Chapter II: Introduction

The use of abbreviations is as old as the use of alphabets. In inscriptions and on coins and in other places where room is limited they have always been used in order to save space. The words GUILIELMUS QUARTUS DEI GRATIA REX BRITANNIARUM FIDEI DEFENSOR would hardly go around the circumference of a sixpence, three quarters of an inch in diameter. Therefore, we find them written GUILIELMUS IIII D: G: BRITANNIAR: REX F: D: In the manuscript period abbreviations were very extensively used. This was done partly to lighten the great labor of hand copying and partly to effect a double saving of expense, in labor and in costly material. Certain of these abbreviations were in common use and perfectly intelligible. Unfortunately the copyists did not limit their abbreviations to these, but devised others for their own use much to the discomfort of their readers, especially after the lapse of centuries.

The introduction of printing removed the pressing necessity for the extensive use of abbreviations, but the actual use continued much longer than one would think. The early printed books were reproductions of manuscripts. In some cases the earliest were almost forgeries, and were probably intended to be sold as manuscripts. The types were cut in imitation of the handwriting of some well-known scribe and all his mannerisms and peculiarities were faithfully copied. An incidental result was the expansion of fonts of type by the inclusion of a great number of ligatures and of characters indicating the omission or combination of letters. Habit dies hard, and even after the type founders had freed themselves from the tyranny of manuscript printers continued to follow the habits of the copyist. The saving of material and labor still continued to be considered. The {2} methods of abbreviation in use in written matter continued to be followed in print even down to the first quarter of the last century.

The result of all this abbreviation was serious and well-founded complaint about the difficulty of reading books thus printed. De Vinne gives the following astonishing example, said to be taken practically at random from a Latin copy of the Logic of Ockham printed at Paris in 1488.

"Sic his e fal sm qd ad simplr a e pducibile a Deo g a e silr hic a n e
g a n e pducibile a Deo."

These are the abbreviations for Sicut his est fallacia secundum quid ad simpliciter. A est producibile a Deo. Ergo A est. Et similiter hic. A non est. Ergo A non est producibile a Deo.

The best present usage is to use abbreviations very sparingly. Certain recognized abbreviations are used under certain conditions, but generally only under constraint of limited space.

* * * * *

{3}

RULES FOR THE USE OF ABBREVIATIONS

I. GENERAL RULES.

Use no contractions or abbreviations in any place where there is room to print the words in full.

All legitimate words should be spelled out in full in text matter, but abbreviations are often needed in book work for footnotes and tables and in commercial work, where many brief forms and signs are used which are commonly understood and are as intelligible as words.

Certain special forms of printing such as market and stock reports, sporting news, price lists, directories, telephone directories, and the like make extensive use of abbreviations and signs. These abbreviations are of very limited use and often of only temporary life. They are not intelligible to general readers and should never be used outside the particular form of composition to which they pertain. De Vinne suggests that in the absence of printed authority (many of these abbreviations not appearing in the dictionary lists) every proofreader would do well to keep a manuscript book of unlisted abbreviations which he has to use repeatedly as a means of securing uniformity of form.

II. DATES.

Dates are not generally abbreviated in regular text matter; _The Declaration of Independence was signed on July the fourth, 1776._ The word _the_ is sometimes omitted. The date might be written _July fourth_ but never _July four_.

The abbreviations _ult._ _inst._ and _prox._ with a numeral (meaning _the 25th of last month_, _the 25th of this month_, _the 25th of next month_) are often used in letters, but should not be used in print unless the literal reproduction of a letter is intended. {4}

Do not use _st_, _d_, _rd_, or _th_ after a date given in figures; _August the sixth_, not _August 6th_.

The accepted abbreviations for the months are:

_Jan._ _Apr._ _July_ _Oct._
_Feb._ _May_ _Aug._ _Nov._
_Mar._ _June_ _Sept._ _Dec._

The accepted abbreviations for the days of the week are:

_Sun._ _Tues._ _Thurs._ _Sat._
_Mon._ _Wed._ _Fri._

The accepted abbreviations may be used for the months when the day is given, but not when the month and year alone are given;

_Jan. 15, 1916_, but _January 1916_.

Some good authorities prefer the order day, month, year; _15 Jan., 1916_, but this is a matter of office style. Generally speaking the more common order is the better quite regardless of the logical character because it requires less mental effort on the part of the reader. For example in writing addresses English speaking people put the number before the street, _59 Wall St._, while others put the number after the street, _Wall St., 59_. This is the logical order, because one goes to the street and then finds the number, but it gives to the American reader a curious sensation of mentally standing on one's head.

There is another set of abbreviations, known as the Dewey dates, as follows:

Months Days of Week
_Ja._ _Apr._ _Ju._ _O._ _Su._ _W._ _S._
_F._ _My._ _Ag._ _N._ _M._ _Th._
_Mr._ _Je._ _S._ _D._ _Tu._ _F._

These may be used in tables and in other places where very great condensation is necessary, but not elsewhere.

In general, much greater abbreviation is permissible in the tables, notes, and other condensed matter than in the body of the text. {5}

III. TIME.

Statements of time should not be abbreviated in ordinary reading matter; _at half past two o'clock in the afternoon_. If the context makes it clear whether forenoon or afternoon is meant one may write:

_at three, at seven o' clock_.

This form is used statistically, in enumerations, in tables, and the like.

IV. OTHER ABBREVIATIONS INVOLVING THE USE OF NUMERALS.

The use of numerals and the spelling of numbers in full will be found treated at length in the Printer's Manual of Style (No. 42). As the use of the numeral is in a sense an abbreviation a few general rules may properly be given here.

1. Spell out ages;

_eighty-two years and four months old_.
_in his eighty-third year_.
_children between the ages of six and fourteen_.

2. Spell out references to decades;

_in the early eighties_.

The form _in the '80s_, is very objectionable.

3. Spell out numbers of centuries, of sessions of Congress, of military
bodies, of political divisions, of Egyptian Dynasties, of streets, and
the like unless lack of space renders the abbreviation absolutely
necessary.

_Twentieth century_.
_Forty-second Congress_.
_One hundred and first Pennsylvania Infantry_.
_Eighteenth Dynasty_.
_Ninth Ward_.
_Fifth Avenue_.

In case numerals are used, Egyptian Dynasties are always designated by
Roman numerals. Writers on Egypt usually use this form:

XVIII_th Dynasty_.

{6}

4. Spell out sums of money when occurring in ordinary reading matter in
isolated cases:

_That press cost five thousand dollars._

When several such numbers occur close together, and in all statistical
matter, use figures.

_Those three presses cost $2,500, $3,600, and $5,000._

5. Spell out round numbers, that is, approximate numbers in units of
100 in numbers of less than 1000 and in units of 1000 if the numbers
are more.

