Chapter M (3)

Pammel states (Manual of Poisonous Plants) that honey obtained from =Euphorbia marginata=, the well-known snow-on-the-mountain, is poisonous and unfit for use. He also states that the Indians of Brazil use honey gathered by wasps from flowers of =Serjonia lethalis= for poisoning their arrows, and also as a fish poison. It contains a narcotic poison which causes death.

The following resume of the subject is copied entire from Pammel:

“Prof. Lyman F. Kebler, who has made a somewhat extended
investigation with poisonous honey has given an excellent
bibliography with reference to the early literature on the subject.
It has been known for centuries that the honey collected from
=Ericaceae= acts as a narcotic irritant, producing giddiness,
vomiting and purging. Poisonous honey was described by Xenophon.
He gives a fairly accurate description of how the soldiers of his
army acted that ate honey that was poisoned. He states that they
lost their senses, vomited and were affected with purging, and those
who had eaten but little were intoxicated, but when they had eaten
much they were like mad men. Strabo and Pliny spoke of poisonous
honey, the latter writer, an early naturalist noted for his accurate
observations, records poisonous honey, which he called “aegolethron”
(goat’s death), which bees collected at Heraclea. He gives a
description of the honey, which is said to have had a peculiar smell
and produced sneezing. It is generally supposed that this honey came
from a species of =Rhododendron=, the =R. pontica=. This and allied
species are the chief source of poisonous honey in Asia and Asia
Minor, but it may be said in this connection that honey collected
from the heather in Scotland is not poisonous.

“Barton, an early American botanist, reported poisonous honey in
New Jersey as early as 1794. Subsequently Coleman reported a large
number of cases in 1852, and Gammer, in Gleanings in Bee Culture,
and several writers in the American Bee Journal, reported poisonous
honey. Other writers, like Chestnut and Crawford, have reported on
the occurrence of poisonous honey in the United States, and Kebler
reports no less than eight cases for New Jersey in 1896, and believes
that it is much more common than the records seem to indicate. Kebler
was fortunate enough to investigate some of the poisonous honey
following a case of poisoning in New Jersey. He examined a part
of the comb of the dark honey which had a light brown color and a
nauseating odor, pungent taste, caused a burning sensation in the
back of the mouth similar to that of aconite. Persons who partook
of a small amount of this honey began to cough immediately. He also
made a chemical analysis of the non-suspicious honey, digesting with
alcohol, then evaporated, the residue was again treated to alcohol
and evaporated and administered to two cats. One received a small
dose and the other a large one. The results from the cats were so
interesting that I quote from Professor Kebler:

“‘The small dose produced partial exhaustion, relaxation of the
voluntary muscles and general depression. The large dose in a short
time produced restlessness, vomiting, purging, prostration and almost
complete loss of the voluntary muscles, showing that the honey
contained a prompt and potent poison. The animal could scarcely be
induced to move, and when motion was attempted, first the fore-limbs
would fail, and then the back-limbs would give way. First one portion
of the body would sway in one direction, then the other portion in
another, reminding one of a highly intoxicated person. Had the entire
dose been retained, death undoubtedly would have followed. As it
was, the cat had regained her normal condition only at the end of
twenty-four hours.’”

Along with this we may append the symptoms as reported by the physician who attended the persons who were poisoned:

“Mr. and Mrs. Chambers took but a small quantity, yet each noticed a
peculiar, pungent, burning taste in the comb as soon as it had passed
their lips. In fifteen or twenty minutes afterwards Mrs. C. was taken
with nausea, abdominal pain and vomiting, soon followed by loss of
consciousness, coldness of extremities, feebly acting heart, and
complete collapse. While ministering to her, Mr. Chambers, who had
also experienced the initiatory symptoms of pain and nausea, suddenly
exclaimed, ‘I cannot see,’ and soon sank in a state of syncope to the
floor. In each case the symptoms were similar. Retching, vomiting,
purging, acute gastric and abdominal pain, and continued cramps for
some hours, with surface coldness, and deadly pallor, and the general
symptoms of collapse.

“Kebler was, however, unable to definitely locate the andromedo-toxin
found by Plugge. This author recorded it for a large number of
plants as follows: =Andromeda japonica=, =A. polifolia=, =A.
Catesbaei=, =A. calyculata=, =Kalmia latifolia=, =Monotropa
uniflora=, =Pieris formosa=, =P. ovalifolia=, =Rhododendron grande=,
=R. barbatum=, and =R. fulgens=. It has been recorded for additional
plants by Greshoff, who mentions the following plants which produce
poisonous honey: =Nerium Oleander=, =Cytisus Laburnum=, =Pieris
ovalifolia=, =Callotropis procera=, =Daphne=, =Pontica=, =Buxus
balearica=, =Clerodendron serratum=, =C. Bhramaramari=, =Sapindus
emarginatus=. (It is said that thousands of bees are killed by this
honey.) =Centaurea scabiosa=, =Carduus natans=, =Scabiosa succisa=. A
South African species of =Euphorbia= also produces a poisonous honey
which was not noted by Greshoff.”

POISONWOOD (Metopium metopium).

The poisonwood is a tree found in southern Florida, the West Indies and Central America. It is known by a variety of names, bum-wood, hog-gum, coral sumac or doctor-gum. Its sap is dangerously poisonous, and some persons are affected by a near approach to the tree. The tree reaches a height of more than forty feet and in south Florida it is the source of large quantities of surplus honey of good quality. The honey is usually blended with that of other sources blooming during the same period.

The tree has a thin bark which splits into large scales as it grows older. These are of a reddish brown color, brighter on the inside. It is sometimes confused with manchineel and is often classified as a =Rhus=.

