Chapter IV: Preface: i (3)

“Take a loaf of the wheaten London bread, made by the baker in his usual way; let the same baker make another with all the flour of the wheat, without any attempt to whiten or otherwise adulterate it. Let him keep both in the same temperature of air, and produce a specimen of each at any reasonable distance of time, and it will be easily seen what the difference is. This arises not only from _mixtures_, but the _peculiar manner of raising the sponge_.”

“In regard to the difference of consuming new bread of the first day, and that which has been made for three, four, or five days, it is computed to be at least a fourth part. If our present wheaten bread cannot be eaten with pleasure beyond the second day, it is not wonderful to discover at last that we are lighting our candle at both ends.”

“That the vitiated bread agrees with some people, whether by the force of habit, or the mixtures it contains, is not disputed; but in general it is very hurtful.”

“Great numbers of our fellow-subjects eat their bread much coarser than the Londoners: are they weaker? they are generally stronger. Some part of the advantage must be carried to this account.”

“Let us have time to subdue our prejudices, and we shall find that bread of all the flour of the wheat, for the general use, is better both in quality and price than the present wheaten bread.”

“In regard to the _London baker_, ask him of what parts of the wheat his bread is made, and he frankly acknowledges he cannot tell; and how should he? He can buy only what is to be sold; and the quality is not ascertained with any such precision as to enable him to answer the question. He, _poor man_ does the best he can, not to give a sweet wholesome aliment, but something which is _white_. He knows that bread made of a proper proportion of the wheat, not only differs in colour, but is moister at the end of eight days than _his_ the third day; he likewise knows that it is sweeter, and has the native grateful flavour of the wheat, as the God of Nature hath given it, and not as it hath been adulterated.”

“If the parliament had required us to eat plum-cake, seed-cake, or sugar-cake, we should have known that plums, seed, and sugar, constituted the difference; but from the moment the law made distinctions in the division of the flour for three different kinds of bread for common use, we were exposed to the mercy of the miller to give the baker what he pleased, and call it by what name he pleased; we could only judge whether the bread pleased us or not. The miller and the baker divide and subdivide; and instead of flour for bread, and the bran that remained, according to ancient practice, whereby the beggar as well as the prince was pleased, _bread_ became a mystery, and we no longer knew what we were eating.”

“Our misfortune, in regard to bread, is, that we eat it too fine; we decline the use of barley in bread, having hardly enough for beer. Oats and pease are rejected: at length we reject even _wheaten flour_,—unless we are supplied with the finest parts only!—What will befall us in the end?”

“_Custom_ often makes a law more forcible than _Law-givers_, and we have now to contend with _custom_.—The first consideration should be, that the _flour_ which represents _three-fourths of the wheat_, shall be really such, and brought to market in sacks, marked _Standard_: the value of it may be more easily ascertained, than that of which is made the wheaten bread we now eat.”

“The baker may be a little the more reluctant to come into this salutary proposal, as knowing that if he is to decline the use of alum, flour that is in any degree musty, or made of wheat that has grown or vegetated before gathered in, as sometimes happens, he cannot work it up so advantageously in the bread now proposed to be made, as in the wheaten bread.—Be this as it may, as soon as the baker finds this _standard_ flour is vendable in bread, he will buy it; and knowing what part of the wheat it ought to be, he will work it into bread with so much the more satisfaction; and being sensible that we mean to eat _genuine_ bread, he will cease to _whiten_ it by any hurtful art. We shall all understand what we eat, and the trade will be familiar to us; we shall be so much happier as we become so much the more honest, and more healthy than we were before. Such is the serious light in which I see the subject before me.”

“Every occupation hath its mystery; and the professors are gratified in thinking themselves wiser than the rest of the world in their own way. Every professed _cook_ of the first rate can melt down a large ham into the contents of half a pint. The confectioner uses bitter almonds, which are poisonous; the oilman colours his pickles with _copper_, to render them green; and the baker uses alum to _whiten_ his bread, and make his flour imbibe the more water, by which he makes the more bread out of the same quantity of flour. This, and other _occasional_ mixtures of the flour of different grains, renders his bread husky, dry, and disagreeable the third day.—Are we the _better_ for any such mysteries?”