_An army corps numbers forty thousand men._
_The Fifth Corps numbers 37,462._
_There are about five hundred officers._

Write _fifteen hundred_ and the like when the phrase is in common use,
not _one thousand five hundred_.

6. Spell out all numbers, no matter how high, when they begin a
sentence.

_Four thousand nine hundred and sixty-four soldiers, 109 officers,
and 10,000 civilians were surrendered with the fort._

7. Spell out in ordinary reading matter all numbers of less than three
digits, unless they are of a statistical or technical character or
occur in groups of six or more in close connection.

_There are sixty cities in the United States with a population of
100,000 or over._
_a ninety-ton engine_.
_five pounds of butter_.
_He lived only two years, one month, and twenty days._
_He spent 137 days in prison._
_A ratio of 16 to 1_.
_The death rate varies from 1 in 15 to 1 in 65._
_Send home:_
_2 pounds of butter_
_1 pound of sugar_
_½ pound of coffee_
_¼ pound of tea_
_2 pecks of potatoes_
_1 pound of salt pork_
_2 pounds of lard_
_1 quart of milk_

{7}

Treat all numbers in collected groups alike if possible, that is use
either the long or the short form for all. If the largest contains
three or more digits use figures for all.

_They came in groups of 50, 80, 100, and even 200._

8. Express in figures as a rule decimals, degrees, dimensions,
distances, enumerations, money, (but see 4 above), percentage, weights,
and the like.

_.542, 98°_, _9 cubic yards_, _37 miles_, _24 pages_, _$1000_,
_6 per cent_ (_or 6% but never six %_), _175 pounds_.

V. GEOGRAPHICAL ABBREVIATIONS.

Geographical names are ordinarily not abbreviated in text matter. The abbreviations in the subjoined lists are commonly recognized and may be used in lists, bibliographical matter, and elsewhere where condensation is desired.

UNITED STATES AND TERRITORIES

Ala. Alabama N. D. North Dakota
Alaska Alaska Neb. Nebraska
Ariz. Arizona Nev. Nevada
Ark. Arkansas N. H. New Hampshire
Cal. California N. J. New Jersey
Colo. Colorado N. M. New Mexico
Conn. Connecticut N. Y. New York
D. C. District of Columbia Ohio Ohio
Del. Delaware Okla. Oklahoma
Fla. Florida Ore. Oregon
Ga. Georgia Pa. Pennsylvania
H. I. Hawaiian Islands P. I. Philippine Islands
Idaho Idaho P. R. Porto Rico
Ill. Illinois R. I. Rhode Island
Ind. Indiana Samoa Samoa
Ia. Iowa S. C. South Carolina
Kan. Kansas S. D. South Dakota
Ky. Kentucky Tenn. Tennessee
La. Louisiana Tex. Texas
Me. Maine T. H. Territory of Hawaii
Mass. Massachusetts Utah Utah
Md. Maryland Vt. Vermont
Mich. Michigan Va. Virginia
Minn. Minnesota Wash. Washington
Mo. Missouri Wis. Wisconsin
Mont. Montana W. Va. West Virginia
N. C. North Carolina Wyo. Wyoming

{8}

FOREIGN COUNTRIES

Aus. Austria
Austral. Australasia
B. A. British America
Br. Col. British Columbia
Can. Canada
C. B. Cape Breton
C. W. Canada West (Ontario)
Den. Denmark
E. East (London Postal District)
East Isl. Eastern Islands
E. C. East Central (London Postal District)
E. I. East Indies
Eng. England, English
Fin. Finland
G. B. Great Britain
Glas. Glasgow
Ire. Ireland
It. Italy
Jam. Jamaica
Jap. Japan
L. C. Lower Canada
Man. Manitoba
Mex. Mexico
N. North (London Postal District)
N. A. North America
{9}
N. B. New Brunswick, North Britain
N. E. New England, Northeast (London Postal District)
Neth. Netherlands
N. F. Newfoundland
Norw. Norway
N. S. Nova Scotia
N. W. Northwest (London Postal District)
N. Zeal. New Zealand
Ont. Ontario
Pal. Palestine
P. D. Postal District (London)
P. E. I. Prince Edward Island
Per. Persia
Port. Portugal
Prus. Prussia
Que. Quebec
Russ. Russia
S. South (London Postal District)
S. A. South America
Scot. Scotland
Sc. Pen. Scandinavian Peninsula
S. E. Southeast (London Postal District)
Sic. Sicily
S. Isl. Sandwich Islands
Soc. Isl. Society Islands
S. Lat. South Latitude
Sp. Spain
Sw. Sweden
Switz. Switzerland
Syr. Syria
U. C. Upper Canada (Ontario)
U. K. United Kingdom
V. Victoria
W. Welsh, West. West (London Postal District)
W. C. West Central (London Postal District)
W. I. West Indies
W. lon. West longitude

{10}

VI. NAMES.

1. Abbreviate _Saint_ in names of persons, cities, streets, churches,
etc.

_St. John Chrysostom_, _St. Paul_, _St. Botolph Street_,
_The Church of SS_ (_Saints_) _Peter and Paul_.

The word _Saint_ is now omitted in speaking of the evangelists, the
apostles, or the church fathers.

_The Gospel according to Luke_.
_Paul's doctrine of salvation_.
_Augustine's_ "_City of God_."

2. In technical matter (footnotes, references etc.) use _Co._, _Bros._,
and _ampersand_ (_&_) in firm names and names of corporations.

_The Rand-McNalley Co._
_Macmillan & Co._
_Harper Bros._
_New York, New Haven, & Hartford Railroad_.

In text matter not of a technical character it is better not to
abbreviate.

_Harper Brothers have published._
_It was printed by the Rand-McNalley Company._
_The romantic history of the East India Company_.

Do not use _ampersand_ except with names of persons.

_John Brown & Co._
_The Brown Printing and Publishing Co._

When railroad names or other long names are abbreviated, use no spaces
between the letters.

_N.Y.N.H. & H.R.R._
_U.T. & F.C. of A._

3. Do not abbreviate _United States_ except:

(_a_) in immediate connection with the name of an officer in the army
or navy.

_Capt. John Smith, U.S.A._
_Lieut. William Brown, U.S.N._

(_b_) When it is part of the name of an organization.

_First Regiment, U.S.V._

{11}

(_c_) When preceding the name of a ship.

_U.S.S. Texas_.

4. Christian names should be spelled in full in text matter, except in
an original signature or when following copy in a quotation.

The following is a list of the accepted abbreviations of the more
common Christian names.

