Chapter IV: Front Matter (4)

When a country newspaper announces the capture of a creature, half monkey and half bird, the bird student may be fairly certain that someone has found a Barn Owl. The strange, melancholy expression of the bird’s face, its peculiarly awkward, long legs, and its odd habit of bowing, hissing, and swaying back and forth, all make it an object of great curiosity.

The Barn Owl can see perfectly by day, though it is chiefly nocturnal. It preys upon rats, mice, and shrews principally, and is almost altogether beneficial in its food-habits. All Owls have the habit of throwing up wads of indigestible matter, such as the bones and fur of the mice they have eaten. An examination of the pellets of the Barn Owl has shown that these creatures eat but very few birds and virtually no game.

Half-grown young in their nest, clamoring for food, make a considerable outcry. They have insatiable appetites and during early summer the parents are kept busy bringing in rats and mice for their hungry offspring.

The Barn Owl’s golden brown and gray back, its white appearance beneath, and its _lack of any ear-tufts_ are good field-marks. This species is protected in Pennsylvania.

LONG-EARED OWL
_Asio otus wilsonianus_ (Lesson)

Other Names.—Cat Owl; Cedar Owl; Hoot Owl.

Description.—Size medium, about that of a Crow; head with two
prominent tufts of feathers which are nearly always held erect in
life; feet fully feathered. Upperparts gray, mottled with buffy brown
and speckled with black and white; tail with six or eight dark gray
bars; face whitish to rich buff, bordered by black; ear-tufts black
margined with whitish or buffy; underparts whitish, washed irregularly
with buffy—the breast broadly and irregularly streaked and the sides
and belly _barred_ with dark brown and gray; feet buffy; eyes bright
yellow. _Length_: 15 inches.

Range in Pennsylvania.—A fairly common, though somewhat local
resident, which may migrate to an extent when food is scarce during
winter. It is usually to be found near hemlocks.

Nest.—A flat platform of twigs, sometimes built upon the old nest of a
squirrel or Crow, lined with finer materials and a few belly feathers
from the owls. Sometimes an old Crow nest is used without any
renovation or addition. _Eggs_: 4 to 6, white.

Long-eared Owls are neither noisy nor bold, and may therefore live in a region without being known unless the bird student assiduously searches for them in dense hemlock clumps, in cedars, or thick grape-vine tangles, where they are usually to be found. They are principally nocturnal, and it is sometimes difficult to make the birds fly from their perches during the day. Any medium-sized owl which flies from a dense hemlock is likely to be of this species. Its general appearance, at such a time, is grayish.

It is a highly beneficial bird, living almost altogether on mice which it captures both in the woodlands and at the edges of fields. These it swallows wherever it may be, but the pellets are usually cast up during the daytime at the favorite resting-place, so after a few months’ sojourn at one point the pellets become numerous. Pellets of this nature, strewn over the ground, are always a fairly sure sign of the presence of owls.

The young, which resemble their parents in color, are remarkably adept at clambering about their nesting-tree before they can fly. They are odd in appearance when newly hatched, with their queer eyes and large mouths. Since the eggs are laid and hatch at intervals of two or three days each, the young are of different sizes.

The call-note of this Owl, which I have not frequently heard, resembles a Screech Owl’s quavering whistle somewhat, but is shorter, more whining, and less musical, and is varied with angry, coughing sounds. This species is protected in Pennsylvania.

SHORT-EARED OWL
_Asio flammeus_ (Pontoppidan)

Other Names.—Meadow Owl; Marsh Owl; Swamp Owl; Bog Owl.

Description.—Size medium, like the Long-eared Owl; head with very
small tufts, _not apparent in field_. Dark brown above, the feathers
margined with buffy brown, the wings spotted and barred with buffy,
the tail with rich buffy and brown bands of about equal width;
underparts buffy or whitish, streaked, broadly on breast, narrowly on
belly, with dark brown; feet buffy; eyes yellow. _Length_: 15 inches.