“Whether the wheat be all of one kind, or _married_, which is the phrase for mixing of wheats of different kinds, it will be easy for people of condition, by experiment, or by the comparison with genuine bread made in their families, to know whether justice be done; though we may easily discover that the baker for the _public_, is generally a better master of his trade than most housewives are. The _mystery_ may be thus developed; our health and pleasure promoted; and our bread be as much cheaper than it is now, as the gain on the _flour_ will make it, by using _all_ that the wheat produces.”

“Every one may try by grinding and bolting his own grain, and baking his own bread, and the manufacturers of bread may find nearly as good account in bread of all _the flour_, which can be so easily ascertained; as they do in the wheaten, which is involved in difficulties.”

“The public have administered to their own delusion, their eyes are shut to their own advantage. If the wealthy will adopt the use of the bread in question, the labouring part of our fellow-subjects will certainly follow the example; and as to _paupers_, they will gladly comply.”

“Common sense, in all ages, has achieved wonders.”

Laws prohibiting the Adulteration of Bread and Bread Flour.

The adulteration of bread and bread flour is forbidden by law, as is obvious from the following acts of parliament:

“No person shall put into any corn,[9] meal, or flour, which shall be ground, dressed, bolted, or manufactured for sale, any ingredient or mixture whatsoever, whereby the same may be adulterated, or shall sell any flour of one sort of grain as for the flour of another, but shall only sell the real genuine meal or flour of the grain the same shall import to be, under the penalty of five pounds for every such offence.”

Footnote 9:

31 Geo. 2. c. 29. p. 883.

“If any person have cause to suspect that any miller[10] who grinds, dresses, or bolts any grain for toll or reward, or manufactures any flour for sale, or that any baker mixes up with his flour any mixture or ingredient, not the genuine produce of the grain, so that the purity of the meal in any wise be adulterated, and reports the same on oath to a magistrate, then, in that case, such magistrate, or a peace-officer duly authorized by him, shall enter the premises of such suspected person, and search or examine whether such mixture or ingredient, not the genuine produce of the grain, is in the possession of such miller, mealman, or baker; and such meal and flour as shall be deemed to have been adulterated may be seized, together with the base mixtures; and if seized by a peace-officer, it is to be carried before a magistrate, but if seized by the magistrate, he may immediately dispose of it as he shall think fit. And the person on whose premises such mixture or ingredient shall be found, and adjudged to be intended to be used in adulterating the flour, shall forfeit a sum not exceeding ten pounds, and have his name, offence, and place of abode published in some newspaper that is printed or circulated near his place of abode, unless he shall make it appear, to the satisfaction of the magistrate, that the same was not lodged there with the intention of adulterating the flour, but for some other lawful purpose.”

Footnote 10:

31 Geo. 2. c. 29. p. 888.

“That if any person shall wilfully obstruct[11] or hinder any search being made for such mixtures as are designed to adulterate the meal or flour, or shall oppose their being carried away, such person shall forfeit a sum not exceeding five pounds, nor less than forty shillings.”

Footnote 11:

31 Geo. 2. c. 29. p. 889.

“And that the good design of these regulations may be more effectually accomplished, it shall be lawful for the several wardmote[12] inquests of the city of London, or any magistrate[13] or peace-officer authorized by a warrant from such magistrate, without the jurisdiction of the city of London, to enter into any bake-house or shop, at all seasonable times, to search for and weigh all the bread therein; and if any of the loaves are found wanting in the goodness of the stuff of which they should be made, or deficient in the due baking or working thereof, or shall be wanting in the weight, or shall not be truly marked, such persons may seize such bread; and, if a magistrate is not present, it shall be taken before one, who may dispose of it as he shall think fit.”

Footnote 12:

37 Geo. 3. c. 98. sec. 22.

Footnote 13:

31 Geo. 2. c. 29. p. 890.

“That if any person shall wilfully[14] obstruct or hinder any such search, or prevent the carrying the same away, he shall, on conviction before a magistrate, be fined a sum not exceeding five pounds, nor less than twenty shillings.”

