Chapter D: R Ro O Oy Y Yg G Gb B Bv V Vr R Ro O Oy Y Yg G Gb B Bv V Vr D

R RO O OY Y YG G GB B BV V VR R RO O OY Y YG G GB B BV V VR

LD R RO O OY Y YG G GB B BV V VR R RO O OY Y YG G GB B BV V VR LD

R RO O OY Y YG G GB B BV V VR R RO O OY Y YG G GB B BV V VR

Blk Blk
Diagram 5

2ds 3ds 3s
Wt

HLt R
O
Lt Y V N
G
LLt B O N
V
M R G N
O
HD Y V N
G
D B O N
V
LD R

Blk

This diagram shows the results of mixing seconds, thirds, and threes. It is evident that in mixing the tones of any sequence in this way we go beyond the strict limitations of the sequence, particularly in mixing thirds and threes. The results obtained are fairly definite, however, and the tones obtainable are still within the range of definite thinking. If we should go farther, to the mixture of tones beyond the interval of the third, we should get into the region of indefinite possibilities.

160. It must be clearly understood that our object in using these sequences and more or less restricted mixtures is to limit our thinking so that it may gain in definiteness what it loses in extent. When we limit our thinking in any case to a few tones,—certain colors in certain values,—we come to know those tones so well that we can imagine any one of them vividly, without seeing it. It is only when we have in mind definite tone-images that we begin to think in tone-relations and rise to the possibilities of imaginative composition in tones.

In using the sequences which I have described the tones must be carefully mixed and prepared upon the palette and set there in the order of the sequence, whatever it is. That gives the painter certain colors in certain values. That is to say, he has a certain number of tones to consider and to use. He takes one of the tones into his brush and gives it a position, a measure, and a shape. That done, he takes another tone and gives to that a position, measure, and shape. Proceeding in this way he creates a certain relationship of tones, positions, measures, and shapes, the terms of which relationship are perfectly definite. He repeats what he finds satisfactory. He avoids what he finds unsatisfactory. Experimenting in this way, in such definite terms, he ought to make a sure and steady progress toward the discovery of what is orderly and beautiful. The use of any particular sequence of values and colors is like the use, by the musician, of a well-tuned instrument. It is at once a definition of terms and a source of suggestion and of inspiration.

There is nothing occult or sacred about these sequences and combinations of sequences. In using them we are in no way safeguarded against error. Using these sequences, we can produce bad effects of light and of color as well as good ones. Whether the results of using these sequences are good or bad depends upon the user—what his thinking amounts to. It will be a grave mistake to regard any of these sequences as recipes for righteousness, when they are simply modes of thought. They are nothing more than the sections or divisions of a general classification of tones. In using any particular sequence we observe that the same value and color-relations recur repeatedly. That is always desirable from the point of view of Design. It means Harmony.

161. The beauty of any scheme of values and colors depends, not only upon the pigment-materials used, upon the sequence of values and colors chosen and upon the particular tones produced, but quite as much upon the relative positions and juxtapositions given to the tones, the quantities or measures in which they are used, and, lastly, the way in which the paint is handled. To find out what tones to use as ground-tones, what tones to put upon these ground-tones, and in what quantities or measures, is a matter of experimental practice and of visual and imaginative discrimination.

Having defined the word tone and its elements, value, color, and color-intensity, and having established a general classification of tones to show the possibilities of tone, I must go on to describe what will be orderly in tone-relations. Order and Beauty in tone-relations will be found in Tone-Harmonies, Tone-Balances, and Tone-Rhythms.

TONE-HARMONY

162. By Tone-Harmony I mean a relation of likeness in tones. Tones are in Harmony when they resemble one another in all or in certain respects. To be in Harmony two or more tones must have at least something in common, either value or color. If they have the same color they may be in the same degree of intensity, giving a Harmony of Intensities. Tone-Harmony resolves itself into Value-Harmony, Color-Harmony, and the Harmony of Intensities. The Harmony of Intensities lies between tones of the same color, when they are equally neutralized or neutralized in approximately the same degree. When different colors are neutralized we have the Harmony of a common neutrality or grayness of color.