Range in Pennsylvania.—A fairly common and regular migrant from March
1 to April 15 and sometimes later and from October 1 to November 15.
It has been known to nest once or twice within the Commonwealth; it is
sometimes found in winter, particularly in the lowlands of the less
mountainous counties.

The Short-eared Owl sometimes hunts during the day. It courses over the meadows and marshes, its wide, soft wings carrying it easily but rather unsteadily, a few feet from the ground. As a rule, it prefers to hunt at eventide.

It nearly always perches on the ground. Its coloration is protective as it sits among the dead grasses or cat-tail leaves, motionless until it springs awkwardly into the air and makes off. It does not often alight in trees, though it may occasionally roost in low, dense bushes or conifers.

As the Short-ear flies away, the light spots on the upper surfaces of the wing and the dark spots at the bend of the wing on the under surface are usually noticeable. Any medium-sized owl which flies up from the ground in the open is almost certain to be of this species.

Its food habits are strictly beneficial. It captures mice, preferring to hunt in the open, almost never capturing its prey in the woodlands. It is often found in large flocks during the period of migration. In fact, where one occurs others are likely to be found. Flocks sometimes number a hundred or more individuals. When these owls visit a farm in such numbers for a week or two, they may effectively destroy the mice and other destructive small mammals.

The Short-eared Owl is curious; squeaking cries, given in imitation of a mouse or small bird, will sometimes cause it to come very close, where it may hover for several seconds, if the observer remains perfectly motionless. The Short-eared Owl is protected in Pennsylvania.

BARRED OWL
_Strix varia varia_ Barton

Other Names.—Hoot Owl; Black-eyed Owl (rare).

Description.—Much larger than a Crow; no tufts on the head; feet
feathered almost to claws. Upperparts dull chocolate-brown, each
feather with two or three grayish white or buffy bars, especially
noticeable on scapulars; tail and wings distinctly barred; face
grayish, finely barred with dark gray; underparts whitish or grayish
white, tinged with buff, the breast distinctly _barred, the belly and
sides streaked_ with dark brown; bill greenish yellow; eyes very
large, dark brown with blue-black pupils. _Length_: 20 inches.

Range in Pennsylvania.—A fairly common but rather local permanent
resident, found chiefly in deep woodlands and usually along streams or
in lowlands, not on the ridges as is the Great Horned Owl.

Nest.—Almost always a cavity in a tree, though sometimes the deserted
nest of a Crow or hawk. _Eggs_: 2 to 4, white, and quite round.

I shall never forget my first glimpse of a Barred Owl. In a deep woodland, where all was quiet and where shadows lent an air of mystery, I suddenly realized that a shapeless ball of brown on a nearby branch was _three_ young Barred Owls, sitting very close together, eyes nearly shut. As I approached they refused to budge, preferring, it appeared, to keep their eyes closed so as not to be bothered with any unpleasant consideration of an encounter with an enemy. When I rapped the branch upon which they sat, they opened their eyes, popped their beaks, and flew off grunting. Their mother swooped down upon me with an angry cry.

The Barred Owl’s song is weird. It is a series of eight or nine hoots which are given with much vigor, and which, at a distance, sound like the barking of a dog. When two or three Barred Owls join in a chorus, the effect is unbelievably comical. The usual cry is often varied with single hoots, barks, or grunts.

It is not blameless in food habits. The usual fare of mice and chipmunks is occasionally varied with squirrels, rabbits, and birds, usually of smaller varieties.

A good imitation of the cries of a Barred Owl may draw the creatures close, sometimes many of them at once. This cry will sometimes attract Crows also, who sense the possibility of a good hour’s attack upon an ancient foe.

The Barred Owl is not protected in Pennsylvania.

SAW-WHET OWL
_Cryptoglaux acadica acadica_ (Gmelin)

Description.—Considerably smaller than a Screech Owl; no tufts on
head. _Adults_: Facial disc white, with radial streaks of brown;
upperparts dull chocolate-brown, finely streaked on head and spotted
on back and wings with white; tail with three or four whitish bars;
underparts white, broadly streaked with dark reddish brown; legs and
feet white, feathered down to claws; eyes yellow. _Immature_: Like
adult, but head and back unspotted, and breast brown, unstreaked;
belly deep buffy; eyes brownish. _Length_: 8 inches.

