Chapter XXI: Appendix: I. the Name ácoma (2)

[204] “The conception of deities is quite clearly due to shamanistic systematization.... It is very rare to find any belief in a single supreme deity; when it does occur it is a thoroughly shamanistic construction out of some popular belief.”—Franz Boas, _Mythology and Folk-Lore of North American Indians_, _Journal of American Folk-Lore_, Vol. XVII, 1914. See Appendix X.

[205] _Second Annual Report_, Bureau of American Ethnology, p. 11.

[206] “The most highly developed priesthood north of Mexico is among the Pueblos of New Mexico and Arizona where it controls the civil and military branches of the tribe, transforming it into a theocratic oligarchy.”—Swanton, _Handbook of American Indians_, Pt. II, p. 523.

[207] Frazer, _The Golden Bough_ (abridged edition, 1922), pp. 61-80.

[208] Kroeber, _Anthropology_, p. 368.

[209] The placing of “symbolic objects so that they convey the wishes of the worshipper to the Powers,” is found only among the Pueblos (Franz Boas, _Mythology and Folk-Tales, Journal of American Folk-Lore_, Vol. XVII).

[210] See Appendix XI.

[211] Cushing, Fewkes, _et al._, _Second Annual Report_, Bureau of American Ethnology. See Appendix XII.

[212] One of the finest petroglyphs as yet found is at Tscherige, on the north side of the Pajarito Plateau. It is the plumed serpent, seven feet long, etched on the rock by a stone tool.

[213] Brinton has an interesting passage on this subject in his _Myths of the New World_.

[214] H. K. Haeberlein, _The Idea of Fertilization in Pueblos, Memoirs of the Anthropological Association_.

[215] Pliny E. Goddard, _The Masked Dancers of the Apache_.

[216] Brinton, _Myths of the New World_, Chapter V; Fynn, _The American Indian as a Product of Environment_, pp. 186-188.

[217] Mrs. Zelia Nuttall, _Old and New World Civilizations_. See Appendix XIII.

[218] The _Shiwanna_ are masked dancers representing cloud spirits or rain-makers. The oldest of all esoteric fraternities.

[219] Father Noël Dumarest, _Notes on Cochití_, translated and edited by Elsie Clews Parsons in _Memoirs of the American Anthropological Association_, Vol. VI, 1920.

[220] Dumarest, pp. 164, 165.

[221] A. M. Espinosa, articles on Witchcraft in _New Mexican Spanish Folk-Lore, Journal of American Folk-Lore_, Vol. XXIII, 1910, and Vol. XXIX, 1916.

[222] _Eleventh Annual Report_, Bureau of American Ethnology, p. 73.

[223] In North America the shamanistic theory is purely animistic; whether or not anthropomorphic seems to be relatively of small consequence (Franz Boas, _Mythology and Folk-Tales, Journal of American Folk-Lore_, Vol. VII).

[224] Paul Radin, _The Religion of the North American Indian_, _Journal of American Folk-Lore_, Vol. XXVII, 1914.

[225] Bancroft, _History of the United States_, Vol. II, p. 423.

[226] In southeastern Europe ceremonies are observed to-day for the purpose of making rain (Frazer, _The Golden Bough_, abridged edition, p. 69).

[227] Mrs. Matilda Coxe Stevenson, _Monograph on the Religious Life of the Zuñi Child, Fifth Annual Report_, Bureau of American Ethnology.

[228] H. B. Alexander, Introduction to _North American_, in _Mythology of all Races_, Vol. I, p. xvi.

[229] See Cushing, _Creation of Corn, Annual Report_, Bureau of American Ethnology, Vol. XIII, pp. 376, 377.

[230] _Journal of Ethnology and Archaeology_, Vol. II, p. 5.

[231] Introduction, _The Path on the Rainbow_, edited by G. W. Cronyn.

[232] Fasting is _par excellence_ the characteristic method of superinducing religious feeling in order to bring about a state of mind in which the world of sense-impressions was shut out and in which auto-suggestion or hallucinations were predominant (Boas).

For one ceremony at Taos eighteen months of self-isolation is exacted of the priests, when no message from family or home is permitted, whatever the emergency.