POLLEN.

Pollen represents the male element of reproduction in seed plants. The flowering plants are normally reproduced by seed. Fertilization is brought about by the intervention of the grains of pollen which are borne by the stamens or male organs. In the corn plant the stamens are produced in the tassels where pollen is developed in great abundance. The pistils, or female organs, are represented by the silks attached to the ear. There is a separate silk attached to each kernel, and each must be separately fertilized. In many plants both stamens and pistils occur in the same blossom, as is the case with apples, pears, etc. In some cases the stamens or male organs are borne on a separate plant or tree, as is the case with the persimmon. Cucumbers have the separate organs in separate flowers. In order to insure fertilization it is necessary that the pollen grains be carried from the stamens to the pistils. In the grasses and similar plants this is usually accomplished by the wind, while in most fruits, insects are the principal agents.

Pollen grains are very minute and are produced in small sacs in the tip of the stamen, commonly called anther. When ripe, the breaking of the sac sets the grains free in great abundance. A single grain is sufficient to fertilize an ovule and produce a seed; yet, because of the distance between the stamens and pistils, large quantities of the pollen or flower dust are necessary to insure pollination. Ragweed and corn produce pollen in such abundance that one brushing by the plants is dusted so freely as to appear to be covered with flour.

Pollen is of special importance to the beekeeper, since it serves as food for young bees. It is the sole source of nitrogenous food for the growing larvæ, and is stored in large quantity in the open cells of the brood combs. Without an abundance of pollen available for food for the developing brood, the colony cannot prosper. Pollen is second only in importance to surplus honey to the beekeeper, and an abundant supply of plants which yield pollen during the brood-rearing season is very desirable.

POLLINATION.

Pollination is the fertilization of the blossom of a plant, resulting in the development of seed. As ordinarily used among the beekeepers, pollination refers to the transfer of the pollen grains from the stamens of one plant to the pistils of another. Since many plants are self-sterile, it is necessary that pollen from other plants and sometimes from other varieties be brought to them to insure fruitage. As already stated under “Pollen,” the honeybee is the principal agent in the pollination of many of the edible fruits.

So important is the bee regarded by horticulturists that cucumber growers contract for colonies of bees to be placed in their greenhouses, cherry growers often lease apiaries to be moved to their orchards at the beginning of the blooming period, and apple orchardists contract with beekeepers to furnish sufficient bees to insure fertilization of their orchards.

Darwin was among the first to realize the importance of cross pollination. He showed that continued self-fertilization resulted in inferior fruit, while cross fertilization increased the vigor of the offspring. Beach has shown that many varieties of grapes are self-sterile, and at the California experiment station it was shown that “bees are a necessary aid in pollination with the French and Imperial varieties of prunes.” It was proven that practically no fruit was produced when all pollen-carrying insects were kept from visiting the blossoms. (Bulletin 291, California Experiment Station).

It has been shown by numerous experiments that many varieties of fruits, especially of apples and pears, are likely to be unfruitful if deprived of the services of the honeybee as pollen carriers.

POPLAR, see Tulip-Poplar, also Aspen.

POPPY (Papaver).

The garden poppy (=Papaver somniferum=) is a native of Asia, but is widely cultivated in many countries, including our own. It is the source of opium and morphine, drugs widely used in the practice of medicine. The bright-colored flowers are very attractive to the bees, which seek them in large numbers and fairly revel in the abundant pollen masses. The pollen secured from poppy blossoms is very dark. It is probable that the plant furnishes some nectar, also, and there are numerous reports to the effect that the bees show evidence of a narcotic when working on this plant.

The California poppy (=Eschscholtzia californica=) (Fig. 112) is a common and widely diffused plant in California. It is a gorgeous plant of variable habit, especially abundant in spring, but in some parts of the State may be found in flower at almost any season. Richter lists it as the source of some honey and of large amounts of orange-colored pollen.

The prickly poppy (=Argemone=), often called poppy thistle, is widely distributed, especially in the southwest. It is the source of large quantities of pollen.

POPPY THISTLE, see Poppy.

POSSUM HAW, see Holly.

POSSUM-WOOD, see Persimmon.

PRAIRIE CLOVER (Petalostemon).

There are several species of prairie clover native to the western prairies from Indiana west to the Rocky Mountains and south to Texas. There are frequent reports to the effect that they are valuable honey plants, though no longer sufficiently plentiful to be important except in a few localities.

PRICKLY ASH (Xanthoxylum Clava-Herculis). TOOTHACHE-TREE.

The prickly ash or toothache-tree is found from North Carolina to Florida and west to Texas. It is a small tree with the bark armed with short, warty thorns, while the branches have longer ones.

In east Texas it is frequently mentioned as a source of honey. The honey is reported as pungent in taste, sharp and peppery and light in color. The blossoms yield freely, and, where sufficiently abundant, may be expected to yield surplus. At Palestine, Texas, surplus is reported from prickly ash. (See also Colima).

PRICKLY PEAR or INDIAN FIG (Opuntia).

Plants of the cactus family are widely scattered in the arid regions from Dakota to Washington and south to Texas and California. (Figs. 114 and 115.) Of the prickly pears (=Opuntia=) there are about 150 species, mostly found in the warmer sections of North America and southward. A few are to be found in sandy soils further east, ranging from Ontario and Massachusetts south to Florida. They are also sometimes grown as ornamentals. The blossom of the prickly pear is of pale yellow color and very attractive. (Fig. 113.) It is reported as a source of nectar in both Texas and California. =Opuntia engelmanni= is reported by Scholl in “Honey Plants of Texas,” as “of much importance to the beekeeper, especially during a season of partial drought. Both an abundance of pollen and honey was obtained, the honey being light amber in color, of heavy body but ‘stringy,’ so much so that it fairly draws out into strings when very thick. The flavor is very rank.”