Range in Pennsylvania.—Nests rarely in the northern and mountainous
counties. Chiefly to be found as an irregular visitor in winter, in
northern and central Pennsylvania.

Nest.—In a cavity, frequently a woodpecker’s deserted nest. _Eggs_: 3
to 5, white.

This tiny owl is rarely seen, even though it lives in the vicinity. It hunts its food at night and sleeps so soundly by day that it may be captured in the hand. Its food habits are strictly beneficial and it is protected by law.

Look for the Saw-whet Owl in dense growths of alder, hemlock, or in vines. A very small owl of erratic, rapid flight is likely to be of this species. All records of it are very desirable.

SCREECH OWL
_Otus asio nævius_ (Gmelin)

Other Names.—Squinch Owl; Little Owl; Red Owl; Gray Owl; Hoot Owl;
Squeak Owl; Mottled Owl.

Description.—Size small, but little longer than a Robin, though
heavier; head with prominent ear-tufts, almost always visible in the
field; feet feathered down to claws. _Red phase of plumage_:
Upperparts bright reddish brown, finely streaked with black, the
scapulars streaked with buffy white; underparts white, streaked finely
with black, and barred with reddish brown, chiefly on sides. _Gray
phase of plumage_: Upperparts gray, mixed with brownish, streaked with
blackish and mottled with white and buffy, especially on scapulars;
underparts white, streaked and barred with black, grayish, and white,
some of the patterns of the feathers being beautiful and unusual; eyes
yellow. _Length_: 9½ inches.

Range in Pennsylvania.—A common permanent resident throughout the
Commonwealth.

Nest.—In a cavity in a tree, often in an orchard. _Eggs_: 4 to 6,
white.

The Screech Owl is usually a familiar village bird whose quavering song is thought by some to be sad and ominous, by others to be among the most beautiful songs given by our birds. It lives principally upon mice but it also captures small birds, particularly in the spring when it feeds upon nestlings which it finds in the vicinity. The coloration of the Screech Owl is interesting. That there should be two distinct types of color pattern, wholly independent of age, sex, or season, seems rather useless. Some purpose at present unknown may be served by this phenomenon. The Screech Owl is protected in Pennsylvania.

GREAT HORNED OWL
_Bubo virginianus virginianus_ (Gmelin)

Other Names.—Hoot Owl; Big Owl; Cat Owl.

Description.—Size large; head with prominent tufts of feathers; feet
fully feathered down to claws; female noticeably larger than male.
Facial disc rich orange-brown; ear-tufts black, edged with rich buffy;
upperparts mottled and speckled with gray, black, white, and buffy;
throat pure white; underparts buffy and white, finely and thickly
barred with black; feet buffy; tail and wings inconspicuously barred;
eyes large, bright yellow. _Length_: About 2 feet.

Range in Pennsylvania.—A fairly common permanent resident throughout,
particularly in higher woodlands along the ridges.

Nest.—An old Crow’s or hawk’s nest, somewhat relined, or a large
cavity in a tree or cliff. _Eggs_: 2 or 3, white, and nearly round.

The eggs of this great bird of prey are laid early. More than once I
have seen the mother incubating eggs, her back covered with snow. In
Pennsylvania, nesting usually begins in mid-February, though a set of
eggs has been taken in late January.

The Great Horned Owl is so muscular and so well armed with heavy beak and iron talons that it does not hesitate to capture large prey, such as large chickens, geese, and even turkeys. It is very fond of cotton-tail rabbits, whose skulls it crushes with a nip of its beak, and often kills skunks, though it may carry a reminder of the encounter for months. It is one of our most destructive birds of prey, though it varies its diet with mice and other harmful creatures.