Footnote 14:

31 Geo. 2. c. 29. p. 890.

“That it shall be lawful for any magistrate[15], or peace-officer, authorised by a warrant, and accompanied by one or more master bakers, to enter, at seasonable times, any shop or bake-house within the city of London, or within ten miles of the Royal Exchange, to search and examine whether any alum, or other ingredients, shall have been mixed up with, or put into, any meal, flour, dough, or bread, in the possession of any such baker, and also to search for alum, or any other ingredients, which may be intended to be used for the purpose of adulterating the bread; and if, on enquiry, they find any alum, or other unlawful ingredients, or that any flour, meal, dough, or bread, contains any preparation of alum, such shall be immediately seized, and carried before some magistrate within whose jurisdiction the baker lives, and who shall dispose of it as he shall think fit. And if the magistrate is satisfied that such pernicious ingredients were put into the bread with the consent or privity of the baker, or if he acknowledges it himself, or one or two credible witnesses certify, on oath, that they know he uses alum, such baker shall forfeit any sum of money not exceeding twenty pounds, or be committed to, and kept at hard labour in, the house of correction, or some other prison, for six calendar months, unless he can prove, to the satisfaction of the magistrate, that the alum, or other ingredients, were designed for some lawful purpose. And further, the magistrate is expressly required to cause the offender’s name, place of abode, and offence, to be published in some newspaper which shall be printed or published in or near the city of London, or the liberties thereof.”

Footnote 15:

38 Geo. 3. c. 55. sec. 14 and 15.

“That if any person or persons shall wilfully obstruct[16] or hinder such search or seizure, as above described, he or they shall, for every offence, forfeit and pay any sum not exceeding ten pounds, nor less than five, at the discretion of the magistrate before whom the offender or the offenders shall be convicted.”

Footnote 16:

38 Geo. 3. c. 55. sec. 16.

“That where any baker[17] shall make a complaint before a magistrate, and make it appear that any offence he was charged with, and paid the penalty of, was occasioned by the wilful neglect or default of his journeyman, or other servant, the magistrate shall issue his warrant for apprehending the party, and if, on examining into the matter, it appears that such was the case, such journeyman, or other servant, shall be directed immediately to pay to his master a reasonable recompence in money, and, on non-payment thereof, he shall be committed to the house of correction, or some other prison, and kept to hard labour, for any time not exceeding one calendar month, unless payment be sooner made.”

Footnote 17:

31 Geo. 2. c. 29. p. 891. and 38 Geo. 3. c. 55. sec. 17.

“And, for the better and more easy recovery of the several penalties[18] incurred by disobedience to the several acts, all offences may be heard and determined in a summary way, by the Lord Mayor, or any other magistrate or magistrates, within their several jurisdictions, who shall summon the offenders before them, and if they do not appear, or offer a reasonable excuse, they may cause them to be apprehended; and when the matter is enquired into, and the party convicted, if he does not pay the penalty within twenty-four hours, such magistrate shall issue a warrant of distress and sale on the goods of the offender; and, should the goods of the party be removed into another jurisdiction, the magistrate thereof is to back the warrant, and the distress, if not redeemed within five days, is to be appraised and sold, and all expences thereby incurred are to be deducted thereout. And if the offender is possessed of no goods or chattels that can be seized, then he shall be committed to the house of correction, or some other prison, for one calendar month, unless payment be sooner made.”

Footnote 18:

31 Geo. 2. c. 29. p. 892. and 38 Geo. 3. c. 55. sec. 19.

“That if information[19], on oath, is offered to any magistrate, that any one within his jurisdiction is likely to offer or give material evidence in behalf of the prosecutor of any offender, and refuses voluntarily to come forward, such magistrate shall issue a summons to cause him to appear, and if he still refuses, to grant a warrant to compel his attendance, and then if he refuses to be examined, he may be committed to some public prison for fourteen days.”

Footnote 19:

31 Geo. 2. c. 29. p. 894.

That no certiorari[20], letters of advocation, or of suspension, shall be granted, to remove any conviction or other proceedings had therein; but if any person is punished, and he thinks himself aggrieved by the judgment of a magistrate, he may appeal to the next quarter sessions, and, in such case, the execution of the judgment shall be suspended, upon his entering into a recognisance, with two sufficient sureties, in double the sum such person shall be adjudged to forfeit, to prosecute the appeal, and abide the determination of the justices at the said quarter sessions; and if he makes good his appeal, he shall be discharged the conviction, and reasonable costs awarded him, which shall be paid by the person who lodged the information.”

Footnote 20:

31 Geo. 2. c. 29. p. 895.

“That no person shall be convicted[21] of any offence under these acts, unless the prosecution shall be commenced against him within fourteen days after the offence is committed, except in cases of perjury[22]; and no person who shall be prosecuted to conviction for any offence done or committed against these acts, shall be liable to be prosecuted for the same offence under any other law.”