Alex. Alexander Fred. Frederick
And. Andrew Geo. George
Anth. Anthony Herbt. Herbert
Ap. Appius Hos. Hosea
Arch. Archibald Jas. James
Aug. August, Augustus Jona. Jonathan
Benj. Benjamin Jos. Joseph
C. Cæsar Josh. Joshua
Cæs. Aug. Cæsar Augustus Matt. Matthew
Cath. Catherine Nath. Nathaniel
Chas. Charles Pet. Peter
Dan. Daniel Phil. Philip, Philander
Eben. Ebenezer Phile. Philemon
Edm. Edmund Reg. Reginald
Edw. Edward Richd. Richard
Eliz. Elizabeth Robt. Robert
Esd. Esdras Sam. Samuel
Esth. Esther Theo. Theodore
Ez. Ezra Thos. Thomas
Ezek. Ezekiel Tim. Timothy
Ferd. Ferdinand Wm. William
Fran. Francis

_Alex_, _Ben_, _Ed_, _Fred_, _Sam_, and _Tom_ are not always
abbreviations and copy should be followed as regards the period. Any
unusual abbreviations used by an individual should be followed in
giving an original signature.

_G^o. Washington_.

{12}

VII. TITLES.

1. As a rule titles prefixed to a name should not be abbreviated except
_Mr._, _Messrs._, _Mrs._ (French _M._, _MM._, _Mme._, _Mlle._), _Dr._,
_Rev._, and _Hon._

_Professor_, _Colonel_, _General_ and some others may be abbreviated
when the initials of the name are used;

_Professor Smith_ _Prof. J. T. Smith_
_General Grant_ _Gen. U. S. Grant_

_Hon._ and _Rev._, which are similarly used, need special attention as
they are often used wrongly. The following is the correct use;

_The Reverend John Smith_ (formal reference)
_The Rev. John Smith_ (quotation or correspondence)
_Rev. Mr. Smith_
_Rev. John Smith_

_Rev. Smith_ is wrong and should never be used except as any illiterate
form may be used in a quotation. When the names of sovereigns are
mentioned only occasionally such names may be given in full.

_George the Fifth_, _William the Second_.

When such names occur frequently, as in historical writing, they may be
printed with Roman numerals without a period;

_George V_, _William II_

Other titles following a name are abbreviated in accordance with the
following list.