In some parts of the Southwest it is valued more for pollen than for nectar. Beginning in July, it blooms for four to six weeks. E. G. LeStourgeon reports that in the vicinity of San Antonio, Texas, it yields surplus honey about one year in four, but that the flow is usually short, seldom more than four or five days. A peculiarity of this honey is that of granulating in large crystals in clear liquid. It is often spoken of as “buttermilk honey,” because of this peculiarity. LeStourgeon secured an average yield of 87 pounds per colony of cactus honey in Atascosta County. Such yields from this source are rare. Cactus grows in great abundance over large areas of Texas and is probably of more importance to beekeepers in that State than in any other.

PRICKLY POPPY, see Poppy.

PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND--Honey Sources of.

Alsike and white clover are the principal honey plants of the Island, with =Tilia europea= also important at Charlottetown.--F. W. L. Sladen.

PROPOLIS.

Propolis is a resinous gum gathered by the bees from buds of trees, and used to close crevices about the hive. It becomes brittle and hard in cold weather, but when warm is sticky and very tenacious. The beekeeper finds it quite a problem to keep his hands free from propolis when manipulating the hives in mid-summer. Some races of bees deposit propolis much more freely than others, the Caucasians being especially inclined to gather a great surplus of the cement and place it in lumps about the hive. If, perchance, a mouse, beetle or other object enters the hive which the bees are unable to remove, they frequently coat it freely with propolis, and there it remains.

Cracks seem obnoxious to the bees, and the small spaces between the frames are quite likely to be filled with the cement. In the production of comb honey, the tendency of the bees to fill every crevice with it leads to much labor on the part of the beekeeper in cleaning his finished sections for market. This is especially true of honey left on the hive till late in the season, as propolis is gathered in quantity in late fall in anticipation of cold weather.

Cottonwood is thought to be one of the chief sources of propolis wherever that well-known tree is found.

Bees gather much material from a great variety of sources. In addition to the fresh wax gathered from plants and trees, they are often attracted by fresh varnish or other substances from which they can get sticky material to serve as glue.

PRUNE, see Plum.

PUMPKIN (Cucurbita pepo).

The pumpkin is a well-known gourd-like fruit, usually of deep yellow color, that is widely cultivated as a food for stock and for pie. There are numerous varieties of various sizes and colors. The blossoms are large and showy and very attractive to the bees. The plants yield an abundance of pollen as well as nectar. The honey is amber and not of high quality, and granulates readily.

Where pumpkins are grown on a large scale for stock feed or for canning factories, they are a valuable source of bee pasture.

PURPLE LOOSESTRIFE (Lythrum).

There are two species of lythrum frequently reported as honey plants. The European species, =Lythrum Salicaria=, the spiked loosestrife, has become naturalized in wet places from Nova Scotia to Delaware. According to H. D. House, State Botanist of New York, it is common in and around the inlets and backwaters of the Hudson River all up and down that stream. It is also common up the Mohawk Valley, at Oneida Lake and along the railroads westward across the State to Lake Erie. It is a tall plant of vigorous growth, but as it confines itself largely to wet places, it is not likely to be any more of a nuisance than the usual coarse weeds growing in such situations. The bees work this plant freely and occasional reports of honey from this source are received from New York State. The honey is very dark and of strong flavor, having a slight tobacco-like taste as it gets older.

=Lythrum alatum=, a native species, is found from Ontario and Minnesota south to Georgia, Florida and Texas. A report from Oklahoma is to the effect that it blooms with sweet clover, lasting till frost. The bees work upon it from daylight till dark in either wet or dry weather. Similar reports come from Texas. It is found on low lands in the southwest.

It is also reported by beekeepers from New Orleans as attractive to bees in Louisiana.

Q

QUEBEC--Honey Sources of.

In Quebec alsike and white clover furnish the principal surplus honey. In the southern part of the province buckwheat, basswood and sweet clover are also important. Fireweed, blueberry, goldenrod and aster are the source of surplus honey over much of the province and willows and maples are valuable for spring brood rearing.--F. W. L. Sladen.

QUERCUS, see Oak.

QUININE Tree, see Hop-Tree.

R

RABBIT BRUSH (Chrysothamnus nauseosus hypolluca).

Richter lists rabbit brush as yielding nectar in the vicinity of Independence, California, from September till November. He states that the bees work vigorously on it, but that the honey is dark, of poor flavor and disagreeable odor, and that when the bees are evaporating it it can be smelled all over the place.

There are seventeen different varieties of rabbit brush in the southwestern desert from New Mexico to California and north to Utah and Colorado. They are described as coarse plants, usually shrubby and growing to a height of as much as six feet. They have small heads of yellow flowers. The Navaho Indians use the heads of the various species to dye wool yellow.--(Flora of New Mexico.)

RADISH or JOINTED CHARLOCK (Raphanus Raphanistrum).

The wild radish or jointed charlock is a troublesome weed in the fields of eastern Canada and United States from New England to Pennsylvania. Like many other introduced plants, it has been widely scattered with grain seeds. It has been introduced into northwestern Iowa with oats, where it is spreading in fields and waste places.

Sladen lists it as one of the important sources of nectar in Nova Scotia.

RAGGED LADY, see Red Gaura.

RAGGED SAILOR, see Centaurea.

RAGWEED (Ambrosia trifida).

Figure 116 shows the blossom and leaf of the great ragweed, often called horseweed. This is a very common roadside weed, growing to a height of 10 or 12 feet. It is common in Quebec and Ontario, west to Manitoba. In the United States it occurs from New England west to Colorado and south to the Gulf. It is also found in Cuba and Mexico. It is especially common in the rich lands of the Mississippi Valley from Minnesota to Texas.