The deep-voiced hoot of this owl is usually heard on early spring nights. A mellow, bass _who, who-who-who, who, who_, with remarkable carrying power, is the love-song. It is sometimes given all night long during late January, when the moonlight gives the woodlands a chilly and mysterious brilliance. A loud and startling scream is sometimes given, which is often wrongly attributed to a wild cat. The probability is that a wild cat in its wildest fit of anger or alarm could not produce a sound half so loud and terrifying.

In captivity the Great Horned Owl rarely becomes tame, though it may stand on its perch quietly enough during the day. One which I had at one time was somewhat tractable, yet not to be trusted. It caught the fingers of my left hand one day with its great claws. Being unable to extricate myself, and being threatened at any minute with a nip from the vicious beak, I summoned aid. I learned a little that day about the terrific grip that closes upon the unfortunate rabbit or skunk this creature captures.

SNOWY OWL
_Nyctea nyctea_ (Linnæus)

Other Names.—White Owl; Arctic Owl; Snow Owl.

Description.—Size large, head without ear-tufts; feet so heavily
feathered that the claws are sometimes hidden. Plumage white, barred
with dark grayish brown, particularly on the back and wings and sides
of breast. Individuals vary greatly in appearance, some being pure
white, others being heavily barred. Younger birds are usually darker.
Eyes bright yellow. _Length_: About 2 feet.

Range in Pennsylvania.—A rare and irregular winter visitor,
particularly in the northern counties, and occasionally common as
during the hiemal invasion which occurred in 1926-27.

The Snowy Owl is a bird of the open fields, not of the woodlands, and, like the Rough-legged Hawk, is likely to be seen perched on a fence-post, a hay-stack, or on the ground, rather than in a tree. Its white plumage makes it a prominent feature of the landscape save when there is snow on the ground.

In Pennsylvania, its food includes small game animals and birds, mice, and other small mammals, and, occasionally, poultry. It is not particularly harmful, since it usually confines its hunting to the open fields. In the North Country it preys upon water-fowl. Its flight is very strong and rapid. It is not protected in Pennsylvania, though it should be because of its great rarity.

YELLOW-BILLED CUCKOO
_Coccyzus americanus americanus_ (Linnæus)

Other Name.—Rain-Crow.

Description.—A long, slender bird about the size of a Robin, with very
long tail and curved bill; feet with two toes pointing forward, two
backward. Upperparts olive-gray, glossed with green, the primaries
rich reddish brown, apparent in flight; tail with outer feathers
black, _broadly_ tipped with white, the outer vane of outer feathers
also white; underparts white; bill blackish, the lower mandible rich
yellow; eyes dark brown; eyelids yellowish. _Length_: 12 inches.

Range in Pennsylvania.—A summer resident from early May to late
September, found chiefly about orchards and shade trees, principally
in the southern and less mountainous counties. Additional nesting
records of this species are desirable.

Nest.—A loose platform of twigs placed on a horizontal branch, usually
not more than 15 feet from the ground. _Eggs_: 3 to 6, pale greenish
blue.

The cuckoos are slim, retiring birds, which often are not seen unless they fly from the thick leaves where they have been searching for caterpillars—their favorite food. The Yellow-billed Cuckoo’s very reddish wings serve to identify it at considerable distance. Its song is an unmusical series of _kuks_. No song is given which resembles the word “cuckoo,” our birds receiving their name merely from their relationship to the famed English bird.

BLACK-BILLED CUCKOO
_Coccyzus erythophthalmus_ (Wilson)

Other Name.—Rain-Crow.

Description.—Upperparts grayish brown, faintly glossed with greenish
and bronze; outer tail-feathers narrowly and _inconspicuously_ tipped
with white; underparts white, somewhat grayish on throat and breast;
bill black; eyes dark brown; _eyelids red_. _Length_: A little under
12 inches.

Range in Pennsylvania.—A summer resident from early May to latter
September. I have found this species common in some of the northern
counties where the Yellow-billed species was rare.

Nest.—A rather well-built platform of twigs, lined with leaves and a
few grasses, usually but a few feet from the ground on a horizontal
branch in a rather thick clump of saplings or in alders. _Eggs_: 2 to
5, glaucous green, somewhat like those of the Yellow-bill, but darker
and smaller.