163. Tones may be harmonized on the palette before they are used, that is to say, before any positions, measures, and shapes are given to them on paper or canvas, or they may be harmonized after positions, measures, and shapes have been given to them. To harmonize tones on the palette, as to value, we must bring them approximately to the same value, with as little change of color as possible. To harmonize tones on the palette as to color we must bring them approximately to the same color, with as little change of value as possible. If two or more tones have the same color they may be intensified or neutralized until they are brought approximately to the same degree of intensity. The tones of Red showing a Harmony of Intensities would lie on a vertical line drawn through the triangle of Red in the Diagram of the Triangles.

As the tone-effect which we produce depends very largely upon the positions, measures, and shapes which we give to our tones, we may not be satisfied with an effect which has been produced with previously prepared and harmonized tones. We may wish to change the effect, to achieve a still greater Harmony. Given a certain arrangement or composition of tones, certain tones in certain positions, measures, and shapes, and given the problem to harmonize those tones, what do we do?

164. Suppose it is Value-Harmony which we want; what is our procedure?

Wt
HLt - B
Lt - V
LLt - Y
M - RO
HD - G
D - O
LD - VR
Blk

Here, let us say, are the tones of a design, certain colors in certain values. What shall we do with these tones to bring them into Value-Harmony?

Wt
HLt - B
Lt - V
LLt - Y
M - RO
HD - G
D - O
LD - VR
Blk

Diagram 6]

For Value-Harmony we must diminish the range of values toward one value. In the above diagram I have shown a diminution of the range of values toward High Light: this in several degrees.

Wt
HLt - B
Lt - V
LLt - Y
M - RO
HD - G
D - O
LD - VR
Blk

Diagram 7]

Following the indications of this diagram, we pull the colors together toward Light in one case (B), toward Middle in another (A), toward Dark in a third (C). As we do this we increase the Value-Harmony. In reproducing the tones in a diminished range of values, raising the colors in value or lowering them, we are not obliged to change the colors except in cases where they become, possibly, confounded with Black or with White. It will often happen, however, that the intensity of a color has to be diminished when the value is changed. For example, if Red Orange, in the illustration given, is in its greatest intensity, the color may remain unchanged in System “A,” but its intensity will be, necessarily, diminished in System “B,” or System “C.” See Diagram of the Triangles.

For the sake of Value-Harmony we diminish the range of values, making as little changes of color as possible, and only those changes of color-intensity which are inevitable. A complete and perfect Value-Harmony is, as a rule, undesirable because it means that all the colors are reduced to one value which gives a monotony of value. Approximate Harmony of Values is generally sufficient. The range of values is narrowed, the contrasts are diminished, and an even tonality is secured. That is all we require, in most cases, an approximation to one value.

165. Suppose it is Color-Harmony which we want to achieve: what procedure shall we follow?

Wt
B
V
Y
R
G
O
Blk

Here are certain tones, certain colors in certain values. What shall we do with these tones to get Color-Harmony? We must diminish the range of color-contrasts by giving predominance to one color, either to one of the colors to be harmonized or to some other. That may be done by mixing one color into all our tones.

Wt Wt
B V
V VR
Y Giving predominance to Red, we get: O
R R
G N
O RO
Blk Blk
Diagram 8

The range of color-contrast is in this way diminished to the intervals between Violet, Orange, and Neutral. The process, so far as color is concerned, disregarding value-relations, is fully explained in the following diagram:—

Suppose, instead of giving predominance to Red, as in the example above, we give predominance to Blue, taking the same range of colors.

Wt Wt
B B
V BV
Y Giving predominance to Blue we get: G
R V
G GB
O N
Blk Blk

Diagram 10

The range of color-contrast is in this way diminished to the intervals between Green, Violet, and Neutral. The process, so far as color is concerned, is fully explained in the following diagram:—

In the diagrams which I have given the predominance is in the measure of one half. That is to say, the mixtures are half and half, theoretically speaking. The theoretical result is a range of intermediate colors. The predominance is not necessarily in the measure of one half. It may be in any measure. The presence of Red or Blue in all the tones may be hardly noticeable or it may amount to a general redness or blueness in which other colors are distinguished with more or less difficulty.