The ragweed does not produce nectar, but furnishes large quantities of pollen in late summer and fall.

RAPE (Brassica napus).

Rape is a foreign plant related to the cabbage, which has been introduced from Europe. In the United States it is chiefly grown as a catch crop or forage for hogs and sheep and sometimes as a cover crop.

In Europe it is highly regarded as a honey plant, as the following letter from Baron Von Berlepsch, which appeared in American Bee Journal in April, 1874, will show:

“During the years between 1841 and 1858, that I was a practical
agriculturist, I cultivated rape, to a large extent, and can in
consequence thereof, and from knowledge otherwise gained, testify
most assuredly, that in all Germany there is no plant yielding more
honey than rape. I know of instances, occurring in my own experience,
where a very populous colony of bees, during time when rape was in
blossom, gained a weight of 20 pounds and over in one day.

“On the 10th of May, 1846, there was near me a 65-acre field in
blossom. The weather was excellent, and my strongest colony, which I
placed on a platform scale, gained that day more than 21 pounds in
weight. I know of only one other plant that can be compared with rape
as a honey-yielding plant, and that is esparet (=Sainfoin=).”

A Wisconsin beekeeper, writing in American Bee Journal the same year stated that rape in Wisconsin is scarcely second to linden. He described the honey as of golden color and good flavor. He further cited the fact that rape blooms about the middle of August, when there is little else, as a great advantage in cultivating it for its honey.

The few references to it in our literature indicate that it may be of more value to the beekeeper than is generally recognized.

RAPHANUS, see Radish.

RASPBERRY (Rubus). Also called THIMBLEBERRY.

The wild raspberry (=Rubus occidentalis=) is a very common plant in the woods of the Northeastern States. Mohr gives its natural range as New England to Quebec and Ontario, Minnesota, Nebraska, Colorado and Oregon, south to Ohio and West Virginia, and along the mountains to Georgia.

There are several species of wild raspberries, and probably all are good honey producers. Raspberry honey is produced extensively in northern Michigan, where the plant is abundant on cut-over lands. It blooms following the tree fruits and is usually ahead of the white clover. In localities where it is plentiful it is a most valuable honey plant and phenomenal yields have sometimes been reported from this source. A good raspberry location is very desirable. Beekeepers who chance to be near large plantations of raspberries cultivated for market are equally fortunate. The honey is white and of a superior quality. Figure 117 shows a luxuriant growth of wild raspberry as it is found in many localities in Ontario.

RATTAN VINE (Berchemia scandens).

Rattan vine, or supple-Jack, is a common climbing vine in low thickets throughout the Southern States from Virginia, Kentucky and Missouri, south to Florida and eastern Texas. The flowers are greenish yellow, usually appearing in June. The plant is slender and of vigorous growth, frequently climbing high trees.

In east Texas it is one of the important sources of surplus honey. There the plant is abundant along the streams, and is reported as yielding honey for a long period. The author has found rattan vine highly regarded in many sections of the South, especially in Alabama.

Scholl states that the honey is dark amber in color and used mostly for manufacturing purposes.

RATTLE BOX or RATTLE WEED, see Loco Weed.

RATTLESNAKE-ROOT (Nabalus altissimus).

Rattlesnake root is listed by the late A. J. Cook as “which swarms with bees all the day long,” but the author can find so few references to it that it is probably of little importance.

RED BAY (Persea Borbonia).

Red bay, or Florida mahogany, is also known as tisswood, sweet bay and laurel-tree. This tree should not be confused with the magnolia, which is also called sweet bay. (See Magnolia). The alligator pear (=Persea persea=) is a near relative, which has been introduced from Central America and extensively cultivated for its fruit. It has run wild in some parts of Florida.

Red bay is reported as yielding surplus honey in considerable quantity, but of poor quality along the Gulf Coast of Texas. The honey is said to be very dark, suitable for baking purposes. Beekeepers report that the plant is quite dependable, but of limited range.

RED-BERRY, see Buckthorn.

RED BOX-TREE, see Eucalyptus.

RED-BUD (Cercis canadensis).

The red-bud, or Judas-tree (Fig. 118) is a common shrub or small tree in the Southeastern States. It is found occasionally from western Pennsylvania to southern Michigan, southern Iowa and Nebraska south to western Florida and east to Texas. It grows along streams and in the woodlands where the soil is moist and rich. In Alabama it blooms late in February, and in southern Iowa in April. The rose-pink blossoms appearing in early spring, before the leaves are out, make the tree very conspicuous during the blooming period. Where the tree is abundant it furnishes a liberal pasture for the bees for early spring brood rearing. Blooming so early, it is rarely the source of surplus. In the northern part of its range it often blooms with fruit trees and dandelion, so that it is not as important as farther south.

There is another species in south Texas and Mexico which blooms in March, the Texan red-bud (=Cercis reniformis=), and one, the western redbud (=Cercis occidentalis=), which occurs in the mountains of California and occasionally in Utah.

The red-bud is also known as salad-tree, or June-bud.

RED CLOVER (Trifolium pratense).

There have been so many conflicting statements regarding the question as to whether or not the honeybee is able to secure honey from red clover (=Trifolium pratense=) that it has seemed worth while to investigate the subject with some care. There have been so many reports of honey from this source, that it is desirable to learn whether the honey did come from red clover, or whether the beekeepers have been mistaken, and some explanation of the confusion is necessary. There is no question but that the plant secretes nectar in abundance, but since the corolla tubes are much longer than the tongues of the bees, they are unable to reach it under ordinary conditions. It is a well-known fact that plants behave very differently under different climatic conditions, so an effort has been made to secure evidence from as many localities as possible, and from a great variety of conditions.