The Black-billed Cuckoo is fond of lowlands which are upgrown with young saplings, or of alders along streams. It is sometimes seen in orchards. The song of the Black-bill differs from that of the Yellow-bill in that the syllables are grouped, usually in threes. The song might be written _kuk-kuk-kuk-kuk, cl-uck, cl-uck, cl-uck, kuk-kuk-kuk, kuk-kuk-kuk, kuk-kuk-kuk, kuk-kuk-kuk_, the last syllables dying off gently. The Yellow-bill’s song is louder.

Like its slightly larger relative, the Black-bill is fond of caterpillars, and both are very valuable birds. They eat so many “woolly” caterpillars that their stomachs become lined with the spines from the bodies of their prey.

BELTED KINGFISHER
_Streptoceryle alcyon alcyon_ (Linnæus)

Description.—Head large, with long bill and prominent crest; feet
small and short; plumage firm and compact. _Male_: Head and crest
blue-gray, the feathers with dark centers; two spots, one in front of,
and one under eye, and collar about neck, white; back and band across
breast blue-gray, the wings and tail considerably spotted with white;
bill blackish; eyes dark brown. _Female and young_: Similar, but with
sides and a broken band across lower breast bright reddish brown,
noticeable in the field. _Length_: 13 inches.

Range in Pennsylvania.—A common and widely distributed summer resident
from late March until the end of October; occasional in winter, when
the streams are open. It does not occur along streams which have been
polluted by mining refuse and other poisonous waste products.

Nest.—At the end of a 6-foot burrow in a bank, made of a few
fish-bones and scales crudely scraped together. _Eggs_: Usually 7,
glossy white. The burrow, while usually dug rather high on a bank,
directly along the stream, is sometimes located at some distance from
water. It is dug with the bill and feet.

The flashing white collar and underparts of the Kingfisher gleam as he flies rapidly along his chosen stream, giving his loud, rattling call. As he perches on a favorite overhanging stub, he elevates his crest, rattles once or twice, then becomes quiet as he watches the pool below him. Suddenly he dives from his perch, there is a splash, and he disappears beneath the surface. In a few seconds he arises, a slim, glistening fish in his mandibles. He makes off up stream, rattling again and again as the fish ceases its struggles, then swallows his prey, head first, entire. In addition to fish, he eats crayfish and other small aquatic creatures, and sometimes mice.

When the young hatch they are naked and ugly. They soon are covered with pin-feathers, however, and when the tips of these break, the young begin to look like their parents at once. Several days before they leave the burrow to learn angling for themselves, they scuttle about on their short feet, sometimes coming to the entrance for a moment to glimpse the world that is soon to be such an unfolding of adventure for them. They rattle like their parents, and if a hand is thrust in among them, they pick savagely at the fingers—either in anger or with the belief that a larger, finer fish than parents ever caught has come to be swallowed.

Kingfishers capture some trout and other valuable food or game-fish and are therefore not protected in Pennsylvania.

HAIRY WOODPECKER
_Dryobates villosus villosus_ (Linnæus)

Other Name.—Sapsucker (erroneous).

Description.—Smaller than Robin; like other Woodpeckers, usually seen
perched on the trunk of a tree or flying, in a strongly undulating
fashion, through the air. _Adult male_: Top of head, line through eye
and line from lower mandible to rear part of head, black, _nape bright
red_, rest of head, white; back, black with white median stripe; wings
black, spotted profusely with white; tail black, the outer feathers
_white, unspotted_; underparts white. The adult female is precisely
the same but lacks the red nape. Young birds have the _crown_ red, the
tips of the feathers lightly speckled with white. _Length_: 9½ inches.

Range in Pennsylvania.—A common permanent resident, usually to be
found in the higher woodlands but often also in the towns.

Nest.—A cavity in a tree trunk, usually from 25 to 60 feet from the
ground, the entrance about 2 inches in diameter. _Eggs_: 3 to 5,
glossy white.