166. Suppose it is the harmony of grayness, a Harmony of Neutralization, which we want. What is the procedure to follow?

The procedure is shown in this diagram. We see here what is meant by a Harmony of Neutralization, without changes of value. The neutralization is in the measure of one half in each case. Red Orange and Green are the only colors which exist in their maximum intensities. Their intensities are diminished to the half-point, without change of value,—from RO to RO½ in one case, and from G to G½ in the other. The other colors are reduced in their intensities proportionally. The value in each case remains unchanged.

167. Having considered the methods of getting Value-Harmony and Color-Harmony separately, I must now describe the method of getting the combination of Value-Harmony with the Harmony of Neutralization. To do this we must set the colors in positions regarding the Scale of Neutral Values, which will indicate their several values, and in each case the degree of intensity. We must then decide whether to neutralize the several tones toward Black or White, or toward some neutral value between these extremes.

This illustrates the method of a neutralization toward Black in the measures of one quarter, one half, and three quarters.

This illustrates the method of a neutralization toward White in the measures of one third and two thirds.

This illustrates the method of a neutralization toward the Middle Neutral, between Black and White, a neutralization in the measures of one quarter, one half, and three quarters.

In bringing tones into harmony, by one or another or all of these various methods, we must remember that when we have diminished the contrast of value and of color beyond a certain point the result is monotony, a monotony which may be undesirable. It is easy to get into a state of mind in which we dislike all contrasts. In this state of mind we find no æsthetic satisfaction except in monotony. Such a state of mind should be avoided. Monotony is the Nirvana of æstheticism.

168. We may have a Harmony in the repetition and recurrence of two or more contrasting, even strongly contrasting, tones. We may have Harmony in the repetition and recurrence of a contrast in which there is perhaps no Harmony.

For example: I may repeat the contrast Orange-Blue any number of times in a certain composition. There is no Harmony of Value or of Color in the contrast, but in repeating the contrast I have the Harmony of a Repetition, just as I have a Harmony in the repetition of a certain line or outline in which there is no order of any kind. The Harmony lies solely in the repetition or recurrence. In this way I may repeat, at equal intervals all over a certain space, the various contrasts indicated by the following diagram:—

There is no Harmony in the relation of tones here indicated, but we shall get Harmony in the repetition of this relation.

The Harmony here indicated will lie in the repetition of certain contrasts in which there is no Harmony.

The Harmony of a repeated contrast, or contrasts, is a very important form of Tone-Harmony. It means that a certain effect of light due to the juxtaposition or association of certain tones recurs repeatedly, let us say at equal or approximately equal intervals, all over a certain space. The result is sure to be harmonious, no matter how strong the tone-contrasts are in the group or series, provided that the repetitions are well within the range of vision so that they may be compared, and the recurrence of the same effect of light appreciated. We must not be too near to the arrangement, for in that case the contrasts of the repeated group will be more noticeable than the even tonality of the all-over repetition. Every even, all-over effect of light, no matter what the contrasts are which produce it, gives us the feeling of Harmony.

169. In such compositions as the one indicated in Diagram 17 predominance may be given to one tone by having it recur in larger spots in each group or in a greater number of spots, two or more in each group. In this way, in a composition of many colors in different values, predominance may be given to Middle Blue or Light Orange or Dark Blue-Violet, or any other particular tone. Predominance may be given to neutral gray of a certain value, by having it recur in larger spots or in numerous small spots.

170. Neutral gray may be made to predominate in another way; by so composing the tones, in the group to be repeated, that they neutralize one another at a certain distance,—the point of view of the observer.

+---+---+---+---+---+---+
| Y | G | Y | G | Y | G |
+---+---+---+---+---+---+
| R | V | R | V | R | V |
+---+---+---+---+---+---+
| Y | G | Y | G | Y | G |
+---+---+---+---+---+---+
| R | V | R | V | R | V |
+---+---+---+---+---+---+
Diagram 18

In this case Yellow and Violet will neutralize one another and Red will neutralize Green. The effect of the repetition of these complementary oppositions ought to be, at a certain distance, a very lively neutral.