In Iowa the writer has sometimes found bees working freely on red clover in extremely dry seasons. At such times the bees were apparently getting some nectar, although it could not be detected in the hive. However, one year, Mr. C. H. True, of Edgewood, Iowa, had on exhibition at the State Fair, a generous quantity of honey which he thought was secured from red clover. It was slightly tinted with red, and had a flavor different from white or alsike clover honey. The explanation often given is that in dry seasons the florets are somewhat dwarfed, and because of the shorter tube the bee is able to reach the honey. Dr. L. H. Pammel, botanist at the Iowa College of Agriculture, has made a special study of bees and red clover under Iowa conditions. After having many measurements made, he has reached the conclusion that the effect on the length of the corolla tube, as a result of drought, is so slight that the bee would not be able to reach the nectar from this cause. He goes on record as follows:

“I have for several years closely observed honeybees and red clover,
and from these observances I am still inclined to the opinion,
earlier expressed, that honeybees do not get nectar from the flowers
of the red clover, notwithstanding the opinion of many beekeepers in
Iowa.”--Third report Iowa State Bee Inspector.

At the 1917 Convention of the Illinois Beekeepers, Mr. Frank Bishop, of Virden, reported that one season he secured an average of 100 pounds per colony from red clover. According to his statement, there was no other bloom within reach at that time. He further stated that he visited the red clover fields, investigated the matter carefully, and was fully satisfied that red clover was the source of the honey.

So many reports from well-known beekeepers are to be found in our literature, that it seems worth while to quote several of them, together with the place where the reference is to be found. Mr. Wm. McEvoy, of Woodburn, Ontario, wrote to Gleanings in Bee Culture, page 468, 1907, as follows:

“In September, 1905, I extracted over 3,000 pounds of pure red clover
honey, after giving the bees plenty to winter on. This honey was a
light amber color, and good in flavor, and sold for the same price
as honey gathered from white clover. My bees being Italians, worked
well on the second crop of red clover, which was not injured by the
midge in my locality, in 1905, on account of the first crop being cut
early.”

Adrian Getaz, of Knoxville, Tenn., makes the following contribution to the subject in Gleanings, page 660, 1909:

“In regard to bees gathering nectar from red clover, several opinions
have been advanced. Generally, it is supposed, that, owing to dryer
weather, the second crop has blossoms with shorter corollas, and that
the bees can reach the nectar on that account. Another theory is that
the nectar is more abundant, and fills up the corollas better, and
thus comes within reach of the bees. A German apiarist a few years
ago undertook to settle the matter, and spent a part of the summer
lying down in the clover fields to see how it was. He reported that
very few insects take the nectar through the corollas; but some kinds
cut a hole near the bottom and help themselves through it. The hole
once made, a number of insects, including bees, take advantage of it;
and if the bees do not work on the first crop, it is because there
are few hole-boring insects present.”

Here follows a brief report with nothing to indicate whether the bees were seeking nectar or pollen:

“Last year was very dry and there was scarcely any white clover in
blossom here; but the bees went fairly wild on the red clover, and it
was the first crop, too.”--J. F. Brady, Deerfield, Minn. Gleanings,
page 149, 1911.

That the subject is not new will be found by examining the files of the bee magazines of many years ago. Apparently, it has been a controverted subject since beekeeping has been followed seriously in America. In the first volume of the American Bee Journal, page 228, 1861, we find the following:

“I noticed in August and the beginning of September, while the bees
were gathering honey from buckwheat, that they obtained pollen of
a brownish color from some source. On investigating the matter, I
found that they collected it from red clover. This somewhat surprised
me, as I had never seen them gathering honey from the red clover to
such an extent, particularly while other forage was plenty. * * * I
have also noticed that the bees visited only those heads that were
imperfect, the tubes being shorter in consequence.”

The principal interest attached to the above is the statement that the bees visited only the imperfect blossoms. On page 9 of the same volume is a statement somewhat similar, reported in one of the German journals, of Italian bees getting honey from red clover, in 1858. It is said that the season was very dry and the blossoms somewhat smaller as a result.

In 1899, page 15, American Bee Journal, we find another report of bees working on it in dry weather:

“My bees work more or less on it almost every year during hot and dry
weather, but it does not produce as fine honey as white clover; when
candied it is coarser grained, and has a water-soaked appearance. I
wish that my bees would let it alone, for we have plenty of white
clover when the red is in bloom.”--Fred Bechle, Poweshiek County,
Iowa.

Again, on page 27 of the same issue, Theo. Rehorst, of Fond du Lac County, Wisconsin, reports:

“The mammoth red clover produces good honey and all our honeybees can
reach the nectar, although the corolla is far longer and deeper than
the common red clover. I never saw any honey from common red clover;
only thin, red stuff, thin as water.”

In 1903, E. E. Hasty, of Ohio, wrote, in the American Bee Journal, that while he admitted that bees worked on red clover at times, he was extremely doubtful about their ability to get much honey from it. The same doubt has been expressed by numerous observers from time to time, the usual explanation being that the bees are gathering pollen, rather than nectar.

On page 49 of the 1903 volume of the American Bee Journal is reported an interesting case of honeydew from red clover. Since it is the only case of the kind found in all the literature consulted it is quoted quite fully:

“For about ten days my bees have been bringing in honey from the
second crop of red clover. Now this is nothing remarkable, for I have
seen them doing so for more than twenty years past; but recently,
passing through a field of red clover in bloom, I stopped to watch
them, and, to my surprise, found them working, not on the blossoms,
but on the leaves. This, I confess, I had never seen before. On
closer examination I found the clover leaves covered with small plant
lice, and the under leaves covered with honeydew, very similar to
that frequently found on the leaves of the hickory, oak and other
trees, though the honey is not so dark-colored as from leaves of
trees.”

