 61;
continued at Worcester, 68, 129;
completed at Peterborough, 129.

Church of England, _see_ England, the Church of.

Cinque Ports, the, 218.

Cirencester, _see_ Corinium.

Cistercians, the, introduced into England, 129;
decline of asceticism amongst, 167;
are fined by John, 179.

Clare, Gilbert de, _see_ Gloucester, Earl of.

Clare, Richard de, _see_ Strongbow.

Clare, Richard de, _see_ Gloucester, Earl of.

Clarence, Lionel, Duke of, sent to Ireland, 265.

Clarence, George, Duke of, brother of Edward IV., created a
duke, 329;
marries Warwick's daughter, and quarrels with Edward IV., 332;
put to death, 336.

Clarence, Thomas, Duke of, brother of Henry IV., killed at
Bauge, 306.

Clarendon, the Constitutions of, 144;
the assize of, 146.

Claudius, the Emperor, plans the conquest of Britain, 13.

Clergy, the, _see_ Ecclesiastical Courts, England, Church of.

_Clericis Laicos_, the Bull named, 220.

Clifford, Lord, stabs the Earl of Rutland, 328.

Cluny, clerical celibacy inculcated at, 67;
reforms originated at, 107.

Cnut, reign of, 83-85.

Cobham, Eleanor, mistress and wife of the Duke of Gloucester, 315;
does penance for witchcraft, 316.

Colleges, first foundation of, at Oxford, 207.

Colman disputes with Wilfrid, 50.

Columba founds a monastery at Iona, 47.

Columbus discovers the West Indies, 354.

Commerce between Britain and Gaul, 8, 12;
between England and Gaul, 38;
under the Angevin kings, 168;
under Edward I., 211;
under Edward III., 235, 236;
under Henry VII., 351.

Common Pleas, establishment of a separate Court of, 212.

Commons, the House of (_see_ Parliament), finally separated
from the Lords, 243;
struggle of, against unparliamentary taxation, 244;
importance of the constitution of, 245;
supported by the Black Prince, 261;
influence over the elections of, 281;
proposes to confiscate Church property, 294;
addressed by Edward IV., 329.

Compurgation, system of, 32;
set aside by Henry II., 146, 147.

Comyn, John (the Red), slain by Bruce, 224.

_Confirmatio Cartarum_, 221.

Conrad III., Emperor, takes part in the second Crusade, 157.

Constance of Brittany marries Geoffrey, 155.

Constantine takes an army from Britain, 25.

Constantine, king of the Scots, allies himself with Eadward, 63.

Constantine the Great becomes sole Emperor, 22;
acknowledges Christianity as the religion of the Empire, 23.

Constantius, the Emperor, 22.

Constitutions of Clarendon, 144;
renounced by Henry II., 153.

Convocations of the clergy vote money, 219.

Conway, Edward I. builds a castle at, 210.

Corinium (Cirencester), West Saxon conquest of, 35.

Cornish, the, derivation of the old language of, 7;
submit to Ecgberht, 55.

Cotentin, the, sold to Henry, 119.

County courts derived from the shire-moots, 141.

Courtenay, Bishop of London, supported by the citizens against
Lancaster, 263.

Crecy, battle of, 241, 242.

Cressingham, Sir Hugh, governs Scotland in the name of
Edward I., 219.

Crown, the, _see_ King.

Crusade, the first, 120;
the second, 157;
the third, 161;
against the Albigeois, 193;
the seventh, 204.

Cumberland, origin of the name of, 37;
annexed by William II., 119;
left to David I., 133;
regained by Henry II., 140.

Cunedda, extensive rule of, 37.

Cunobelin, government of, 12.

_Curia Regis_, the, organised under Henry I., 127;
strengthened by Henry II., 141;
powers assigned by the Constitutions of Clarendon to, 145;
orders the appointment of recognitors, 147;
divided into three courts, 212.

Customs on imports and exports under Edward I., 211, 221.

Cutha, 35.

Cymbeline, original of Shakspere's, 12.

Cynric captures Sorbiodunum, 34.

Danegeld, levy of, 81; abolition of, 143.

Danelaw, the, formation of, 59.

Danes, the, invade England, 58;
make peace with AElfred, 59;
extent of the settlements of, 62;
are amalgamated with the English, 64;
relations of Dunstan with, 67;
reappear as invaders, 79;
conquer England, 81-83;
settle in Ireland, 152.

Darc, Jeanne, delivers Orleans, 310;
conducts Charles VII. to Rheims, 311;
martyrdom of, 312.

David I., king of the Scots, invades England, 131.