It has been the idea of certain painters of our time to subject every tone-impression to analysis, and to produce the effect of the tone by an arrangement or composition of its elements. Many interesting and some beautiful results have been produced in this way.

In this case we have a repetition of the triad Red-Yellow-Blue, which, at a certain distance, ought to produce the effect of a middle neutral. The principle of these arrangements is one of the most important in tone-composition.

171. There is another consideration which ought to keep us from any morbid interest in harmonious monotonies, which ought to reconcile us to contrasts, even strong contrasts, and to a great variety in tones. Harmony is only one principle of composition in Design; we have two others which are equally important,—the principle of Balance and the principle of Rhythm. The principles of Balance and Rhythm are consistent with the greatest possible contrasts of tone. The tone-contrasts in forms of Balance and Rhythm may be strong, even harsh, and the appreciation and enjoyment of the Balance or of the Rhythm in no degree diminished.

We will now proceed to the consideration of Tone-Balance and Tone-Rhythm.

TONE-BALANCE

172. Tones, simply as tones, disregarding the positions, measures, and shapes which may be given to them, balance, when the contrasts which they make with the ground-tone upon which they are placed are equal. We have an indication of such a balance of tones, simply as tones, in the following formula:—

LD - V
--------------------
HLt - Y HLt - Y

Two spots of High Light Yellow occur on a ground-tone of Low Dark Violet. The two spots of Yellow make equal contrasts with the ground-tone, and for that reason balance as tones, no matter what positions, measures, and shapes are given to them. The value-contrast is that of the interval of the seventh in the Scale of Values; the color-contrast is that of the interval of the seventh in the Scale of Colors. We must assume that the intensities are so adjusted as not to disturb the balance.

M - V
-----------------
Lt - O D - O

In this case the values making the contrasts differ. The contrasts are, nevertheless, equal because the value-intervals are equivalent intervals. The value difference between Light and Middle is equivalent to the value difference between Dark and Middle. Though the contrasting elements differ, the contrasts are equal. In this case the contrasting colors are the same and the color-contrasts correspond. We must assume that the intensities are so adjusted as not to disturb the balance.

LD - V
--------------------
LLt - O LLt - G

In this case the contrasting colors differ, but the contrasts are equal because the color-interval between Orange and Violet is the same as the color-interval between Green and Violet. In this case the value-contrasts correspond. We must assume here, as before, that there is no difference of color-intensity to disturb the balance.

D - R
------------------
HD - O LD - V

In this case the two tones which balance on the ground-tone differ both in value and in color. They balance, nevertheless, because both the value and the color-contrasts are of the interval of the third. Again we must assume that there is no disparity of intensities to disturb the balance.

173. The reader will find the Diagram of Values and Colors (No. 5) very useful in making calculations for tone-balances, so far as value-contrasts and color-contrasts are concerned, leaving out considerations of color-intensity.

Taking any tone indicated on the Diagram as a ground-tone, any tones at equal distances in balancing directions will balance on that ground-tone.

The various types of tone-balance are shown in the above diagram. The tones which balance, one against the other, on the ground-tone of Blue-Violet, are the tones marked by the same number.

The value and color-balances being achieved, the intensities may be adjusted, increased or diminished, until the balance is perfect.

174. As you increase the color-intensity in any tone it attracts more attention, and unless you increase the intensity in the opposite tones there will be a disparity which will disturb your balance. When the intensity in any tone is too great, you can increase the color-contrast or the value-contrast of the opposite tones until the balance is achieved.

175. Up to this point I have been speaking of Tone-Balance in the abstract, of Tone-Balance as such. I have spoken of Tone-Balance as something apart from Position, Measure, and Shape-Balance, as if tones could balance without having any positions, measures, or shapes assigned to them. The fact is that a tone does not exist until you give it a position, a measure, and a shape. It follows that Tone-Balance is, in all cases, more or less complicated by considerations of position, measure, and shape.