On page 839 of the American Bee Journal for 1906 is found a rather convincing discussion of the subject of honey from red clover. It was at a convention of the National Association, and several men of wide reputation took part in the discussion, and testified to the fact that they had secured surplus from red clover. Hutchinson stated that he had secured 500 pounds from red clover at a time when there was nothing else in bloom, and that it was a light amber or dark white color. Messrs. Townsend, Stone, Davenport and others agreed that they had secured red clover honey, Townsend reporting as much as 2,000 pounds stored in two weeks’ time.

The subject is discussed at length in Bulletin No. 46 of the New Zealand Department of Agriculture, by Isaac Hopkins, whose experience in this connection is interesting. We quote him in part:

“In my early days of beekeeping it was a moot point whether Italian
bees worked on red clover or not. At this time I had a unique
opportunity of testing the matter thoroughly, an opportunity which
would rarely occur; therefore, I feel myself on safe ground when
dealing with Italian bees and red clover.

“For five years (1882-87), I was located on the late J. C. Firth’s
estate at Matamata, where I started large bee farms. My bees, which
were chiefly Italians, were near to thousands of acres of red clover.
* * * Now and again we saw a few here and there gathering pollen from
the blossoms, and sometimes a good deal of pollen from red clover was
brought in when, no doubt, it was scarce elsewhere.

“In order to make a thorough test, I shifted, on one occasion, a
number of strong two-story colonies to the center of a 700-acre
paddock of red clover. The first crop had been cut for hay, and the
second crop flowers were just opening. There was no ordinary bee
forage anywhere near. After the fourth day, I examined the hives and
found from the odor that came from them on removing the covers that
some nectar had been gathered from the surrounding clover. I also
observed that some clover pollen had been stored.

“There were two seasons out of the five when my bees worked more
freely on the red clover than in others. In these seasons it was
noticeable that myriads of small-sized moths flitted about the
clover, while they were rarely seen at other times. I was much
interested, and in casting about for a reason, I became satisfied,
after very many tests, that the red clover was secreting at times
much more nectar than usual, and it may have been that it reached
a higher level in the tubes on these occasions, and so came within
reach of the tongues of the bees. Be that as it may, some red clover
nectar was gathered from second crop flowers in these seasons.”

While the different observers are by no means agreed as to the reason why the bees are able to get nectar from red clover on occasion, the testimony is very closely agreed upon the fact that it is only from the second crop, and in hot and dry seasons, that the bees are able to store honey from this source. So many widely-known men come forward with the positive statement that they have been able to secure surplus honey from red clover, that we can hardly question the fact that honey is sometimes stored from this plant. Whether the corollas are punctured by other insects, the tubes are shortened by drought or the nectar rises higher in the tube, remains to be proven.

RED GAURA (Gaura coccinea).

The red gaura, also called ragged lady, is common from Montana to Arizona and Texas. It is much sought by the bees for both nectar and pollen. Its nectar secretion is abundant, but it is not sufficiently common to be important. A good stimulant.

RED GUM, see Eucalyptus.

RED-HAW, see Hawthorne.

RESEDA ODORATA, see Mignonette.

RETAMA (Parkinsonia aculeata).

Retama is a small tree common throughout southern and western Texas. It has slender branches, bearing the yellow petaled flowers in axillary racemes. It is frequently mentioned as a source of nectar by Texas beekeepers. Scholl states that the bees work on it more or less all summer. Like many Texas shrubs, it has a habit, of blooming at irregular periods, from spring till September.

RHODE ISLAND--Honey Sources of.

The sources of honey in Rhode Island grouped in the order of their appearance are willows, maples and other less numerous trees, which furnish bees with the early supply of pollen and honey, so useful and so needful in building up the bee population preparatory to the harvest in which the beekeeper shares.

Next come the fruit blossoms, plum, peach, cherry, pear, apple, raspberries, huckleberries and blueberries which, when the spring is favorable, yield good crops of honey. In some places, dandelions are an important addition to the fruit bloom, though not always opening at the same time. In several parts of the State there are large areas of locust. This blooms the latter part of May, and when conditions favor, yields for about eight days a heavy water-white honey. The clovers usually follow this, but are of consequence only under favorable conditions of rainfall, save in a few sections where soil conditions afford abundant moisture.

In many sections sumacs furnish the next crop, and where they are sufficiently abundant the beekeeper may rightly look for a good crop of a very fair honey.

In some of the more swampy and less settled sections, button bush, clethra (sweet pepper bush) and clematis yield a white and highly-flavored honey, that from clematis being of the very highest quality. But the yield from these plants is irregular, in some years being almost absent.

In some of the villages and cities the European lindens are numerous and yield heavily. The bloom ceases toward the end of the clover flow, though the time of flowering of different trees in the same neighborhood varies greatly. Native linden, basswood, is now found only in a few places. The season closes with the goldenrods and asters, which yield a rich, aromatic honey which, though not acceptable to many persons, commands a fancy price from others. The crop from these two sources is not always to be depended upon, being more affected by the weather than some of the others.--Arthur C. Miller, Bulletin, State Board of Agriculture.

RHODODENDRON, see Azalea.

RHUS, see Sumac.

RICHARDIA, see Mexican Clover.

ROBINIA, see Locust.

ROCKBRUSH (Eysenhardtia amorphoides).