[233] “Whenever anyone is being named anew, or assuming a new personality or office he is invariably sprinkled or washed that he be cleanly revealed and the better recommended in his new guise and character to the gods and spirits invoked for the occasion.”—Cushing, _Thirteenth Annual Report_, Bureau of American Ethnology, p. 335.

Hair-washing is an indispensable preliminary of almost all Pueblo ceremonials. Hair-clipping of boys has been almost unknown. When, for any reason it was done, the cuttings were burned; if thrown out, it was thought that health and fortune had been scattered to the four winds. But now that the Indian children are sent to American schools in distant cities, one sees many boys and young men with the familiar “military cut.”

[234] Elsie Clews Parsons, _Anthropological Papers_, American Museum of Natural History, Vol. XIX, Pt. 4, 1920.

[235] _American Anthropologist_, Elsie Clews Parsons, Vols. XVII, XVIII, XIX, XX; _Man_, December, 1917, March, November, 1919; _Anthropological Papers_, American Museum of Natural History, Vol. XIX, Pt. V; _Memoirs of American Anthropological Association_, Vol. VI, No. 3, 1920; _Journal of American Folk-Lore_, Vol. XXXI.

[236] _American Anthropologist_, Vol. XVI, 1914.

[237] _Eleventh Annual Report_, Bureau of American Ethnology.

[238] Fewkes says that, while it is as yet impossible to determine the priority of Tusayán or Keresan snake dances, he is positive that the songs and incantations are more ancient than other elements of that ceremonial. “Legends say that the Snake dance is the Cult of the oldest people of Tusayán”; which means, among other things, “that the original Tusayán Cult has kinship with that of the Keresan, the oldest of the linguistic stocks of the pueblos.”—_Comparison of Sía and Tusayán Ceremonials, American Anthropologist_, Vol. VIII, April, 1892, p. 132.

[239] Best description in G. W. James, New Mexico, _Land of Delight Makers_.

[240] The officiating priest lives at Laguna, and goes to Ácoma only for the Feast of St. Stephen and on All Souls’ Day; but he is at the farm-colony of Acomita twice every month.

[241] _Journal of American Folk-Lore_, Vol. XXXI. Apparently a somewhat movable _fiesta_, always announced four days in advance by the Saint’s Crier. He also calls out that now it is time to bring in the wood. A portion of whatever is cooked that day is thrown on the house fire for _ahappa awan tewa_ (“the dead their day”). These words, by the way, are Zuñi in origin.

[242] _Ibid._, Vol. XXII.

[243] _Journal of American Folk-Lore_, Vol. XXXI.

[244] This dance and ceremony are fully described by Dr. Elsie Clews Parsons, in _American Anthropologist_, Vol. XX, N.S., 1918.

[245] _American Anthropologist_, Vol. XX, N. S., 1918.

[246] Stevenson, _Eleventh Annual Report_, Bureau of American Ethnology, pp. 14, 67.

[247] Stewart Culin in _Twenty-fourth Annual Report_, Bureau of American Ethnology, 1902-03.

[248] Culin, pp. 119-124.

[249] Hodge, _American Anthropologist_, Vol. III, 1890. Owens, _Popular Science Monthly_, Vol. XXXIX, 1891. Stevenson, _American Anthropologist_, n.s., Vol. V, 1903.

[250] _The Gallo Race_, in Lummis, _A New Mexican David_.

[251] John G. Owens writes that on the banks of the Zuñi River “you will behold a sight which for genuine mirth and romp will surpass any Eastern park for children. The stream less than ten feet wide winds through a sandy river-bed, which is the chief playground of the Zuñi child.” This spirit of play stays with the boys in later life but the girls age very rapidly—“the transition is from joyous frolicsome girlhood to sedate sober womanhood” after they are 13 to 14 years old. (_Popular Science Monthly_, Vol. XXXIX, 1891.)

[252] _American Anthropologist_, Vol. V, n.s., 1903.

[253] Culin, _Twenty-fourth Annual Report_, Bureau of American Ethnology.

[254] Bandelier, _Final Report_, Pt. I, p. 295.

[255] Clark Wissler, _The American Indian_, p. 68.

[256] W. H. Holmes, _Fourth Annual Report_, Bureau of American Ethnology, 1882-83.

[257] H. W. Henshaw, _Second Annual Report_, Bureau of American Ethnology, p. 124.