Footnote 21:

37 Geo. 3. c. 98. sec. 28.

Footnote 22:

38 Geo 3. c. 55. sec. 20.

“That all penalties, when recovered in pursuance of these regulations, shall be disposed of in the manner following: that is to say, one[23] moiety thereof to be paid to the informer, and the other moiety to the poor of the parish where such offence shall be committed; and, in case there is no informer, then the whole sum shall be given to the poor of the parish, or applied in such a way as the magistrate, in his discretion, shall think fit.”

Footnote 23:

31 Geo. 2. c. 29. p. 897.

Economical Application of Yeast.

It frequently happens, in the summer season, that the brewers, in order to render their beer less liable to spoil, use more hops than usual; the consequence of which is, that the yeast becomes very bitter, and gives a disagreeable flavour to the bread. To obviate this inconvenience, Mr. Stone has recommended the following method of raising a bushel of flour with only a tea-spoonful of yeast.

Suppose a bushel of flour be put it into the kneading trough, then take about three quarters of a pint of warm water, and one tea-spoonful of yeast. Stir it in till it is thoroughly mixed with the water; and make a hole in the middle of the flour, large enough to contain two gallons of water. Pour in the yeast and add some of the flour until it is a thick liquid paste; strew some of the dry flour over it, and let it stand an hour. Then take a quart more of warm water, and pour it in: in about an hour it will be seen that the small quantity of yeast has raised the mixture so, that it will break through the dry flour placed over it; and when the warm water has been added, take a stick and stir in more flour until it is as thick as before; then shake again some dry flour over it, and leave it for two hours more, the mass will rise and break through the dry flour again; you may then add three quarts or a gallon of water, and stir in the flour, and make it into a soft paste, taking care to cover it with dry flour again, and in about three or four hours more the dough may be mixed up, and covered up warm; and in four or five hours more it may be made up into loaves, and put in the oven; and in this manner may be produced as light a bread as though a pint of yeast had been used. It does not take above a quarter of an hour more than the usual way of baking, for there is no time lost but that of adding the water at three or four times. The author of this method assures us that he constantly bakes in this way. In the morning, about six or seven o’clock, he puts the flour in the trough, and mixes up the spoonful of yeast with the warm water; in an hour’s time he adds more flour, in two hours, again more, and about noon makes up the dough, and about six in the evening it is put into the oven: he has always good bread.

Economical Preparation of Yeast.

The following economical method of making yeast is recommended by Dr. Lettsom.

Thicken two quarts of water with four ounces of fine flour, boil it for half an hour, then sweeten it with three ounces of brown sugar; when almost cold, pour it with four spoonfuls of baker’s yeast into an earthen jug, deep enough for the fermentation to go on without running over; place it for a day near the fire, then pour off the thin liquor from the top, shake the remainder, and close it up for use, first straining it through a sieve. To preserve it sweet, set it in a cool cellar, or hang it some depth in a well. Keep always some of this to make the next quantity of yeast that is wanted. Mr. I. Kerby recommends the following method of obtaining yeast from potatoes.

Potatoe Yeast.

Boil potatoes of the mealy sort, till they are thoroughly soft, skin and mash them very smooth, and put as much hot water on them as will make a mash of the consistency of common beer yeast, but not thicker. Add to every pound of potatoes, two ounces of treacle, and when just warm, stir in for every pound of potatoes, two large spoonfuls of yeast. Keep it warm till it has done fermenting, and in twenty-four hours it will be fit for use. A pound of potatoes will make near a quart of yeast, which has been found to answer the purpose so well, as not to be able to distinguish the bread made with it, from bread made with brewer’s yeast.

Method of Preserving Yeast.

When yeast is plentiful, take a quantity and work it well with a whisk until it becomes thin; then procure a large wooden dish or platter, clean and dry, and with a soft brush lay a thin layer of yeast on the dish, and turn the top downwards to keep out the dust, but not the air, which is to dry it. When the first coat is dry, lay on another, and let that dry, and so continue till the quantity is sufficient; by this means it may soon be made two or three inches thick, when it may be preserved in dry tin canisters or stopped bottles, for a long time, good. When used for baking, cut a piece off and dissolve it in warm water, when it will be fit for use.

FINIS.