176. The principle of balance being that equal attractions balance at equal distances and unequal attractions at distances inversely proportional to them, it follows, that if the attraction of a tone is increased by quantity, the attraction of quantity may be balanced against the attraction of contrast. The calculation of such balances may be made on the Diagram of Values and Colors.

In this case, for example, we have the indication of a possible balance of two parts of Light Red and one part of Dark Green on a ground-tone of Middle Violet, the difference of contrast in one case making up for a difference of quantity and of contrasting edge in the other.

177. So far as Tone-Balance depends upon positions, measures, and shapes, the problem is the problem of Position, Measure, and Shape-Balance, which we have already considered.

Given certain tones in certain measures and shapes, the inversion of the measures and shapes involves an inversion of the tones, so we have a Tone-Balance as well as a Measure and Shape-Balance. The inversion in any case may be single or double.

In this case we have an instance of single inversion, which gives us a Symmetrical Balance, of tones, as well as of measures and shapes.

In this case we have an instance of double inversion of tones, as well as of measures and shapes.

178. The tones and tone-contrasts on one side of a center or axis are not necessarily the same as those on the other side. We may have a Tone-Balance in which very different tones and tone-contrasts are opposed to one another. This brings us to the consideration of Occult Balance in Tones, Measures, and Shapes.

A balance of any tones and of any tone-contrasts, in any measures and in any shapes, is obtained when the center of tone-attractions is unmistakably indicated, either by the symmetrical character of the balance or by a symmetrical inclosure which will indicate the center. Given any combination of tones, measures, and shapes, and the problem to find the balance-center, how shall we solve the problem? It cannot very well be done by reasoning. It must be done by visual feeling. The principle of Balance being clearly understood, finding the center of any tone-contrasts is a matter of experimental practice in which those persons succeed best who are most sensitive to differences of tone, and who make the greatest effort to feel the centers and to indicate them accurately. Experience and practice are necessary in all cases.

Here, within this circle, are the attractions to be balanced. The problem is to find the balance-center, and to indicate that center by a symmetrical inclosure which will bring the tones, measures, and shapes into a Balance. The center is here indicated by the circle. Whether it is correctly indicated is a matter of judgment in which there may be a difference of opinion. There is a center somewhere upon which the attractions are balancing. The question is, where is it? The illustration which I have given is in the terms of the Scale of Neutral Values. Differences of color and color-intensity would complicate the problem, but would not in any way affect the principle involved. I know of no more interesting problem or exercise than this: to achieve Tone-Balance where there is no Tone-Symmetry.

179. It will sometimes happen, that a gradation of tones or measures will draw the eye in a certain direction, toward the greater contrast, while a larger mass or measure of tone, on the other side, will be holding it back. In such a case we may have a mass balancing a motion.

In this case the eye is drawn along, by a gradation of values, to the right, toward the edge of greater contrast, away from a large dark mass of tone in which there is no movement. The tendency of the dark mass is to hold the eye at its center. The problem is to find the balance-center between the motion and the mass. I have done this, and the balance-center is indicated by the symmetrical outline of the diagram.

180. Some shapes hold the eye with peculiar force, and in such cases the attractions of tone or measure or shape on the other side have to be increased if we are to have a balance. Symmetrical shapes have a tendency to hold the eye at centers and on axes. Given certain attractions on the other side, we must be sure that they are sufficient to balance the force of the symmetry in addition to the force of its tone-contrasts, whatever they are.

In this case we have an approximate balance in which the force of a symmetry, with contrasting edges, on one side, is balanced by contrasts and certain movements on the other. If I should turn down the upper spot on the right, we would feel a loss of balance due to the turning of two movements, which combine to make one movement to the right, into two movements down to the right. If I should increase the force of the symmetry, by filling in the center with black, it would be necessary either to move the symmetry nearer to the center or to move the opposite attractions away from it. An unstable attitude in the symmetry would have to be counteracted, in some way, on the other side.

Intricate shapes from which the eye cannot easily or quickly escape often hold the eye with a force which must be added to that of their tone-contrasts.

In this case the shape on the right requires a pretty strong dark spot to balance its contrasts and its intricacy.