[258] Boas thinks representative decorative art, and geometric decoration are indications of two different sources of artistic activity which tend to merge into a development of graphic and plastic arts.

[259] _Fourth Annual Report_, Bureau of American Ethnology, p. 445.

[260] _Fourth Annual Report_, Bureau of American Ethnology, p. 510 (section on Decorative Symbolism).

[261] _Ibid._

[262] Fewkes, _Twenty-second Annual Report_, and _Thirty-third Annual Report_, Bureau of American Ethnology.

[263] _Second Annual Report_, Bureau of American Ethnology, 1880-81.

[264] See Hodge, _Handbook of American Indians_, 1902.

[265] See Wissler, _The American Indian_, pp. 239-241.

[266] President’s address, 1911, New York Academy of Sciences.

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INDEX

INDEX

Abert, Lieutenant, cited on friendly attitude of Ácomas, 140.

Ácoma (Peñol), 14-19, 218;
dwellings on, 19-21;
industries, 21-22, 159;
cisterns on, 25-26, 122;
trails, 27-29;
church, 34-39, 128;
historical evidences of, 56, 58, 60-61, 63;
Espéjo’s description of, 65;
Oñate’s visit, 74;
taken by the Spaniards, 80-85;
rebuilding of, 88-89;
Spanish administration of, 93, 97;
aloofness and isolation, 95, 140;
patron saint of, 104;
size of, in 1680, 115;
not active in revolt of that year, 115;
the coming of Vargas (1692), 118-122;
uprising and defeat (1696), 123-126;
hostility to the mission, etc., 127-128;
dispute with Laguna over painting of San José, 128-132;
education in, under the Federal government, 139-140;
the Bursum Bill, 143,
and the appeal of the Ácomas, 144-146;
racial origin relationships, 157, 162-164, 197;
origin of pueblo, 157-159;
rock-paintings and carvings at, 161;
details concerning, in creation story, 164;
present population, 164;
folk-tales from, 198-208;
corn clans of, 247;
ritual celebrations at, 253-260.
_See also_ St. Stephen, Trails.

Ácoma Indians. _See_ Pueblo Indians.

Acomita, farm-lands at, 33;
summer migration to, of Ácoma (Pueblo) Indians, 159.

Agüelo (grandfather), 223.

A-Ko-Kai-Obi, Hopi name for Ácoma, 163.

All Souls’ Day, 257.

Alvarado, first white man to see Ácoma, 16, 57-60.

Amaya, Doña Casilda de, first white woman to enter New Mexico, 64.

Animism, 242.

Apache Indian, influence of, in the Southwest, 9 n.

Architecture, among the “Pueblo Arts,” 156.

Art, Pueblo, 156, 161;
sand (dry) painting, 163.
_See_ also Architecture, Pottery.

Awanyu, plumed serpent, 233.

Ayeta, Father, 113;
part played by, in Pueblo Revolt of 1680, 114-115.

Bibliography, 299.

Bird cult, 233-234.

Bolton, Dr. H. E., acknowledgment to, viii;
first use of Espéjo’s narrative, 65;
unpublished translation of an anonymous diarist, 85-87;
missions as agents of the State, 88, 92.

Buffalo, “humpbacked cow,” discovery of, 58, 61.

Burial, among the Pueblo Indians, 39 and n., 40-42.

Bursum Bill, 143-144.

Cacique (Kasik), tenure of office, 186;
duties, 186-187, 224;
chosen by, and from Antelope Clan, 188, 189.

Caypa (San Juan de los Caballeros), 73.

Cedar Brew, in purification ritual, 41.

Ceremonies (Ceremonials) among the Pueblo Indians, color scarlet in
relation to, 39 n.;
election, United States represented in, 135,
description of, 189-190;
effect of white man’s contempt for, 143;
purpose, 152, 247-250;
Snake, 163, 233, 246, 255;
sacerdotal functions of war chiefs, 187;
prerogatives of Antelope Clan, 188;
purification (1864), 190,
story of, 191-192;
Santu, 221-222;
christening, 222;
priesthoods, 229,
origin, 231;
Painted Altar, 231;
fertilization, psychological characteristic of, 234-235, 263;
underlying motives, 245-246;
classification of, 247-248;
hunts, 252;
friendship, 255;
All Souls’ Day, 257;
Christmas, 258;
uses of pottery in, 276.