A.B. or B.A. (_Artium Baccalaureus_) Bachelor of Arts
Abp. Archbishop
A.C. Archchancellor
A.D. Archduke
A.D.C. Aide-de-camp
Adjt. Adjutant
Adm. Admiral
Admr. Administrator
{13}
Admx., Admrx. Administratrix
Adv. Advocate
Agt. Agent
Aldm. Alderman
A.M. or M.A. (_Artium Magister_) Master of Arts
Amb. Ambassador
A.P.A. American Protective Association
Asst. Assistant
A.T. Archtreasurer
Atty. Attorney
B.A. or A.B. Bachelor of Arts
Bart. Baronet
B.C.L. Bachelor of Civil Law
B.D. (_Baccalaureus Divinitatis_) Bachelor of Divinity
B.LL. (_Baccalaureus Legum_) Bachelor of Laws
B.M. (_Baccalaureus Medicinæ_) Bachelor of Medicine
Bp. Bishop
B.R. (_Banco Regis_ or _Reginæ_) The King's or Queen's
Bench
Brig.-Gen. Brigadier-General
Bro(s). Brother(s)
B.S. Bachelor of Science or Bachelor of Surgery
B.V. (_Beata Virgo_) Blessed Virgin
Cantab. (_Cantabrigia_) Cambridge
Capt. Captain
Capt.-Gen. Captain-General
Cash. Cashier
C.B. Companion of the Bath
C.C.P. Court of Common Pleas
C.E. Civil Engineer
C.J. Chief Justice
C.M.G. Companion of the Order of St. Michael and St. George
Col. Colonel
Com. Commander, Commodore
Corp. Corporal
Cor. Sec. Corresponding Secretary
{14}
C.S. Court of Sessions
C.S. (_Custos Sigilli_) Keeper of the Seal
D.C.L. Doctor of Civil Law
D. D. Doctor of Divinity
D.D.S. Doctor of Dental Surgery
Dea. Deacon
Dep. Deputy
D. F. Defender of the Faith
D.M. Doctor of Music
Dr. Doctor
D.Sc. Doctor of Science
D.T. (_Doctor Theologiæ_) Doctor of Divinity
D.V.M or M.D.V. Doctor of Veterinary Medicine
E. (_after titles_) Edinburgh
Esq. Esquire
F.D. (_Fidei Defensor_) Defender of the Faith
F.G.S. Fellow of the Geological Society
Fr. Father
F.R.G.S. Fellow of the Royal Geographical Society
F.R.S. Fellow of the Royal Society
F.R.S.A. Fellow of the Royal Society of Arts
F.S.A. Fellow of the Society of Arts
G.C.B. Knight of the Grand Cross of the Bath
G.C.H. Knight of the Grand Cross of Hanover
G.C.M.G. Knight of the Grand Cross, Order of St. Michael and
St. George
Gen. General
Gov. Governor
Govt. Government
G.R. (_Georgius Rex_) King George
H.B.M. His or Her Britannic Majesty
H.M. His or Her Majesty
H.M.S. His or Her Majesty's Service
Hon. Honorable
H.R. House of Representatives
H.R.E. Holy Roman Emperor
H.R.H. His or Her Royal Highness
H.S.H. His or Her Serene Highness
{15}
I.N.R.I (_Jesus Nazarenus Rex Judæorum_) Jesus of Nazareth,
King of the Jews
Insp. Inspector
Insp. Gen. Inspector General
I.O.O.F. Independent Order of Odd Fellows
J.A. Judge-Advocate
J.P. Justice of the Peace
J. Prob. Judge of the Probate
Jr. or Jun. Junior
K. King
K.A. Knight of St. Andrew, in Russia
K.A.N. Knight of Alexander Newski, in Russia
K.B. King's Bench; Knight of the Bath
K.B.A. Knight of St. Bento d'Avis, in Portugal
K.B.E. Knight of the Black Eagle, in Prussia
K.C. Knight of the Crescent, in Turkey; King's Council
K.C.B. Knight Commander of the Bath
K.C.H. Knight Commander of Hanover
K.C.M.G. Knight Commander, Order of St. Michael and St. George
K.C.S. Knight of Charles III, in Spain
K.E. Knight of the Elephant, in Denmark
K.F. Knight of Ferdinand of Spain
K.F.M. Knight of Ferdinand and Merit, in Sicily
K.G. Knight of the Garter
K.G.C. Knight of the Grand Cross
K.G.C.B. Knight of the Grand Cross of the Bath
K.G.F Knight of the Golden Fleece
K.G.H. Knight of the Guelph of Hanover
K.G.V. Knight of Gustavus Vasa of Sweden
K.H. Knight of Hanover
K.J. Knight of St. Joachim
K.L.H. Knight of the Legion of Honor
K.M. Knight of Malta
K. Mess. King's Messenger
K.M.H. Knight of Merit, in Holstein
K.M.J. Knight of Maximilian Joseph of Bavaria
K.M.T. Knight of Maria Theresa of Austria
{16}
K.N.S. Knight of the Royal North Star, in Sweden
K.P. Knight of St. Patrick
K.R.E. Knight of the Red Eagle, in Prussia
K.S. Knight of the Sword, in Sweden
K.S.A. Knight of St. Anne of Russia
K.S.E. Knight of St. Esprit, in France
K.S.F. Knight of St. Fernando of Spain
K.S.F.M. Knight of St. Ferdinand and Merit, in Naples
K.S.G. Knight of St. George of Russia
K.S.H. Knight of St. Hubert of Bavaria
K.S.J. Knight of St. Januarius of Naples
K.S.L. Knight of the Sun and Lion, in Persia
K.S.M. & S.G. Knight of St. Michael and St. George, in the Ionian
Isles
K.S.P. Knight of St. Stanislaus of Poland
K.S.S. Knight of the Southern Star of the Brazils, Knight of
the Sword, in Sweden
K.S.W. Knight of St. Wladimir of Russia
Kt. Knight
K.T. Knight of the Thistle
K.T.S. Knight of the Tower and Sword, in Portugal
K.W. Knight of William of the Netherlands
K.W.E. Knight of the White Eagle, in Poland
L. (_after titles_) London
L.C. Lord Chancellor
L.C.J. Lord Chief Justice
Leg. Legate
Legis. Legislature
Lieut. Lieutenant
Lieut.-Col. Lieutenant-Colonel
Lieut.-Gen. Lieutenant-General
Litt. D. (_Litterarum Doctor_) Doctor of Literature
LL.B. (_Legum Baccalaureus_) Bachelor of Laws
LL.D. (_Legum Doctor_) Doctor of Laws
M. Monsieur
M.A. Master of Arts
Maj. Major
{17}
Maj.-Gen. Major-General
M.B. (_Medicinæ Baccalaureus_) Bachelor of Medicine;
(_Musicæ Baccalaureus_) Bachelor of Music
M. C. Member of Congress
M. D. (_Medicinæ Doctor_) Doctor of Medicine
Messrs. Messieurs
Mgr. Manager; Monsignor
Min. Plen. Minister Plenipotentiary
Mlle. Mademoiselle
Mme. Madame
M.P. Member of Parliament
M.R. Master of the Rolls
Mr. Mister or Master
Mrs. Mistress
Mus. Doc. Doctor of Music
Oxon. (_Oxoniensis_) Oxford
P.C. (_Patres Conscripti_, Conscript Fathers) Senators;
Privy Counsellor
Ph. D. Doctor of Philosophy
Ph. G. Graduate in Pharmacy
P.M. Postmaster
P.M.G. Postmaster-General
P.R.A. President of the Royal Academy
Pres. President
Prov. Provost
P.R.S. President of the Royal Society
Q. Queen
Q.M. Quartermaster
R.A. Royal Academician
R.E. Royal Engineers
Reg. Prof. Regius Professor
Rev. Reverend
R.M. Royal Marines
R.N. Royal Navy
R.N.O. (_Riddare of Nordstjerneorden_) Knight of the Order
of Polar Star
R.S.S. (_Regiæ Societatis Socius_) Fellow of the Royal
Society
{18}
Rt. Hon. Right Honorable
Rt. Rev. Right Reverend
Rt. Wpful. Right Worshipful
R.W. Right Worthy
R.W.O. (_Riddare of Wasa Order_) Knight of the Order of Wasa
Sec. Secretary
Sec. Leg. Secretary of Legation
Serg. Sergeant
Serg.-Maj. Sergeant-Major
S.J. Society of Jesus
S.J.C. Supreme Judicial Court
Sol. Solicitor
Sol. Gen. Solicitor-General
Sr., Sen. Senior
S.R.S. (_Societatis Regiæ Socius_) Fellow of the Royal
Society
S.T.D. (_Sacræ Theologiæ Doctor_) Doctor of Divinity
S.T.P. (_Sacræ Theologiæ Professor_) Professor of Divinity
St. Saint, Street
Supt. Superintendent
Tr(s). Trustee(s)
Treas. Treasurer
U.J.C. (_Utriusque Juris Doctor_) Doctor of both Laws
V.C. Vice-Chancellor
V.D.M. (_Verbi Dei Minister_) Preacher of the Word
Vice-Pres. Vice-President
Visc. Viscount
W.S. Writer to the Signet

VIII. SIZES OF BOOKS.

The shorter names for book sizes are usually written out;

_folio_, _quarto_, _octavo_.

Beyond that they are usually abbreviated by using the Arabic numeral and _mo_, but without a period;

_12 mo_, _16 mo_, etc.

{19}

IX. WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.

Abbreviate the common designations of weights and measures in the metric system, as well as other symbols of measurement in common use when following a numeral;

_1 m._, _5 dm._, _4 cm._, _2 mm._, _c.m._ (_cubic meter_), _c.d._,
_min._ (_minute_), _sec._ (_second_), _lb._ (_pound_), _oz._ (_ounce_),
_yd._, _ft._, _in._, _A._ (_Anglestrom units_), _H.P._ (_Horse power_),
_C._ (_Centigrade_ [_Thermometer_]).

X. FOOTNOTES.

Authorities cited in footnotes should be specified in the following order:

1. The best known name of the author. Give initials only when necessary
to distinguish between several authors of the same name. Set in roman
lower-case unless otherwise ordered.

2. The name of the book in roman lower-case. If there is a
Bibliography, or list of authorities attached to the book the names of
all works referred to should there appear in full, but should be
abbreviated in the notes. Otherwise, the name is sometimes written in
full the first time it is referred to in a footnote and afterward
abbreviated. If the book has but few references to authorities the
names may be given in full in the footnotes especially when the
reference is to the book as a whole and not to a particular paragraph.
In such a case as this last the name is often printed in italics.

Always abbreviate uniformly in the same book.

3. The number of the volume in roman numerals of capital letters. No
period.

4. The numbers of the pages in Arabic figures. If there are several
editions varying in subject matter and paging the edition used should
be specified. If the edition has been specified in the Bibliography
this information should not be repeated in the footnotes. {20} In books
like the Bible, Shakespeare, Blackstone, or Milton, which have been
printed in innumerable editions book, chapter and verse; act, scene and
line; section and paragraph, or canto, stanza, and line must be
specified.