The problem is further complicated when there are, also, inclinations, to the right or to the left, to be balanced.

In this case I have tried to balance, on the center of a symmetrical inclosure, various extensions and inclinations of tone-contrast, the movement of a convergence, and the force of a somewhat intricate and unstable symmetry.

These occult forms of Balance are not yet well understood, and I feel considerable hesitation in speaking of them. We have certainly a great deal to learn about them. They are far better understood by the Chinese and by the Japanese than by us.

181. When any line or spot has a meaning, when there is any symbolism or representation in it, it may gain an indefinite force of attraction. This, however, is a force of attraction for the mind rather than for the eye. It affects different persons in different measures. The consideration of such attractions, suggestions, meanings, or significations does not belong to Pure Design but to Symbolism or to Representation.

TONE-RHYTHM

182. The idea of Tone-Rhythm is expressed in every regular and perfect gradation of Tones; of values, of colors or of color-intensities, provided the eye is drawn through the gradation in one direction or in a series or sequence of directions. This happens when there is a greater tone-contrast at one end of the gradation than at the other. When the terminal contrasts are equal there is no reason why the eye should move through the gradation in any particular direction. According to our definition of Rhythm, the gradation should be marked in its stages or measures, and the stages or measures should be regular. That is certainly true, but in all regular and perfect gradations I feel that corresponding changes are taking place in corresponding measures, and I get the same feeling from such a gradation that I get from it when it is marked off in equal sections. Though the measures in regular and perfect gradations are not marked, they are, it seems to me, felt. They seem sufficiently marked by the regularity and perfection of the gradation, any irregularity or imperfection being appreciable as a break in the measure. I am inclined, therefore, to say of any regular and perfect gradation that it is rhythmical provided the direction of movement is unmistakable. The direction, as I have said, depends upon the relation of terminal contrasts. The eye is drawn toward the greater contrast, whatever that is and wherever it is. A few examples will make this clear.

M
-----------------------------------
Blk LD D HD M LLt Lt HLt Wt

In this case we have the gradation of the Scale of Values set on a ground-tone of the middle value. Here there are two opposed gradations with equal contrasts at the opposite ends. The result is Balance, not Rhythm.

Wt
-----------------------------------
Blk LD D HD M LLt Lt HLt Wt

In this case we have a gradation of values beginning with White on White, no contrast at all, and reaching ultimately the contrast of Black and White. The eye is drawn through the tones of this gradation in the direction of this contrast, that is to say, from right to left. It is a clear case of Rhythm. If, instead of white, we had black, as a ground-tone, the movement of the rhythm would be in the opposite direction,—from left to right.

Wt HLt Lt LLt M HD D LD Blk
-------------------------------------
Blk LD D HD M LLt Lt HLt Wt

In this case, as in the first, we have equally great contrasts at the ends and no contrast at the middle. The result is Balance, not Rhythm.

V
-------------------
Y YG G GB B BV

In this case, disregarding possible differences of value and color-intensities, there will be a color-rhythm proceeding from right to left. The contrast to which the eye will be drawn is the color-contrast of Yellow and Violet.

LD-V
-------------------------------------
D-Y HD-YG M-G LLt-GB Lt-B HLt-BV

In this case, disregarding possible differences of intensity, there will be a rhythm of color moving from right to left and a rhythm of values moving from left to right. Assuming that we are equally attracted by corresponding value and color-contrasts, these two rhythms, when produced, will neutralize one another and we shall have an illustration of Tone-Balance rather than Tone-Rhythm. If corresponding color and value-contrasts are not equally attractive we shall have an unequal tug-of-war between the two rhythms.

LD-V
-------------------------------------
HLt-Y Lt-YG LLt-G M-GB HD-B D-BV

In this case we have two rhythms, one of values and one of colors, in a Harmony of Direction. The direction of movement will be from right to left.

HLt-Y⅛
-------------------------------------------------------
HLt-Y HLt-Y⅞ HLt-Y⁶/₈ HLt-Y⅝ HLt-Y⁴/⁸ HLt-Y⅜

In this case we have no change of color and no change of value, but a rhythm of the intensities of one color, in one value. The movement will be from right to left. The ground-tone might be Neutral High Light, the zero-intensity of Yellow. That would not change the direction of the movement.