Rockbrush is a small shrub common to southern and western Texas, and extending into Mexico. It blooms after heavy rains, several times during the year, and yields honey in surplus quantity. It is reported frequently throughout the region south and west of San Antonio to the Rio Grande.

=Colubrina Texensis=, an entirely different shrub, which is common from the Colorado River to the Rio Grande and west to New Mexico, is also known by the name of rockbrush. It is reported as yielding both pollen and nectar, but not as a source of surplus honey.

ROCKY MOUNTAIN BEE PLANT (Cleome integrifolia).

The Rocky Mountain bee plant, also known as stinking clover (Fig. 120), is principally confined in its distributions to the plains region west of the Missouri River. It is also reported from north Pacific Coast States. While it is a dry land plant, it is occasionally reported from Illinois, Iowa and Minnesota. Although it is occasionally seen elsewhere, the author has not seen it in Iowa excepting on the Missouri River bluffs, where it is plentiful in some localities. This plant is reported as especially valuable in Colorado, where it is said to produce considerable quantities of honey.

It is an annual with large, showy, pink or purple flowers. At one time there was much interest in this plant on the part of eastern beekeepers who tried to introduce it by sowing seed. At the Michigan Agricultural College a small field was planted to ascertain whether it could be grown profitably for honey alone. As no plant has as yet proven to be sufficiently valuable to justify its cultivation for this purpose exclusively, it is not surprising that the Rocky Mountain bee plant did not prove to be an exception. It is acrid and pungent and said to be distasteful to animals, which seldom eat it. If the plant had any value for any purpose besides honey production, an effort to extend the area of the distribution might succeed, but the introduction of plants that are essentially weeds in their nature seldom meets with favor.

According to Frank Rauchfuss, the cleome is erratic in its yield. If there is a wet spring the seeds germinate early. When this is followed with good rains in June the plants are vigorous and spreading in their growth and each will have many blossoms. One year he extracted an average of 116 pounds per colony from a ten-days’ flow. The honey is white in color, with a greenish tinge. It has a rather sickening flavor when fresh, but improves with age. When pure it is a first quality honey. It is rare that a good crop is secured from his source.

The plant thrives best on sandy and gravelly soils.

ROMAN CANDLE, see Yucca.

ROSE (Rosa).

There are many species of roses of wide distribution. They yield pollen abundantly and are frequently valuable, in localities where they bloom when pollen is scarce. There are numerous reports of rose honey, but in most cases the observer has probably mistaken the object of the bees when working on the flowers. Several competent observers credit the Cherokee rose as a source of nectar. (See Cherokee Rose.)

“Some time ago quite a discussion was brought about by the assertion
of Gaston Bonnier, that one never saw bees upon roses, no matter how
colored or how fragrant. Dr. Miller replied that he had often seen
them upon the crimson ramblers and that they even tore the buds open.

“The magazine ‘L’Abeille de l’Aube,’ in its August number quotes the
different assertions which were made upon the subject since then in
Europe.

“Mr. Bonnier came back with the assertion that the bees were only
hunting pollen, for, according to him, there is no nectar in roses.

“Joan Ruppin, of Fountenay-Aux-Roses, saw his bees take pollen on the
roses, but never any nectar.

“A. Martinot saw the bees often on the crimson ramblers and on other
similar roses, never on the double flowers.

“Mr. Pitrat believes they find both nectar and pollen on the simple
flowers.

“Louis Rosseil, Consul of Belgium in Athens, says that in the Island
of Eubia, the bees work upon fields of roses and produce a white
honey much esteemed.”--American Bee Journal, October, 1912.

Beekeepers in the Rocky Mountains of Colorado and on the Pacific Coast report that their bees get honey from roses.

ROSIN WEED, see Cup Plant, also Gum Weed.

ROYAL PALM, see Palm.

RUBUS, see Raspberry.

RUDBECKIA, see Coneflower.

RUSSIAN OLIVE, see Oleaster.

S

SABAL, see Palmetto.

SAGE (Salvia).

When sage is mentioned, we of the east are likely to think of the common garden sage (=Salvia officinalis=), which for at least three centuries has been cultivated for its aromatic leaves. Of this there are several varieties, some with broad and some with narrow leaves. The garden sages are good honey plants, but seldom sufficiently abundant to amount to much as honey producers. The honey from the garden sage is said to be nice and white like that from catnip or motherwort.

The name sage is derived from its supposed power to make people wise by strengthening the memory, for which it was used in ancient medicine.

There are upwards of five hundred species of sages, widely distributed in the temperate and warmer regions of both hemispheres. Probably most of the species yield honey, although but few are known to be important. Rayment mentions the wild sage (=Salvia verbenacea=) as introduced into Australia from Europe, but now yielding honey during the dry months of the year. (Money in bees in Australasia.) There are more than two hundred species known to occur in Mexico and Central America and it is very probable that when beekeeping is developed on a commercial scale in those countries, the sages will be found to be very important honey plants.

Since practically all sage honey that goes to market in America is from California, the sages from that State are of first importance. Sage is known to occur in other Western States and the question is sometimes asked whether any honey is secured from this source elsewhere. In answer to this question Mr. J. E. Miller, of Caldwell, Idaho, writes, in Gleanings in Bee Culture (September 15, 1908), as follows:

“My neighbor, Mr. Garfield, experimented with one colony of bees by
taking it eight or nine miles away from alfalfa or other cultivated
fields, and setting it among the white sage. He went out to look
after it every week and took fresh water. We do not know the exact
amount of honey the bees gathered, but they did fully as well
as those left at home near the alfalfa. The honey was of that
water-white color peculiar to California sage honey. Mr. Garfield
sent samples to California and it was pronounced A-1 white sage; so
we are convinced that the white sage of Idaho does yield just as much
and just as good honey as that of any other State.”