The Hairy Woodpecker’s loud, sharp _peek, peek_ is a welcome sound in winter woods of northern Pennsylvania where so few birds are found during the cold season. This species is the enemy of all wood-boring larvæ, its sharp, chisel-like bill, long, barb-tipped tongue, strong feet, and stiff tail all being peculiarly adapted to existence on the tree-trunks. It is sometimes found in orchards, but about towns and human dwellings is not nearly so often seen as its smaller, more confiding relative, the Downy Woodpecker.

DOWNY WOODPECKER
_Dryobates pubescens medianus_ (Swainson)

Other Name.—Sapsucker (erroneous).

Description.—About the size of an English Sparrow. Precisely like the
Hairy Woodpecker, but noticeably smaller, with shorter, weaker bill,
and the _outer tail-feathers distinctly barred with black_. The Downy
is quieter, less energetic bird than its larger cousin; its call-note
is softer in quality and its song, which is composed of a series of
call-notes rapidly repeated, is more musical than that of the Hairy
Woodpecker. _Length_: A little under 7 inches.

Range in Pennsylvania.—An abundant permanent resident, often seen in
the towns.

Nest.—A cavity in a dead stub, usually from 15 to 30 feet from the
ground, the entrance about 1½ inches in diameter. _Eggs_: 4 to 6, laid
on a heap of small chips at the bottom of the cavity, glossy white.

The careful bird student can distinguish the Hairy and Downy Woodpeckers from call-notes, general appearance, flight, or even from the sound of their pounding on wood, which in the Hairy is so loud and positive in nature as to suggest, at times, a much larger bird. The amateur, however, may have some difficulty in distinguishing the two species.

The Downy and Hairy both like to be fed suet during the winter. They will come regularly to the feeding-counter and often become quite tame.

YELLOW-BELLIED SAPSUCKER
_Sphyrapicus varius varius_ (Linnæus)

Other Names.—Yellow-bellied Woodpecker; Sapsucker.

Description.—Smaller than a Robin, with all the characteristics of the
woodpecker tribe to which it belongs. _Adult male_: Top of head and
throat rich, deep red; lines below crown-patch, back of eye, and
enclosing throat to form prominent breast-patch, _black_; lines above
and below eye white; back black, spotted with white; wings black, with
prominent white patch on greater coverts, and primaries spotted; tail
black, the central and outer feathers marked with white; underparts
whitish and pale yellow, barred on sides and flanks with blackish
gray. _Adult female_: Similar, but throat white. Immature birds are
similar to the adult female, save on the head and back, which are
brownish throughout, spotted irregularly with black and on top of head
with flecks of red, yellow, and glossy black. _Length_: 8½ inches.

Range in Pennsylvania.—A common migrant, sometimes abundant, from
March 30 to May 15 and from September 1 to November 15; rare and local
as a summer resident in the northern and mountainous counties; casual
in winter.

Nest.—A cavity in dead or living wood, often in a yellow birch, from
30 to 60 feet from the ground. _Eggs_: 3 to 6, glossy white.

The Sapsucker is, for the most part, a quiet and rather dignified woodpecker. Rarely does it pound noisily at a dead stub, searching for grubs. As a rule, it is to be seen drilling its sap-wells on the lower trunk of a maple, apple, or hemlock, where it clings sometimes for hours at a time if unmolested. These wells, which penetrate only to the sap-bearing layer of bark, are made in regular rows. Here gathers the sap which the bird regularly swallows, together with all the small insects which have come to drink. This sap-drilling is a destructive trait, for many valuable trees are girdled annually through the attacks, chiefly, of the migrant birds. During the summer the parents capture only insect food for their young.

The mewing note of the Sapsucker will startle the beginner in bird-study. It is almost as convincing an imitation of the cry of a cat as is the scolding, querulous call of a Catbird, and is a familiar sound of the spring woods.

