Chapter III: Fallacies of Simple Inspection, or à priori

Fallacies._

§ 1. Character of this class of Fallacies 309

2. Natural prejudice of mistaking subjective laws for
objective, exemplified in popular superstitions 310

3. Natural prejudices, that things which we think of together
must exist together, and that what is inconceivable
must be false 314

4. Natural prejudice, of ascribing objective existence to
abstractions 321

5. Fallacy of the Sufficient Reason 322

6. Natural prejudice, that the differences in nature correspond
to the distinctions in language 325

7. Prejudice, that a phenomenon cannot have more than one
cause 329

8. Prejudice, that the conditions of a phenomenon must
resemble the phenomenon 332

CHAPTER IV. _Fallacies of Observation._

§ 1. Non-observation, and Mal-observation 341

2. Non-observation of instances, and non-observation of
circumstances 341

3. Examples of the former 342

4. --and of the latter 347

5. Mal-observation characterized and exemplified 352

CHAPTER V. _Fallacies of Generalization._

§ 1. Character of the class 356

2. Certain kinds of generalization must always be groundless 356

3. Attempts to resolve phenomena radically different into
the same 357

4. Fallacy of mistaking empirical for causal laws 359

5. _Post hoc, ergo propter hoc_; and the deductive fallacy
corresponding to it 364

6. Fallacy of False Analogies 366

7. Function of metaphors in reasoning 373

8. How fallacies of generalization grow out of bad
classification 375

CHAPTER VI. _Fallacies of Ratiocination._

§ 1. Introductory Remarks 377

2. Fallacies in the conversion and æquipollency of
propositions 377

3. Fallacies in the syllogistic process 379

4. Fallacy of changing the premises 379

CHAPTER VII. _Fallacies of Confusion._

§ 1. Fallacy of Ambiguous Terms 384

2. Fallacy of Petitio Principii 396

3. Fallacy of Ignoratio Elenchi 405

BOOK VI.

ON THE LOGIC OF THE MORAL SCIENCES.

CHAPTER I. _Introductory Remarks._

§ 1. The backward state of the Moral Sciences can only be
remedied by applying to them the methods of Physical
Science, duly extended and generalized 413

2. How far this can be attempted in the present work 415

CHAPTER II. _Of Liberty and Necessity._

§ 1. Are human actions subject to the law of causality? 417

2. The doctrine commonly called Philosophical Necessity, in
what sense true 418

3. Inappropriateness and pernicious effect of the term
Necessity 420

4. A motive not always the anticipation of a pleasure or a
pain 424

CHAPTER III. _That there is, or may be, a Science of
Human Nature._

§ 1. There may be sciences which are not exact sciences 426

2. To what scientific type the Science of Human Nature
corresponds 429

CHAPTER IV. _Of the Laws of Mind._

§ 1. What is meant by Laws of Mind 432

2. Is there a science of Psychology? 433

3. The principal investigations of Psychology characterized 435

4. Relation of mental facts to physical conditions 440

CHAPTER V. _Of Ethology, or the Science of the Formation of
Character._

§ 1. The Empirical Laws of Human Nature 445

2. --are merely approximate generalizations. The universal
laws are those of the formation of character 447

3. The laws of the formation of character cannot be ascertained
by observation and experiment 449

4. --but must be studied deductively 454

5. The Principles of Ethology are the _axiomata media_ of
mental science 455

6. Ethology characterized 459

CHAPTER VI. _General Considerations on the Social Science._

§ 1. Are Social Phenomena a subject of Science? 461

2. Of what nature the Social Science must be 463

CHAPTER VII. _Of the Chemical, or Experimental, Method in the
Social Science._

§ 1. Characters of the mode of thinking which deduces political
doctrines from specific experience 466

2. In the Social Science experiments are impossible 468

3. --the Method of Difference inapplicable 469

4. --and the Methods of Agreement, and of Concomitant
Variations, inconclusive 471

5. The Method of Residues also inconclusive, and presupposes
Deduction 472

CHAPTER VIII. _Of the Geometrical, or Abstract Method._

§ 1. Characters of this mode of thinking 476

2. Examples of the Geometrical Method 478

3. The interest-philosophy of the Bentham school 479

CHAPTER IX. _Of the Physical, or Concrete Deductive Method._

§ 1. The Direct and Inverse Deductive Methods 486

2. Difficulties of the Direct Deductive Method in the Social
Science 489

3. To what extent the different branches of sociological
speculation can be studied apart. Political Economy
characterized 492

4. Political Ethology, or the science of national character 497

5. The Empirical Laws of the Social Science 500

6. The Verification of the Social Science 502

CHAPTER X. _Of the Inverse Deductive, or Historical Method._

§ 1. Distinction between the general Science of Society, and
special sociological inquiries 506

2. What is meant by a State of Society? 506

3. The Progressiveness of Man and Society 508

4. The laws of the succession of states of society can only
be ascertained by the Inverse Deductive Method 511

5. Social Statics, or the science of the Coexistences of
Social Phenomena 513

6. Social Dynamics, or the science of the Successions of Social
Phenomena 521

7. Outlines of the Historical Method 522

8. Future prospects of Sociological Inquiry 525

CHAPTER XI. _Additional Elucidations of the Science of History._

§ 1. The subjection of historical facts to uniform laws is
verified by statistics 529

2. --does not imply the insignificance of moral causes 532

3. --nor the inefficacy of the characters of individuals and
of the acts of governments 535

4. The historical importance of eminent men and of the
policy of governments illustrated 540

CHAPTER XII. _Of the Logic of Practice, or Art; including
Morality and Policy._

§ 1. Morality not a science, but an Art 544

2. Relation between rules of art and the theorems of the
corresponding science 544

3. What is the proper function of rules of art? 546

4. Art cannot be Deductive 548

5. Every Art consists of truths of Science, arranged in the
order suitable for some practical use 549

6. Teleology, or the Doctrine of Ends 550

7. Necessity of an ultimate standard, or first principle of
Teleology 552

8. Conclusion 554