It is probable that one or more species of sage occur in nearly every State, but they increase in abundance westward. In the arid country west of the Missouri River they become sufficiently common so that an appreciable amount of honey might be expected in many localities. It is quite likely that sage honey in small amounts is mixed with honey from other sources, and so not detected, in many many localities outside of California. The fact remains, nevertheless, that sage, as an important source of surplus, is not reported outside of that State.

The quality of sage honey is of the best, being water-white in color, of a heavy body and delightful flavor. Since it does not granulate, it is much sought for by bottlers in the east, who blend it with clover or alfalfa. There are many who regard sage honey as the finest in the market. In this connection A. I. Root, in an early edition of his A B C of Bee Culture, wrote:

“I well remember the first taste I had of the mountain sage honey.
Mr. Langstroth was visiting me at the time, and his exclamations were
much like my own, only that he declared that it was almost identical
in flavor with the famed honey of Hymettus, of which he had received
a sample some years ago. Well, this honey of Hymettus, which has been
celebrated both in prose and poetry for ages past, was gathered from
the mountain thyme, and the botany tells us that thyme and sage are
closely related.”

Although there are several species of sage which yield honey in California, the quality does not differ materially, as far as can be ascertained from printed reports. It is all described as “water-white, unexcelled flavor, of heavy body and does not granulate.”

Prof. A. J. Cook wrote to the American Bee Journal (June 21, 1906) concerning the sage as follows:

“Chief among the honey-bearing mints are the incomparable sages of
California. These are not excelled even by the clovers or linden. The
honey is white, delicate of flavor, and must ever rank among the best
in appearance and quality. Not only this, but the quantity is often
phenomenal. This comes from the fact that flowers are borne in long
racemes of compact heads, and as the separated flowerets do not bloom
all at once, but in succession, the plants are in bloom for weeks.
The sages, then, are marvelous honey producers, first, because of the
generous secretions of each flowerlet, and second, because of the
immense number of these flowerlets and the long period of bloom.”

At another time Mr. Cook wrote that the honey from all sages is so much alike that it would be indistinguishable.--American Bee Journal, August 3, 1905.

Richter, in his Honey Plants of California, speaks of the white sage (=Salvia apiana=) Jep., as “very common on the dry plains toward the foothills, and ascending these to about 3,000 feet.” (Fig. 121).

Writing in Gleanings in Bee Culture, P. C. Chadwick describes a journey which he made in the San Bernardino Mountains with the intent to find out the highest elevation at which bloom could be found in sufficient quantities to support bees. Up to an elevation of 7,000 feet he found white sage in abundance, and all alive with bees. (Western Honey Bee, September, 1914.) Richter gives its range as common from Santa Barbara County southward, blooming from April to July. “As abundant as the black sage, but not as good a yielder, nor has the honey as fine a flavor.”

Black sage (=Salvia mellifera=), Greene, also known as ball sage, or button sage (Fig. 122), is generally credited as being the principal source of sage honey, most of the honey which goes to market under the name of white sage being produced from this plant. Quite probably it is the best honey plant on the Pacific Coast. Richter says of it: “As a general rule, every fifth year an excellent crop is obtained, and every third or fourth year a total failure is experienced, the flow being dependent upon winter rains, with warm spring quite free from cold winds and fog. When in bloom a certain amount of warm weather is required before it produces nectar.”

The range of black sage is given as “Mt. Diablo, Los Trampas Ridge, near Hayward, San Mateo County, Glenwood and Brieta, southward to southern California. April-May.” (Jepson). “Coast ranges and ascending to 5,000 feet in the San Bernardino Mountains. March to June. San Diego County, February to May.”

Mr. J. E. Pleasants, of Orange, California, writing in American Bee Journal (June, 1914) describes the peculiarities of the sages as follows:

“The black sage is king of them all. When climatic conditions are
favorable I think black sage can be relied upon to produce more ‘gilt
edge’ than any other plant in the West, and for body and flavor it
is hard to excel. It blooms for weeks. The blossom is small and
inconspicuous, but what a flow of nectar it can yield.

“The white sage is a much prettier plant. Its soft, grey leaves and
tall blossom spikes make it quite showy, while its pleasing aromatic
odor breathes the very essence of wild perfumes. But this queenly
plant is much more inconstant than its plainer sister. Some years it
produces a good harvest, others very light.

“The silver or purple sage, which has silvery leaves and brilliant
light purple blossoms, is usually a good producer, but is much
restricted as to locality.”

The purple sage (=Salvia leucophylla=) (Fig. 123), also called white-leaved sage, or silver sage, is reported as a good yielder, although not as abundant as either of the foregoing species. The Richter catalog gives the range as occasional in the foothills of the Santa Monica and San Fernando Mountains, April to July, and from San Luis Obispo to San Diego Counties and not extending inland beyond the coast ranges.

=Salvia amabilis=, loving sage, is reported from Santa Barbara, March-June, but probably not important.

=Salvia carduacea=, thistle or annual sage. “Inner coast range valleys and throughout the San Joaquin Valley, southern California, June.” (Jepson). “A well-known honey plant.” (Richter).

=Salvia columbariae=, annual sage. “Throughout the coast ranges, Sierra Nevada and southern California, on hill and mountain slopes.” (Jepson).

=Salvia sonomensis=, Greene, creeping sage. “Montana species at middle altitudes. Ramona Mountains west of Calistoga, Mt. Shasta, Calaveras and Mariposa Counties, San Diego County. May.” (Jepson). “Also June, Sierra foothills from Sierra to Inyo Counties, main source of honey in many districts.” (Richter).