Number of paragraph only No. 68
Stanza only st. 18
Page only P. 213
Line only l. 384
Paragraph only ¶ 34
Section only § 5
Chapter only } xiv
Canto only }
Book only iii
Book and chapter }
Part and chapter } iii 2
Book and line }
Act and scene }
Act, scene, and line iv. 3. 45
Chapter and verse }
Number and page } II 34
Volume and page }
Volume and chapter IV. iv.
Part, book, and chapter } II. iv. 12
Part, canto, and stanza }
Chapter, section, paragraph vii. § 3, ¶ 4
Volume, part, section, paragraph } I. i. § 2, ¶ 6
Book, chapter, section, paragraph }

In abbreviated references to the Bible or to the plays of Shakespeare
use Arabic figures prefixed to the name to indicate part of succession
of the book, play, or letter.

2 Kings II: 5
3 John 11
1 Henry VI, iii. 2. 14

{21}

The following excellently chosen illustrations of good methods in handling numerous footnotes in learned works are taken from De Vinne's "Correct Composition."

_From English Past and Present, by R. C. Trench_

^1 Guest, Hist. of English Rhythms, vol. I. p. 280.
^2 Hooker, Eccles. Pol. i. 3, 5.
^3 Craik, On the English of Shakespeare, 2nd edit. p. 97.
^4 Marsh, Manual of the English Language, Engl. edit. p. 278.

_From Gibbon's Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Murray's edition of 1881 (8 vols. 8 vo)_

^1 Orosius, I. ii. c. 19, p. 143.
^2 Heineccius, Antiquitat. Juris Roman, tom. i, p. 96.
^3 Jornandes, de Reb. Get. c. 30, p. 654 [p. 87, ed. Lugd. B. 1597].
^4 Ausonius (de Claris Urbibus. p. 257-262 [No. 14]).
^5 A. Thierry, Lettres sur l'Histoire de France, p. 90.
^6 Procopius, de Bell. Vanda., I. i. c. 7, p. 194 [tom. I. p. 341, ed.
Bonn].

_From Hume's History of England, Cadell's edition of 1841 (6 vols. 8 vo)_

^1 Herbert, p. 431, 432. ^4 Burnet, p. 322.
^2 Collier, vol. ii. p. 176. ^5 34 and 35 Hen. VIII. c. i.
^3 Stowe, p. 575. ^6 Mémoires du Bellay, lib. x.

The comma is often omitted after the period in footnotes. The abbreviation _ch_, _p_, and _pp_, may be made in notes, but not in text matter.

In lower-case text do not use _&c_, use _etc._

By-laws are often printed with side-headings _Art. 1_, _Sec. 2_, _etc._ It is better to print the words, _article_ and _section_ in full in the paragraph where they first appear and to omit the word in subsequent paragraphs, using the proper figure only.

Figures used in illustrations to facilitate their understanding and explained in small text below the illustration or in the text matter itself do not have No. before them either in the illustration or in the explanation. {22}

Figures and letters used as references to footnotes do not take a period.

Where two or more pages are specified in the text set them thus: _Pages 24, 25, 57_ not _pp. 24-5, 57_ nor _25-57_. When the reference is to several pages continually set _pages 24 to 32_.

When a period of time is expressed by the dates of two or more consecutive years, set thus: _1846-7_, _1861-5_, when there is a lapse of a year or more, set thus: _1866-7-1869-70_. Do not abbreviate into _'66-'7-'69-'70_.

* * * * *

{23}

LISTS OF ABBREVIATIONS

The following lists of abbreviations will be found useful.

SCRIPTURAL ABBREVIATIONS

Old Testament (O.T.)

Gen. Esth. Joel
Exod. Job Amos
Lev. Ps. (Pss.) Obad.
Num. Prov. Jonah
Deut. Eccles. Mic.
Josh. Song of Sol. Nah.
Judg. (or Cant.) Hab.
Ruth Isa. Zeph.
I and II Sam. Jer. Hag.
I and II Kings Lam. Zech.
I and II Chron. Ezek. Mal.
Ezra Dan.
Neh. Hos.

New Testament (N.T.)

Matt. Gal. Philem.
Mark Eph. Heb.
Luke Phil. Jas.
John Col. I and II Pet.
Acts I and II Thess. I, II and III John
Rom. I and II Tim. Jude
I and II Cor. Titus Rev.

Apocrypha

I and II Esd. Eccles. Bel and Dragon
Tob. Bar. Pr. of Man
Jud. Song of Three I, II, III and IV
Rest of Esther Children Macc.
Wisd. of Sol. Sus.

{24}

COMMERCIAL ABBREVIATIONS

A1 Highest class or grade
Acct. Account
Advt., Ad. Advertisement
Agt. Agent
Amt. Amount
Anon. Anonymous
Ans. Answer
Art. Article
Av., Ave. Avenue
Bal. Balance
Bd. Bound
Bdl. Bundle
Bds. Boards
Bldg. Building
B.O. Buyer's Option
Bro(s). Brother; Brothers
Chap. Chapter
C.I.F. Cost, insurance, freight
Co. Company
C.O.D. Cash on delivery
Cr. Creditor
Dept. Department
Do. Ditto, the same
Dr. Debtor
E.E. Errors excepted
E.O.D. Every other day
E. & O.E. Errors and omissions excepted
Etc. (_Et cætera_) and so forth
Ex., Exch. Exchange
Exp. Express
Fgt. Freight
F.O.B. Free on Board
H. Hour
H.P. Half pay, horse power
Incor. Incorporated
Ins. Insurance
K.D. Knock down (_of furniture, etc._)
{25}
L.P. Large Paper
Memo. Memorandum
Mfg. Manufacturing
Mfr. Manufacturer
Min. Minute
No. (_numero_) number
O.K. All right
Payt. Payment
Pd. Paid
Per an. (_Per annum_) by the year
Per cent (_Per centum_) by the hundred
Pkg. Package
Pl. Plate, plates
Pref. Preface
Rd. Road
Rem. Remarks
Rep. Reports
R.R. Railroad
Ry. Railway
Ser. Series
Sq. Square
S.S. Steamship, steamer
T.F. Till forbidden