Chamuscado, Francisco Sanchez, with Rodríguez’ expedition, 62.

_Cheani_, 40, 40 n. 2.

Child-sacrifice, 220.

Children in the Pueblos, christening of, 222-223;
obedience of, 223;
participation in dance, 260.

Christianity, Indians’ attitude toward, 132.

Cíbola, discovery of, 61.

Clan, or Kinship, priority of, in pueblo social organization, 177,
180;
clans grouped in pairs, 178;
Kroeber’s differentiation of family and clan, 178;
relation of clan to fraternity, 180-182.

Clans, ranking of, 188;
maternal, and exogamous among Ácomas, 221.

Cliff dwellings, _vs._ those on level soil, priority of, 151.

_Colchones_, 22.

Color, scarlet, relation to burial wrappings and ceremonials, 39 n. 1.

Color-symbols, of respective six “points of the compass,” 214, 247.

Colorado River, discovery of, 61.

Corchado, Fray Andres, missionary to Ácoma, 93.

Corn (maize), ceremonial motive, 246.

Corn Clans of Ácoma, 247.

Coronado, expedition of, 57-61.

Creation story, 212-216;
Ácoma detail in, 164.

Cross, symbol, 237-239;
below the Rock of Ácoma, 239.

Culture-hero myth, 216.

December ceremonial at Ácoma, a complex of Christian and pagan
customs, 258-260.

Diary, account of Oñate’s expedition, 85-86.

Duality of the American Indian, 224, 235.

Early Chroniclers, 14.

Education of the Pueblo Indian:
under the padres, 138;
under Mexico, 138;
under United States government, 139-140.

El Paso, the Crossing, first home of European drama in the
Southwest, 72.

Encomenderos, and encomienda system, 90.

Espéjo, Antonio de, expeditions of, 64-67;
opened third pathway to New Mexico, 66.

Estévan, negro (“Black Mexican”), 52-53;
death of, 54.

Estufas, 45;
educational and council uses of, 48;
distinction between, and _Kiva_, 48-49.

Family, differentiated from clan, 178-179;
the family a partnership, 184;
marriage and divorce, 184-185.

Fasts, 248.

Federal government. _See_ United States.

Fetishes, strong influence of, in Pueblo Indian organization,
182-183, 230-234.

Folk-tales defined, 194;
scanty contribution of Pueblo Indians, 196;
of Ácoma, 198-208.
_See also_ Myths.

Four, the number a sacred symbol, 236-237.

Fraternity (phratry), relation of, to clan, 180-182;
function of, 181.

Gallo Race, 268-269.

Games, Indians’ devotion to, 262-263;
underlying socio-religious significance, 263-264, 271;
purpose and periods of, 263-264;
disciplinary training of, 264-265;
two kinds of—chance and dexterity, 265-267, 269;
of native origin, 266;
implements used in, and derivation of, 266;
ball-race, 267;
shinny (by women only), 268;
Gallo race, 268;
cat’s cradle, 270.

Gaming, Indians’ passion for, 262-263.

_Gave_, 21.

Grand Cañon, discovery of, 61.

_Ha-chamoni_, 40 n. 3.

_Hamaha_, 31.

Háwikuh, 55-56.

_Hewe_, 21 n. 2.

_Hoinawe_, 41.

Hopi Indians, racial relationships, 161-164.

Inscription Rock, 6.

_Gonad del Muerto_, 96.

_Kahera_, 32.

Kasik, Keres form of Cacique, 42 n. 1.
_See also_ Cacique.

K’at’sina or Katsina, or Cachina, 186, 235.

Katzímo (Enchanted mesa or Mesa Encantada), the “accursed,” 15, 118,
159, 166;
legend of, 167-168;
ritual performances at, 169-170;
present-day knowledge of, 170-175;
ascents of, by Hodge and by Libbey, 171-174;
elevation of, 173;
proofs of human occupation of, 175.

Keres (Queres), kindred nations, 157, n. 1;
priesthoods of, 229.

Keresans, racial origin, 157, 161-164.

Kinship, place of, in pueblo social organization, 177-180.

Kisi, description of, 49.