LD-Y⅛
-------------------------------------------------
HLt-Y Lt-Y⅞ LLt-Y⁶/₈ M-Y⅝ HD-Y⁴/⁸ D-Y⅜

In this case I have indicated a combined movement of values and color-intensities. The direction of the movement will be from right to left.

The tone-rhythms which I have described are based upon the repetition at regular intervals of a certain change of value, of color or of color-intensity. We have Harmony, of course, in the repetition of equal changes, though the changes are not the same changes. The change of value from Middle to Low Light is equal to the change from Low Light to Light, though these changes are not the same changes. The Harmony is, therefore, the Harmony of equivalent contrasts which are not the same contrasts.

183. We have more or less movement in every composition of tones which is unbalanced, in which the eye is not held between equivalent attractions, either upon a vertical axis or upon a center. In all such cases, of tones unbalanced, the movement is in the direction of the greatest contrast. Unless the movement is regular and marked in its measures, as I think it is in all regular and perfect gradations, the movement is not rhythmical. We get Rhythm, however, in the repetition of the movement, whatever it is, in equal or lawfully varying measures, provided the direction of the movement remains the same or changes regularly or gradually. If the line of the movement is up-to-the-right forty-five degrees we have rhythm in the repetition of the movement at equal or lawfully varying intervals, without changes of direction; but we should have Rhythm, also, if the direction of the movement, in its repetitions, were changed, regularly or gradually; if, for example, the direction were changed first from up-right forty-five degrees to up-right forty degrees, then to up-right thirty-five degrees, then to up-right thirty degrees, this at equal or at lawfully varying intervals. In this way the movement of the composition repeated may be carried on and gradually developed in the movement of the series. A reference to Fig. 161, p. 94, and to Fig. 119, p. 68, will help the reader to understand these statements.

184. When any unbalanced composition of tones is singly inverted upon a vertical axis and the movement of the composition follows the axis, either up or down, and this movement, up or down, is repeated, up or down, we get forms of Tone-Rhythm which are also forms of Symmetrical Balance. In the inversions and repetitions of the tone-composition we have Tone-Harmony. As the tones in the repeated composition have certain positions, measures, and shapes, the Harmony, the Balance, and the Rhythm are of Positions, Measures, and Shapes as well as of Tones; so we get the combination of all the terms of Design in all the three modes of Design.

COMPOSITION

THREE GENERAL RULES

185. It is quite impossible for me, in this discussion of terms and principles, to indicate, in any measure, the possibilities of composition, in lines and spots of paint, in tones, measures, and shapes. This is in no sense a Book of Designs. All I have undertaken to do is to give a few very simple examples and to indicate the kind of reasoning to be followed, recommending the same kind of reasoning in all cases. There are three general rules, however, which I must state.

First. Given a certain outline and certain tones, measures, and shapes to be put into it, it is the Problem of Pure Design to do the best we can, getting as many connections making unity as possible. The process is one of experimenting, observing, comparing, judging, arranging and rearranging, taking no end of time and pains to achieve Order, the utmost possible Order, if possible the Beautiful.

Second. When only an outline is given and we can put into it lines and spots of paint,—tones, measures, and shapes,—_ad libitum_, we must be sure that in the addition and multiplication of features we do not get less Order than we had in the simple outline with which we started, when it had nothing in it. As we proceed to add features we must be sure that we are not diminishing the order of the composition as a whole. If the composition as a whole is orderly, we do not want to make it less so by cutting it up and introducing additional attractions which may be disorderly and confusing. It may be harder to achieve Order with a greater number and variety of terms. We may deserve credit for overcoming this difficulty, but it is a difficulty which confronts us only when the terms are given and we have to make the best of them. When no terms are given, only a perfectly orderly outline, we should hesitate before we put anything into it. If we add anything we must be sure that it does not diminish, in the slightest degree, the order we had before, when we had nothing but the outline. The order of the whole must never be diminished.