MISCELLANEOUS ABBREVIATIONS

A.C. (_Ante Christum_) before Christ
A.D. (_Anno Domini_) in the year of our Lord
Ad lib. (_Ad libitum_) at pleasure
Adj. Adjective
Adv. Adverb
Æt (_Ætatis_) of age, aged
A.H. (_Anno Hegiræ_) in the year of the Hegira
Alt. Altitude
A.M. (_Anno Mundi_) in the year of the world
An. (_Anno_) in the year
{26}
An. A. C. (_Anno ante Christum_) in the year before Christ
Anat. Anatomy
Anc. Ancient
Ang.-Sax. Anglo-Saxon
Anom. Anomalous
Anon. Anonymous
Ap. Apostle
Apo. Apogee
Apoc. Apocalypse, Apocrypha
A.R. (_Anno regni_) in the year of the reign
Arch. Architecture
A.R.R. (_Anno regni regis_) in the year of the reign of the king
Arr. Arrival
Art. Article
Assoc., Assn. Association
Astrol. Astrology
Astron. Astronomy
A.U.C. (_Anno urbis Conditæ_) in the year of the building of
the city of Rome
Auth. Ver. } Authorized Version of the Bible
or A.V. }
Av. Average
Ave. Avenue
B. (_Basso_) Bass; bay; born
B.C. Before Christ
Boul. Boulevard
B.V. (_Bene Vale_) Farewell
C. Cape
Cæt. par. (_Cæteris paribus_) other things being equal
Cap. (_caput_) Chapter
C. or Cent. Centigrade
Cf. (_conferre_) compare
Ch. Child or children
C.H. Court House
Chap. Chapter
{27}
Circ. Circle(s)
Cit. Citizen
Col. Column
Coll. College
Comp. Companion, comparative
Cong. Congress
C.Q.D. Marconi Distress signal
D.B. Domesday Book
D.C. (_Da Capo_) From the beginning; again
Dec. Declination
Deg. Degree(s)
Del. (_Delineavit_) he drew it
Dem. Democrat
D.G. (_Dei gratia_) by the grace of God; (_Deo gratias_)
thanks to God
D.V. (_Deo volente_) God willing
E. East, Eagle(s)
Ea. Each
E.B. English Bible (common)
Ed. Editor, Edition
E.E. Errors excepted
E.G. (_Exempli gratia_) by way of example
Elec. Electricity
E.N.E. East-northeast
Ent. Entomology
E.S.E. East-southeast
Etal. (_Et alibi_) and elsewhere; (_et alii_) and others
Etc. (_Et cætera_) and so forth
Et seq. (_Et sequentia_) the following
Ex. Example
Exc. Exception
F., Fahr. Fahrenheit (thermometer)
Fec. (_Fecit_) he made it
Fem. or f. Feminine
Fig(s). Figure(s)
Finn. Finnish
{28}
Fol. or f., ff. Folio(s)
For. Foreign
Ft. Fort
Gent. Gentleman
Ger. German
Goth. Gothic
Gr. Greek
H. Husband
Hdkf. Handkerchief
H.e. (_Hoc est_) that is, or, this is
Hist. History, Historical
H.J.S. (_Hic jacet sepultus_) here lies buried
H.M.P. (_Hoc monumentum posuit_) erected this monument
H.R.I.P. (_Hic requiescit in pace_) here lies in peace
H.S. (_Hic situs_) here lies
Ibid. Ib. (_Ibidem_) in the same place
Id. (_Idem_) the same
I.e. (_Id est_) that is
I.H.S. First letters of [Greek: IÊSOUS], Greek for _Jesus_, or
_Iesus hominum salvator_, Jesus the Savior of Mankind
Illus. Illustrated
Imp. Imperative (mood)
Incog. (_Incognito_) Unknown
Indef. Indefinite
Indic. Indicative (mood)
Infin. Infinitive (mood)
In lim. (_In limine_) at the outset
In loc. (_In loco_) in the place
Inst. (_instante_) the current month
Int. Interest
Interj. Interjection
In trans. (_In transit_) On the passage
Ion. Ionic
Ir. Irish
Irreg. Irregular
{29}
Isl. Island
Ital. Italic
Itin. Itinerary
J.H.S. See I.H.S.
Jour. Journal
Lat. Latin, latitude
L.c. (_Loco citato_) in the place cited
L.l. (_Loco laudato_) in the place quoted
Long. or long. Longitude
L.S. (_Locus sigilli_) place of the seal
LXX The Septuagint
M. (_Meridies_) noon
M. Married
Mem. Memorandum, Memoranda
Mgr. Manager
Misc. Miscellaneous
Mo(s). Month, months
M.S. (_Memoriæ sacrum_) sacred to the memory
MS. (_Manuscriptum_) manuscript
MSS. Manuscripts
Mt. Mount, Mont
Myth. Mythology
N. Noun, note(s)
Nat. National
Naut. Nautical
N.B. (_Nota Bene_) note well
Nem. con or } (_Nemine contradicente_ or _nemine dissentiente_) none
nem. diss. } opposing
N.L. (_Non liquet_) It does not appear
N. lat. North latitude
N.N.E. North-northeast
N.N.W. North-northwest
Nom. Nominative
Nol. Pros. (_Nol prosequi_) indicates in law that a complaint will
not be prosecuted
N.S. New Style (After 1752)
N.T. New Testament
{30}
N.u. Name(s) unknown
N.V.M. Nativity of the Virgin Mary
N.W. Northwest
Ob. (_Obiit_) he or she died
Obj. Objective (case)
Obs. Obsolete
O.F. Odd Fellow(s)
O.H.M.S. On His Majesty's Service
Olym. Olympiad
Op. Opposite
O.S. Old Style (before 1752)
O.T. Old Testament
P. or pp. Page or pages
Par. Paragraph
Par. pas. Parallel passage(s)
Parl. Parliament
Part. Participle
Partic. Particle
Pass. Passive (voice)
Pen. Peninsula
Pent. Pentecost
Perf. Perfect (tense)
Pers. Person
Pers. pron. Personal pronoun
Persp. Perspective
Phil. Philosophy
Pinx. (_Pinxit_) he painted it
Pl. Plate(s)
Plff. Plaintiff
Plup. Pluperfect
Plur. Plural
P.M. (_Post Meridiem_) afternoon to midnight
P.O. Post-office
Pop. Population
Posit. Positive
P.p. Past participle
P.P.C. (_Pour prendre congé_) to take leave
{31}
P. pr. Participle present
P.R. (_Populus Romanus_) the Roman people
Pref. Preface
Pret. Preterite tense
Pron. Pronoun
Pro tem. (_Pro tempore_) for the time being
Pr. p. Present participle
P.S. Privy Seal
P.T.O. Please turn over
Pt. Point
Pub. Publisher
Pub. Doc. Public Documents
Q. Question
Q.B. Queen's Bench
Q.C. Queen's College, Queen's Council
Q.d. (_Quasi dicat_) as if he should say; (_Quasi dictum_) as
if said; (_Quasi dixisset_) as if he had said
Q.E. (_Quod est_) which is
Q.E.D. (_Quod erat demonstrandum_) which was to be proved
Q.E.F. (_Quod erat faciendum_) which was to be done
Q.l. (_Quantum libet_) as much as you please
Q. Mess. Queen's Messenger
Qm. (_Quomodo_) by what means, how
Q.p. or q. pl. (_Quantum placet_) as much as you please
Qr. Quarter
Q.S. (_Quantum sufficit_) a sufficient quantity
Q.v. (_Quantum vis_) as much as you will
Q.v. (_Quod vide_) which see
Qy. Query
R., Reaum. Reaumur (_thermometer_)
R.A. Royal Academy; Royal Academician; Royal Artillery
R.E. Royal Engineers
Recd. Received
Rect. Rector
{32}
Ref. Reformation, reformed
Ref. Ch. Reformed Church
Ref. Reference
Regr. Registrar
Regt. Regiment
Rel. pron. Relative pronoun
Rep. Representative
Repub. Republican
R.M. Royal Marines
R.N. Royal Navy
Ro. (_Recto_) Right-hand page
Rom. Cath. Roman Catholic
R.P. (_Res Publica_) Republic
Ru. Runic
S. Solo (_In Italian Music_); South
S. SS. Section(s), Saint(s)
S.a. (_Secundum artem_) According to Art
Sax. Saxon
S.C. (_Senatus Consultum_) A decree of the Senate
S.C. (_In Law_) same case
Sch. Schooner(s)
Schol. (_Scholium_) a note
Sci. Science
Sculp. (_Sculpsit_) he engraved
S.E. Southeast
Sen. Senate, Senator
Seq. or sq. (_Sequente_) and in what follows
Seqq. or sqq. (_Sequentibus_) and in the following (places)
Ser. Series
Shak. Shakespeare
Sing. Singular (number)
S.J.C. Supreme Judicial Court
S. lat. South latitude
S.O.S. Marconi Distress Signal
S.P. (_Sine prole_) without issue
Sp. gr. Specific gravity
{33}
S.P.Q.R. (_Senatus Populusque Romanus_) the Senate and the Roman
people
S.R.I. (_Sacrum Romanum Imperium_) The Holy Roman Empire
S.R.S. (_Societatis Regiæ Socius_) Fellow of the Royal Society
S.S. Sunday School
S.S.E. South-southeast
S.S.W. South-southwest
St. Saint, Street
Stat. Statute(s)
Ster. Sterling
Subj. Subjunctive
Subst. Substantive
Su.-Goth. Suio-Gothic
Super. Superfine
Superl. Superlative
S.W. Southwest
T. Tenor (_in music_); (_Tutti_) the whole orchestra after a
solo
Ter. Territory
Term. Termination
Theor. Theorem
Tr. Translator, transpose
Um. Unmarried
Univ. University
U.S.A. United States Army
U.S.M. United States Mail
U.S.N. United States Navy
U.S.S. United States Ship
U.s. (_Ut supra_) as above
Vat. Vatican
V.a. Verb active
V. aux. Verb auxiliary
V. def. Verb defective
V. dep. Verb deponent
Ven. Venerable
{34}
V.g. (_Verbi gratia_) for example
V. imp. Verb impersonal
V. in. Verb intransitive
V. irr. Verb irregular
V.n. Verb neuter
Vo. (_verso_) left-hand page
Voc. Vocative
Vol. Volume
V.r. Verb reflexive
V. tr. Verb transitive
V. Vulgate (Version)
W. West, wife
W. lon. West longitude
W.N.W. West-northwest
W.S.W. West-southwest
Xmas Christmas
Zool. Zoology