David II. (Bruce), king of Scotland, 232;
takes refuge with Philip VI., 234;
restoration of, 240;
taken prisoner at Nevill's Cross, 242;
restored by Edward III., 252.

David, brother of Llewelyn, executed, 140.

David, Earl of Huntingdon, 215.

David, St., piety of, 42.

Decorated style, the, 247.

Degsastan, AEthelfrith's victory at, 42.

Deira, formation of the kingdom of, 36;
is merged for a time in North-humberland, 41;
accepts Christianity, 46;
is finally merged in North-humberland, 48;
Danish kingdom of, 62, 63.

Deorham, battle of, 35.

Derby, Earl of (son of John of Gaunt), opposes Richard II., 279;
defeats the Duke of Ireland, 280;
becomes Duke of Hereford, and is banished, 283;
succeeds to the Duchy of Lancaster, 284;
and forces Richard II. to abdicate, 285;
_see_ Henry IV.

Dermot invites Strongbow to Ireland, 152.

Despensers, the, 228, 229.

Deva, Roman colony of, 14, 19.

Devizes, surrender of the castle of, 134.

_Dialogus de Scaccario_, 167.

Diocletian reorganises the Empire, 22.

Domesday Book, 111.

Domestic life in Eadgar's time, 75.

Domfront occupied by Henry, 119.

Dominic, St., 190.

Dominicans arrive in England, 191.

Donald Bane made king of the Scots by the Celts, 119.

Dorchester, abandonment of the see of, 107.

Dorset, Marquis of, his relations with Richard III., 338.

Druids, character of the, 10;
resist Suetonius, 14.

Dublin, Danish settlement in, 152.

Du Chatel, Tannegui, murders the Duke of Burgundy, 305.

Du Guesclin, Bernard, supports Henry of Trastamara, 255;
his mode of fighting with the English, 256.

Dunbar, Balliol defeated at, 219.

Duncan II., king of the Scots, 120.

Dunstan, character and work of, 65;
banished by Eadwig, 67;
becomes Eadgar's Minister, _ib._;
his attitude towards the monks, 68;
supports Eadward's succession, 78;
death of, 79.

Dupplin, Edward Balliol's victory at, 234.

Durham, architecture of the choir and galilee of, 171.

Eadgar, reign of, 67.

Eadgar, king of the Scots, 121.

Eadgar the AEtheling, early years of, 90;
chosen king, 98;
is abandoned, 100.

Eadgyth married to Eadward the Confessor, 87.

Eadgyth married to Henry I., 122;
is known as Matilda, 124.

Eadmund Ironside, 83.

Eadmund, king of East Anglia, killed by the Danes, 58.

Eadmund, king of the English, 63.

Eadred, king of the English, 64.

Eadward the Confessor, his life in Normandy, 85;
is chosen king, 86;
his relations with Godwine, 87;
makes William his heir, 88;
dies, 91.

Eadward the Elder, reign of, 62;
his relations with the Scots, 63.

Eadward the AEtheling, death of, 90.

Eadward the Martyr, 78.

Eadwig, reign of, 64;
his quarrel with the clergy, 65;
his marriage and death, 67.

Eadwine, king of North-humberland, greatness of, 43;
marries AEthelburh, 44;
is converted and slain, 46.

Eadwine, son of AElfgar, becomes Earl of the Mercians, 90;
is present at Eadgar's election, 98;
submits to William, 102;
is murdered, 103.

Eadwinesburh, _see_ Edinburgh.

Ealdhelm as a builder and teacher, 51.

Ealdormen, the, are the leaders of the English conquerors, 30;
preside over the folk-moot, 33;
growing power of, 73;
their position under AEthelred the Unready, 79.

Ealdred, Archbishop of York, crowns William I., 100.

Earl, title of, derivation of, 64.

Earldoms under Cnut, 83;
diminished after the Norman Conquest, 105.

Early English architecture, 171.

East Anglia, first settlement of, 28;
growth of, 36;
comparative weakness of, 41;
its relations with Ecgberht, 55;
overrun by the Danes, 58.

East Saxons establish themselves to the north of the Thames, 28;
capture London, 35;
_see_ Essex.

Easter, dispute on the mode of keeping, 50.

Ebbsfleet, landing of the Jutes at, 27;
landing of Augustine at, 39.

Ecclesiastical courts, jurisdiction of, 106;
conflict of Henry II. with, 142.

Ecgberht, at the court of Charles the Great, 53;
becomes king of the West Saxons, and over-lord of the other
kingdoms, 55.

Edinburgh, Eadwine builds the castle of, 43;
occupied by the Scots, 68.

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A Student's History of England, v. 1: B.C. 55-A.D. 1509Chapter XXIII: Henry VII. 1485--1509 (1)

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