Third. When we have an outline with certain tones, measures, and shapes in it, the question is: whether we can increase the order by adding other tones, other measures, or other shapes.

Arrangement “a” is less orderly than arrangement “b,” so I have acted wisely in adding the other outlines.

In this case, however, I have added features without achieving any increase of Order in the composition. The order is less than it was before. The additions have no interest from the point of view of Pure Design. I may add features for the sake of variety or novelty, to give a change of feeling, a new sensation, but such motives are not the motives of Pure Design. In Pure Design our motive is, always, to achieve Order, in the hope that in so doing we may achieve a supreme instance of it which will be beautiful.

Consider these illustrations. Arrangement “b” is more orderly than arrangement “a,” so I am justified in making the additions. The additions have brought occult balance into the composition with Direction and Interval-Harmony. Arrangement “c” is less orderly than “b,” less orderly than “a.” It has, therefore, no value for us. There is no merit in the multiplication of features which it exhibits. The surface is “enriched” at the expense of Direction-Harmony, Interval-Harmony, and Shape-Harmony. There may be an approximation to an occult balance in arrangement “c,” but you cannot feel it unmistakably as you do in “b.” Its value is, therefore, less.

186. I object to the word “decoration,” as commonly used by designers, because it implies that additions are likely to be improvements, that to multiply features, to enrich surfaces, is worth while or desirable. The fact is, that additions are, as a rule, to be avoided. There is no merit in the mere multiplication of features. It is a mistake. The rule of Pure Design, and it is the rule for all Design, is simplification rather than complication. As designers we ought to avoid additions, if possible.

We ought to make them only when in so doing we are able to increase the order of the whole. We make additions, indeed, to achieve the greater simplicity of Order, and for no other reason. Our object in all cases is to achieve Order, if possible a supreme instance of Order which will be beautiful. We aim at Order and hope for Beauty.

THE STUDY OF ORDER IN NATURE AND IN WORKS OF ART

187. In connection with the practice of Pure Design, as I have described it,—the composition and arrangement of lines and spots of paint; of tones, measures, and shapes: this in the modes of Harmony, Balance, and Rhythm, for the sake of Order and in the hope of Beauty,—the student should take up the study of Order in its three modes, as revealed in Nature and achieved in Works of Art.

188. The method of study should be a combination of analysis with synthetic reproduction. Taking any instance of Order, whether in Nature or in some work of Art, the first thing to do is to consider its terms,—its positions, its lines, its areas, its measure and space-relations, its tones and tone-relations,—bringing every element to separate and exact definition. The next thing to do is to note every occurrence of Harmony, of Balance, of Rhythm,—every connection making for consistency, unity, Order. In that way we shall get an exact knowledge of the case. We shall know all the facts, so far as the terms and the principles of Design are concerned. That is what I mean by analysis. By a synthetic reproduction I mean a reproduction of the effect or design, whatever it is, following the images which we have in mind as the result of our analysis. The reproduction should be made without reference to the effect or design which has been analyzed. There should be no direct imitation, no copying. We must not depend so much upon the memory as upon the imagination. Having reproduced the effect or design in this way, following the suggestions of the imagination, the reproduction should be brought into comparison with the effect or design reproduced and the differences noted. Differences should be carefully observed and the previous analysis should be reviewed and reconsidered. When this is done another attempt at reproduction should be made. This process should be repeated until the effect or design is thoroughly understood and imaginatively grasped. The evidence of understanding and comprehension will be seen in the reproduction which is made, which ought to have an essential but not a literal correspondence with the original. Analysis should precede; synthesis should follow.

I hope, in another book or books, to be published later, to give some examples of Order in natural objects or effects, also examples of Order in Works of Art, with a careful analysis of each one, showing how the points, lines, and areas, the measure and the space-relations, the tones and tone-relations come together in the forms of Harmony, Balance, and Rhythm, in the modes of Order, in instances of Beauty. In the mean time, as the methods of analytic study and of synthetic practice are clearly indicated in the preceding pages, the student who has taken pains to understand what he has read will find himself well prepared for the work. He can take up the study of Order in Nature and of Design in Works of Art without further assistance.