* * * * *

{35}

SIGNS

In addition to the abbreviations, strictly so called, there are many signs used in various kinds of composition. The most common are included in the following lists.

MONETARY SIGNS

$ Dollar or dollars
cts. Cents
Gn. Guinea
£ (_English_) Pound or pounds
/ or s Shilling or shillings
d. (_Denarius_) penny or pence
fr. Franc or francs
c. (_French_) Centime or centimes
m. (_German_) Mark or marks
Pf. (_German_) Pfennig or pfennigs
cr. (_Austrian_) Crown or crowns
hr. (_Austrian_) Heller or hellers
rub. (_Russian_) Ruble or rubles
kop. (_Russian_) Kopec or kopecs
kr. (_Danish_) Crown or crowns
öro, öre Oro or öre
£ (_Italian_) Lira or lire
c. (_Italian_) Centesimo or centesimi

MATHEMATICAL SIGNS

+ Plus
- Minus
± Plus or minus
[**] Minus or plus
× Multiplied by
{36}
÷ Divided by
= Equal to
[**] Not equal to
[**] Identical with
[**] Congruent to
> Greater than
< Less than
[**] The difference between
[**] Is equivalent to
: and :: Proportion
[**] Varies as
[**] Approaches as a limit
[**] Infinity
[**] Therefore
[**] Because
. . . Continuation
[**] The radical sign
[**] Perpendicular to
[**] Parallel
[**] Arc of circle
[**] Degree of circle
[**] Minute of circle
[**] Second of circle
[**] Angle
[**] Right angle
[**] Square
[**] Rectangle
[**] Triangle

MEDICAL SIGNS

ãã (_ava_) of each
[**] (_Recipe_) take
[**], [**]i Ounce, one ounce
[**]ss Half an ounce
[**]iss One ounce and a half
[**]ij Two ounces
[**] Drachm
[**] Scruple
O (_Octarius_) Pint
[**] Fluid ounce
[**] Fluid Drachm
_m_ Minim or drop

{37}

ASTRONOMICAL SIGNS

Planets

[**] Sun [**] Earth [**] Saturn
[**] Mercury [**] Mars [**] Uranus
[**] Venus [**] Jupiter [**] Neptune

Phases

[**] New moon [**] first quarter [**] full moon
[**] last quarter

Zodiacal

[**] Aries, the ram [**] Libra, the scales
[**] Taurus, the bull [**] Scorpio, scorpion
[**] Gemini, the twins [**] Sagittarius, archer
[**] Cancer, the crab [**] Capricornus, goat
[**] Leo, the lion [**] Aquarius, waterman
[**] Virgo, the virgin [**] Pisces, the fishes

Aspects and Nodes

[**] Conjunction [**] opposition
[**] Quadrature [**] or [**] quintile
[**] Ascending node [**] sextile
[**] Descending node [**] trine

ECCLESIASTICAL SIGNS

[**] The Maltese cross is used before their signatures by
certain dignitaries of the Roman Catholic Church.
It is also used in the service-books of that church to
notify the reader when to make the sign of the cross.
The ordinary reference mark [dagger] (the dagger) should
not be used as a substitute.