Kivas, 45-49;
number, 45;
forms, 46;
signification of, 46;
educational uses, 47-48;
distinction between, and estufas, 48;
not temples, 49.

_Komanina_ (long house), 260.

Laguna, 15,
founded, 129;
church, decoration of, 36;
hostility to missionary, 127;
rivalry with Ácoma over painting of San José, 128-132;
Santu a male deity in her cult, 221.

Lightning, symbol of serpent, 232.

Lincoln, President, presentation of official cane to Indian Pueblo
governors, 134-135.

Maize. _See_ Corn.

Mendoza, Antonio de, Viceroy, 52.

Mesa Prieta, 27 n. 2.

Mesas, 4 n.

Metates, corn-grinding trough, 21.

Monster Viper, Myth, 219.

Montezuma, god of the Pueblos, 216 n. 3, 218.

Myths, 209-220;
universality of a myth, 209;
explanatory: (1) inclusive, (2) particularistic, 210-211;
ritualization of, 212-215;
culture-hero, 216;
in connection with children, 221-224.

Navajo Indian, the, 9;
Commissioner Leupp’s comment on white man’s attitude toward, 142.

Navajo Reservation, 7.

New Mexico, formal Spanish possession of, 72;
missions and missionaries in, 94-96, 102;
made a _custodio_ and named for San Pablo, 94;
pueblos of, 135.
_See also_ Pueblo Revolt of 1680, Sedentary Indians, United States.

Niza, Marcos de, 52, 54, 56.

Oñate, 6 n.;
founder of New Mexico, 67;
expedition of, 69-85;
diary, 85, 86;
his marriage connections, 69;
official titles, 71;
revenge taken on Ácomas, 79-85.

Padilla, Fray Juan de, proto-martyr of the north, 57.

Painted altar, ceremonial trait, 231.

Parentalia, 248.

Pecos (Cicuyé), 57, 218.

Peñol, “the Crag.” _See_ Ácoma.

Pictographs, expression of Pueblo art, 156.

Piki, 21 n. 2.

Plains Indians, contrasted with Sedentary Indians, 155, 156.

Popé, Indian instigator of Pueblo Revolt of 1680, 107-110;
his chief assistants, 109;
brief victory, 116;
death, 117.

Pottery, art of, a determinator of time relations, 150;
evidences of, at Katzímo, 171, 174;
Thunder Bird motif in, 210;
historical sketch of, in the Southwest, 272;
the three pre-Columbian groups, 273-274;
first incentive toward, 274;
development of, 275, 278;
use of color, 277-278;
vessels set aside for ceremonial uses, 276;
personality ascribed to, 279;
decoration of, free-hand, but not haphazard, 280;
fuel for firing, 281;
importance of, in search for race origins, 284.

Pueblo, significance of word, 149 n. 1;
Terraced, 19.

Pueblo (Ácoma) Indians, compared with Plains Indians, 10, 12, 217;
dwellings of, 19-20;
separateness of, family or clan, 20;
industries, 21-22, 282;
dress, 23-25;
self-respect, 31;
cleanliness, 33;
evidences of American influence, 33;
lack of domestic animals, 155;
annual summer migration to Acomita, 159;
clans, maternal and exogamous, 221;
children, birth, christening, 221-223.

Political and civil organization, 50;
relation to Federal government, 135;
republican in form, 177;
theocratic, 182, 185;
property relations, 182;
based on fetishism, 182-183;
officials and their duties, 185-189;
election of officers, and their installation, 189-190.
_See also_ Ceremonies, Education, Lincoln, United States, World War.

Pueblo Indians, Social organization, in Stone Age, at time of Spanish
Conquest, 277.
_See also_ Ácoma, Burial, Ceremonies, Education, Myths, etc.

Pueblo region, extent of, 148.

Pueblo Revolt of 1680, 106-117;
in 1696, 123-126.
_See also_ Ayeta.

Ramírez, Fray Juan, 28;
the church he built, 34-39, 103;
Apostle of Ácoma, 96;
brief sketch of, 99-102;
death and burial, 104.