When courtship starts, Sapsuckers quite forget their dignity and go flashing through the tree-tops, sometimes three or four in a flock, bowing and dancing, displaying their spotted wings and tails and giving forth loud and incessant Flicker-like cries of _plee-kah, plee-kah_.

A Sapsucker sometimes actually becomes intoxicated with the juice it has drunk and wanders through the woods bumping into trees and branches, grasping the bark as best it can with toes which are marvelously adapted to holding to rough surfaces, even while the bird sleeps.

PILEATED WOODPECKER
_Phlœotomus pileatus abieticola_ (Bangs)

Other Names.—Red-headed Woodpecker (erroneous); Cock o’ the Woods;
Log-cock; Woodcock (erroneous); Indian Hen; Black Woodpecker.

Description.—Size large, about that of a Crow; both sexes with
prominent triangular crests. _Adult male_: High crest and line from
lower mandible to middle of head, bright glossy red; narrow line back
of eye and prominent line from bill under eye to neck and down to edge
of breast, white; throat whitish; patch at base of folded primaries
and irregular barring, on sides and flanks, white; _the under-wing
lining and most of the inner web of primaries white_, showing plainly
in flight. Rest of plumage brownish black; eyes bright orange-yellow.
_Female_: Similar, but front of head brownish, only the rear part of
the crest red. Immature birds are similar to the female. _Length_: 17
inches.

Range in Pennsylvania.—A rare permanent resident, found chiefly in the
northern mountainous counties, but a few still persist in the
southwestern counties and locally elsewhere. It is becoming somewhat
commoner as a result of rigid protection.

Nest.—A large cavity in a tree, drilled by the birds, usually in a
dead stub, though sometimes in a living yellow birch, at from 20 to 60
feet from the ground. _Eggs_: 3 to 5, glossy white.

The magnificent Log-cock is all too rare in Pennsylvania, but wherever the striking creature swings noisily across a valley or pounds with its great bill into soft wood, the bird student receives a thrill few of our birds can afford. Its flight is rather slow and laborious, and noticeably less undulating than in other woodpeckers.

It is given to searching for food in deep, shadowy woods, where it is sometimes the only bird to be found, and where the sound of its hammering gives the only hint of life in the vast stillness.

The call of the Pileated is a high, irregular cackle, something like the spring song of the Flicker, but more noisy and irregular. An imitation of this cry, a clapping of the hands, or the beating of a dead stub with a stick, will sometimes bring the curious, bright-eyed creatures very close—too close, if the gunner be of the law-breaking kind. The fact that this bird is sometimes called Woodcock, and therefore regarded as a game-bird, has led to the destruction of many of them. They are naturally creatures of the wilderness, and have never been really common. Careful protection will be necessary if we are to keep them from extinction in this Commonwealth.

The food of the Pileated Woodpecker is chiefly grubs, bored sometimes from the very center of great trees. Its long, barb-tipped tongue aids it in securing its food.

In looking for the bird, seek the wild, wooded mountains. Listen for the cackling cry; watch for a big, black bird with flashing wing-linings; and attempt an imitation of its hammering by beating two sticks together.

RED-HEADED WOODPECKER
_Melanerpes erythrocephalus erythrocephalus_ (Linnæus)

Other Name.—Red-head.

Description.—A little smaller than a Robin. _Adults_: Head, neck, and
upper breast, rich, deep red; upperparts glossy blue-black; the
terminal half of the secondaries, rump, and upper tail-coverts, white;
tail black, the outer feathers tipped and somewhat edged with white;
lower breast and belly white, a reddish or buffy cast in the middle.
_Immature birds_: Head and neck grayish brown, somewhat mottled; upper
back glossy black, barred with gray; wings black, the terminal half of
secondaries _barred with black and white_; tail usually as in adults;
underparts white; the sides more or less streaked and spotted with
dark brown or gray. _Length_: 9½ inches.

Range in Pennsylvania.—A local but usually common summer resident from
April 15 to October 1; casual in winter.

Nest.—A cavity drilled in a dead tree or telegraph-pole, usually from
15 to 30 feet from the ground, often in an oak. _Eggs_: 3 to 5, glossy
white.