[**] Response in service-books. The apothecaries' sign [**]
is not an entirely acceptable substitute.

[**] Versicle in service-books.

[**] indicates the words intoned by the celebrant.

{38}

PROOFREADER'S SIGNS

No ¶ No new paragraph.
Run in Let there be no break in the reading.
¶ Make a new paragraph.
[**] Correct uneven spacing of words.
[**] Strike out the marked type, word, or sentence.
[**] Reverse this type.
# More space where caret is marked,
[**] Contract the spacing.
[**] Take out all spacing.
[ Move this to the left.
] Move this to the right.
[**] Raise this line or letter.
[**] Depress this line or letter.
|| Make parallel at the side with other lines.
[**] Indent line an em.
[**] Push down a space that blackens the proof.
x Change this bruised type.
w.f. Change this faulty type of wrong font.
tr. Transpose words or letters underlined.
l.c. Put in lower-case, or small letters.
s.c. Put in small capitals.
caps. Put in capitals.
[**] Insert apostrophe. Superior characters are put over an
inverted caret, as, [**] [**] etc.; for inferior
characters the caret is put in its usual position, as
in [**].
rom. Change from italic to roman.
ital. Change from roman to italic.
[**] Insert period.
,/ Insert comma.
;/ Insert semicolon.
:/ Insert colon.
=/ Insert hyphen.
/--/ One-em dash.
/-²-/ Two-em dash.
[**] Take out cancelled character and close up.
{39}
Qu. or? Is this right? See to it.
^ Insert letter or word marked in margin.
|||| Hair-space letters as marked.
Stet Restore crossed-out word or letter.
. . . . Dots put below the crossed word mean:
Cancel the correction first made, and let the types stand
as they were.
[**] Over two or three letters. Change for the diphthong or
for a logotype, as _æ_, _ffi_.
[**] Straighten lines.
///// Diagonal lines crossing the text indicate that the
composition is out of square.
Out, see Copy Here is an omission; see copy.

Corrections or textual improvements suggested to the author should be accompanied by the interrogation-point and be enclosed in parentheses or "ringed."

Corrections should always be made in the margin, and never in the text: faults in the types or text to be indicated only by light pen marks.

* * * * *

{40}

GENERAL OBSERVATIONS

There are many other signs and abbreviations used in works on the various sciences. Approved modern text-books are the only safe guides to the proper use of these.

In printing dialect, slang, and colloquialisms the only general rule is to follow copy.

Such abbreviations as _I've_, _you'll_, _'t'was_, _'t'is n't_, and the like are more clearly expressed when a thin space is put between the words.

Old Style contractions should follow the original even if special sorts have to be obtained for the purpose.

Abbreviations like _dept_, _dep't_, _gov't_, _sec_, _sec'y_, _sect'y_, _pres't_, and _treas._ are indefensible. Even in letter heads and the like it is better to spell out the words in two lines.

* * * * *

{41}

SUPPLEMENTARY READING

Correct Composition. By Theodore Low De Vinne. Oswald Publishing Co.,
New York.

The Writer's Desk Book. By William Dana Orcutt.

The list of abbreviations and signs in many of the principal
dictionaries may be studied with profit.

Scientific text-books may be profitably used to study the abbreviations
and signs used in mathematics and the sciences.

* * * * *

{42}

QUESTIONS

1. How and why were abbreviations used before typography?
2. How did the early printers use abbreviations?
3. What is the best usage with regard to abbreviations?
4. What is the general rule for the use of abbreviations?
5. What is the difference in usage between book work and some other kinds
of printing?
6. What use of abbreviations do we find in certain special work and what
may be done to make their use easier?
7. What are the rules for the use of abbreviations in dates?
8. What are the common abbreviations for the names of the months and the
days of the week?
9. Give the Dewey dates.
10. What is the rule for ages?
11. How do we treat references to decades?
12. How do we treat numbers of centuries and the like?
13. What is the rule for sums of money?
14. What is the rule for round numbers?
15. How do we treat numbers when they begin a sentence?
16. What is the rule about numbers of less than three digits?
17. What classes of numbers are ordinarily expressed in figures?
18. What is the usage with regard to geographical names?
19. What are the rules for names?
20. What is the usage in printing titles?
21. How do we treat names of book sizes?
22. How do we treat weights and measures?
23. Give the order of specification in footnotes.
24. Where is &c not used?
25. How are by-laws treated?
{43}
26. How are figures used with illustrations?
27. What is said of the use of the period in footnotes?
28. How do we treat page references in the text?
29. How do we treat references to series of years?
30. How do we print dialect, slang, and the like?
31. How do we print such abbreviations as _I've_, _you've_, and the like?
32. What is said of certain improper abbreviations and how to avoid them?

The teacher should give frequent drills in the application of these
rules. Sentences containing matter which involves the use of
abbreviations and signs should be given out orally and the pupil
required to write them out and set them up. The pupil should be
required to explain by reference to the rules the use and the omission
of abbreviations and the work should be criticised by the class or by
the instructor with reference to the rules.

* * * * *

{i}

TYPOGRAPHIC TECHNICAL SERIES FOR APPRENTICES

The following list of publications, comprising the TYPOGRAPHIC TECHNICAL SERIES FOR APPRENTICES, has been prepared under the supervision of the Committee on Education of the United Typothetae of America for use in trade classes, in course of printing instruction, and by individuals.

Each publication has been compiled by a competent author or group of authors, and carefully edited, the purpose being to provide the printers of the United States--employers, journeymen, and apprentices--with a comprehensive series of handy and inexpensive compendiums of reliable, up-to-date information upon the various branches and specialties of the printing craft, all arranged in orderly fashion for progressive study.

The publications of the series are of uniform size, 5 × 8 inches. Their general make-up, in typography, illustrations, etc., has been, as far as practicable, kept in harmony throughout. A brief synopsis of the particular contents and other chief features of each volume will be found under each title in the following list.

Each topic is treated in a concise manner, the aim being to embody in each publication as completely as possible all the rudimentary information and essential facts necessary to an understanding of the subject. Care has been taken to make all statements accurate and clear, with the purpose of bringing essential information within the understanding of beginners in the different fields of study. Wherever practicable, simple and well-defined drawings and illustrations have been used to assist in giving additional clearness to the text.

In order that the pamphlets may be of the greatest possible help for use in trade-school classes and for self-instruction, each title is accompanied by a list of Review Questions covering essential items of the subject matter. A short Glossary of technical terms belonging to the subject or department treated is also added to many of the books.

These are the Official Text-books of the United Typothetae of America.

Address all orders and inquiries to COMMITTEE ON EDUCATION, UNITED TYPOTHETAE OF AMERICA, CHICAGO, ILLINOIS, U. S. A. {ii}