Rituals (religious beliefs), purification, 41, 247;
foot-race, 55;
sand mosaics, 163;
myths ritualized, 212-215, 221-224;
increase of children, 221;
elaborate organization of, 225;
myth and religion, 226-227;
sun-worship, 227;
contemplative quality of, 227;
Nature, the Great Spirit, 228;
priesthoods, 229;
classification of, 247-248;
at Ácoma, 252-253, 255;
Smoking an essential element, 50, 274.
_See also_ Bird, Ceremonies, Estufa, Fetish, Katzímo, Kisi, Kiva,
Serpent, etc.

Rodríguez, Fray Agustin, expedition of, 62-64.

St. Stephen (San Estévan), church of, 34, 103, 104, 121;
feast-day of, 256.
_See also_ Ramírez, Vargas.

Salt, need of, a motive for migration, 148.

San Gabriel, headquarters of Oñate, 89.

San José, miracle-working painting of, 36, 130;
rivalry for, between Ácoma and Laguna, 128, 132.

San Juan de los Caballeros (Caypa), second permanent colony in the
United States, 73.

Sierra de San Mateo, mountain sacred to Keres people, 27.

San Pablo (New Mexico), 94.

San Pedro, patron saint of Ácoma church for short time, 37, 128.

Sanchez, Mrs. N. V., acknowledgment to, 196.

Sand painting (dry mosaics), 164.

Santa Fé, founded, 89.

Santa María, fate of, 63.

Santu Cult, male deity, 221.

_Saukin_, Ácoma word for friend, 255.

Sedentary Indians of New Mexico, 14 n.;
contrast between and the nomad or Plains Indians, 155-156.

Serpent cult, 231-233.

Shamans (Shamanism), 241-242, 248.

Shoshonean, racial relationships, 161.

Sía (Zía, Tsía), nearest of kin to Ácoma as tribe, 157, 158.

Si-pa-pu, place of emergence for all created beings, 40, 41, 46, 215;
“north of Taos,” 167 n., 234;
the path to heaven, 215.

Six “points of the compass,” 213-214;
separate color-symbols of, 214.

Smoking and ceremonials, 57, 274.

Songs, universal in Indian life and worship, 195, 250;
corn-grinding, 21;
of the corn-people, 195.

Spanish administration of the New World, 90-93.

Spier, Dr. Leslie, acknowledgment to, viii.

Swastika, 238.

Sweat-bath, 248.

Mt. Taylor (Spi-nat), 27 n. 1.

Thunder-Bird, myth of, 210.

Time, the reckoning of, 253.

To-ya-la-na, Thunder Mountain, shrine of the Zuñi, 261.

Trails from the mesa of Ácoma, 27-29;
Burro, 29;
Camino del Padre, constructed by Ramírez, 104;
Deadman’s, 28, 192;
Ladder, 23;
New, 29;
Runner’s, 28, 192;
Split, 27, 29;
Staircase, 29.

Treviño, Spanish governor of New Mexico, 107.

Tupatú, Popé’s assistant in 1680, 109, 117.

United States, the second permanent settlement in, 73;
relations with Pueblo government represented in election ceremony,
134, 135;
Reports of Indian Commissioners quoted, 136-139, 142;
educational statistics, 139-140;
increasing hostility and misunderstanding between the two, 140-144,
254;
danger and tragedy in the Bursum Bill, 143-144;
“Appeal of the Ácomas,” 144-146.

_Utinat_, 24.

Vaca, Cabeza de, 51.

Vargas, General Diego de, reconquest of New Mexico, 117-126;
submission of Ácoma to, 118-122;
his description of the shrine of St. Stephen, 121;
final conquest of, 125-126.

_Vigas_, 20, 27, 38.

Villagrá, Gaspar de, soldier and poet, 69-70;
adventure at Ácoma, 75-76, 82, 84;
his famous leap, 30.

Walpi, 11, 255;
the tie between, and Ácoma, 162.

Witchcraft, 153.

Witches, 239.

World-War, and the Pueblo Indians, 137-138, 215.

Zaldívar, Vicente de, leader of attack on Ácoma, 80-85.

Zárate Salmerón, Father, missionary and historian, 93-94;
visits Ácoma, 93.

Zuñi (and Ácoma), 198;
Zuñi name for Keres, means “Drinkers of the Dew,” 157.

Zutucapán, cacique of Ácoma, 75-76;
plans foiled to murder Oñate, 76;
attack on Spaniards with Zaldívar, 77-78.