Chapter II: Part III: Aëronautic Meteorology

XIII.—GENERAL PROPERTIES OF FREE AIR 347

XIV.—GENERAL DISTRIBUTION OF HEAT AND PRESSURE 363

XV.—PERMANENT AND PERIODIC WINDS 376

XVI.—CYCLONES, TORNADOES, WATERSPOUTS 394

XVII.—THUNDERSTORMS, WIND GUSTS 422

APPENDICES

I.—STRESS IN A VACUUM BALLOON 443

II.—AËRONAUTIC LETTERS OF BENJAMIN FRANKLIN 446

III.—SUCCESSFUL MILITARY DIRIGIBLE BALLOONS 456

IV.—THE RELATIONS OF WEIGHT, SPEED, AND POWER OF FLYERS 478

V.—CURTISS’ HYDRO-AËROPLANE EXPERIMENTS 481

INDEX 487

LIST OF PLATES

FACING
PAGE

PLATE I 66
Glaisher and Coxwell.
Parseval Kite Balloon.

PLATE II 98
Haenlein’s Gas-driven Dirigible.
Wölfert’s Benzine-driven Dirigible.
Santos-Dumont’s Dirigible, _No. 16_.

PLATE III 116
The _Lebaudy_.
_La Patrie._
Lebaudy’s _Morning Post_.

PLATE IV 124
_La Ville de Paris._
_Colonel Renard._

PLATE V 128
_Zodiac III._
_Zodiac IV._

PLATE VI 130
_La Belgique._
Italian Military Dirigible _No. I bis_.

PLATE VII 132
_Clément-Bayard I._
_Clément-Bayard II._

PLATE VIII 138
_U. S. Signal Corps Dirigible I._
_Gross II._

PLATE IX 140
_Parseval I._
_Parseval II._

PLATE X 146
_Gross III._
Zeppelin Airship Structure.

PLATE XI 160
Zeppelin Dirigible Resting on the Water.
Zeppelin Dirigible over Zürich.

PLATE XII 182
Henson’s Aëroplane.
Ader’s Aëroplane.

PLATE XIII 186
Stringfellow’s Aëroplane (Front).
Stringfellow’s Aëroplane (Side).

PLATE XIV 192
Phillips’s Tethered Aëroplane.
Phillips’s Aëroplane.

PLATE XV 194
Langley’s Steam Model.
Langley’s Gasoline Model.
Langley’s Two Surface Gasoline Model.

PLATE XVI 212
Lilienthal’s Monoplane Glider.
Lilienthal’s Biplane Glider.
Pilcher’s Monoplane Glider.

PLATE XVII 218
Chanute’s Five-Deck Glider.
Herring in Chanute Biplane.
Herring’s Compressed-air Biplane.

PLATE XVIII 226
Maxim’s Aëroplane.
Langley’s Large Aëroplane.

PLATE XIX 246
First Wright Glider.
Second Wright Glider.

PLATE XX 248
First Wright Aëroplane (Rear).
First Wright Aëroplane (Side).

PLATE XXI 252
Montgomery’s Aëroplane.

PLATE XXII 258
Santos-Dumont’s Biplane.
Santos-Dumont’s _Demoiselle_.

PLATE XXIII 260
Farman Biplane, 1908.
Farman Biplane, 1909.
Harmon in Farman Biplane.

PLATE XXIV 264
The _Red Wing_.
Curtiss Biplane.
Curtiss Biplane with Pontoons.

PLATE XXV 268
Blériot Flying Over Toury-Artenay Circuit.
Blériot Monoplane _No. VIII_.
Blériot Monoplane _No. IX_.

PLATE XXVI 272
Wright Biplane of 1908.
Standard Wright Biplane of 1910.
Wright Racing Biplane of 1910.

PLATE XXVII 286
_Blériot XI_ With Moisant Aviator on Mexican Border.
_Blériot XII._

PLATE XXVIII 288
_Antoinette_ Monoplane of 1909.
_Antoinette_ Monoplane of 1910.

PLATE XXIX 302
Esnault-Pélterie Monoplane, Early Pattern.
Esnault-Pélterie Monoplane of 1910.

PLATE XXX 304
Grade Monoplane.
Cody Biplane.

PLATE XXXI 332
Fabre Hydro-aëroplane.
Paulhan Hydro-aëroplane.
Moisant Metal Monoplane.

PLATE XXXII 482
Curtiss Starting from the Water.
Curtiss Biplane for Land and Water.
Curtiss Triplane Risen from the Water.

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS IN TEXT

FIG. PAGE

1.—Da Vinci’s designs for human flying-gear 9

2.—A possible air-scout 12

3.—Blanchard’s flying-machine 17

4.—Lana’s proposed vacuum balloon 24

5.—Montgolfier’s experimental balloon 34

6.—Charles’ first hydrogen balloon 36

7.—Montgolfier’s passenger balloon 39

8.—Charles’ passenger balloon 43

9.—La Flesselle 50

10.—_The Great Balloon of Nassau_ 55

11.—Car of Nadar’s balloon 61

12.—Diagram of a modern spherical balloon with ripping panel 75

13.—Blanchard’s dirigible balloon, 1784 80

14.—Robert Brothers’ dirigible, 1784 82

15.—General Meusnier’s proposed dirigible, 1784 85

16.—Rufus Porter’s dirigible, 1820 87

17.—Jullien’s model dirigible, 1850 88

18.—Giffard’s steam dirigible, 1852 89

19.—Dupuy de Lome’s dirigible, 1872 92

20.—Renard’s dirigible, _La France_, 1884 94

21.—_La Ville de Paris_ 121

22.—_Le Petit Journal_, Zodiac type 128

23.—_Clément-Bayard II_, 1910 133

24.—_Morning Post_ dirigible, 1910 135

25.—Route of British military dirigibles from France to England,
1900 137

26.—Da Vinci’s helicopter 175

27.—Da Vinci’s parachute 176

28.—Veranzio’s parachute 178

29.—Lenormand’s parachute, 1784 179

30.—Paper traveling parachute 181

31.—Wenham’s aëroplane, 1866 185

32.—Penaud’s aëroplane toy, 1871 187

33.—Tatin’s aëroplane model, 1879 188

34.—Hargrave’s model screw monoplane, 1891 190

35.—Hargrave’s kite 191

36.—Launoy and Bienvenu’s helicopter, 1784 198

37.—Forlanini’s helicopter, 1878 200

38.—Le Bris’ aëroplane, 1855 204

39.—Mouillard’s aëroplane 208

40.—Blériot’s Toury-Artenay aëroplane circuit, 1908 269

41.—Map of the “Circuit de l’Est” 330

42.—Diagram of Curtiss hydro-aëroplane 333

43.—The Etrich monoplane of 1910 336

44.—Summer and winter average vertical temperature gradients 369

45.—General circulation of the atmosphere 378

46.—Normal Wind direction and velocity for January and February
(Köppen) 381

47.—Normal Wind direction and velocity for July and August
(Köppen) 383

48.—Trade and counter-trade winds 384

49.—Velocity diagram in horizontal section of a cyclone 398

50.—Funnel-like cloud sometimes observed in a tornado 409

51.—Vertical section of the St. Louis, Mo., tornado of May 27,
1896 411

52.—Horizontal section of St. Louis tornado of May 27, 1896 412

53.—Vertical section of short tornado 414

54.—Vertical section of a tall tornado 415

55.—Vertical section of a hail tornado 417

56.—Universal anemograph 428

57.—Records of wind variation in horizontal and vertical
direction 429

58.—Records of Wind speed obtained by Langley 433

INTRODUCTION