The white wing-patches of this bird are conspicuous, particularly in flight, and its loud cry, _kree-er, kree-er_, is a familiar roadside sound. It is given to capturing insects flycatcher-fashion and is an accomplished acrobat in the air. The food of the Red-head is varied, and while it often eats grubs, it also takes other insects and much small fruit. Occasionally an individual develops the habit of eating the eggs of other birds.

RED-BELLIED WOODPECKER
_Centurus carolinus_ (Linnæus)

Other Names.—Ladder-back; Zebra Woodpecker; Chiv; Sapsucker
(erroneous).

Description.—A little smaller than a Robin. _Adult male_: Top of head
and back of neck bright, glossy scarlet; rest of head, neck, and
underparts, ashy gray, the region about the bill and the belly usually
tinged with red; upperparts, including wings, strikingly barred with
glossy black and white; upper tail-coverts white, with median streaks
or sagittate markings of black; tail black, the feathers considerably
marked with white. _Adult female_: Similar, the forepart of the head
gray. Immature birds are similar to the female, but the belly is often
tinged with brownish rather than red. _Length_: 9½ inches.

Range in Pennsylvania.—Fairly common in the extreme southwestern
counties; local, sometimes common, in other western counties as far
north as Crawford County, and through the southern tier of counties; a
permanent resident wherever found.

Nest.—A cavity drilled from 20 to 60 feet from the ground, usually in
a forest tree. _Eggs_: 3 to 6, glossy white.

The squirrel-like cry of this woodpecker, which may be written _chiv, chiv_, is a familiar sound in some of the woodlands of Greene County. Its call-notes resemble those of the Red-head and Flicker, and are considerably varied. The principal range of this species is the southern United States. It is gradually moving northward, however, like the Cardinal, and should be looked for in all central counties. The bright red top of the head and prominently barred back are good field-marks.

NORTHERN FLICKER
_Colaptes auratus luteus_ Bangs

Other Names.—Golden-winged Woodpecker; Yellow Hammer; Wake Robin;
Ground Woodpecker; Wickup; Clape; Yarrup; High-hole; Plickah;
Ant-bird, and many other names, most of them colloquial.

Description.—A little larger than a Robin. _Male_: Top of head gray,
scarlet patch on nape, black patch extending backward from each lower
mandible, rest of head cinnamon-brown; back and wings olive-brown,
barred with black, the wing-linings and shafts of feathers bright
yellow, noticeable in flight; rump and upper tail-coverts white;
tail-feathers black above, edged with whitish, bright yellow below;
breast with prominent black patch; underparts light cinnamon-brown,
each feather with round black spot at tip; under tail-coverts barred
with black. _Female_: Similar but lacking the black marks which extend
backward from the lower mandibles. _Immature birds_: Similar to the
female, but with red sprinkled over _top of head_. _Length_: 12
inches.

Range in Pennsylvania.—An abundant and widely distributed summer
resident and migrant from March 15 to November 15; casual in winter.

Nest.—A cavity drilled in a living or dead tree, often an apple or
maple, from 4 to 40 feet from the ground. _Eggs_: 5 to 11, usually 7
or 8, glossy white.

The Flicker is one of our best-known birds. Living in the towns, and conspicuous as it is with its golden wing and tail-linings, its white rump-patch, and easily imitated cries, it is familiar to all, and has won for itself many a nickname.

It is often seen hopping about on the lawn. Its ability in perching or in standing on the ground marks it as a creature of wide adaptation, yet on the tree-trunk it is a normal woodpecker, using its still tail-feathers as a prop.

The Flicker is very fond of ants. Patiently it will sit on an ant-hill, probing its long, saliva-covered tongue down into the burrow, drawing the insects out and eating them by the dozen. It may remain thus at an ant-hill half an hour at a time, filling its gizzard and crop with the insects, whose bites and acid flavor seem not to be objectionable.

Flickers sometimes become annoying when they choose a tin roof or favorite spot on a gable as a drumming-point. At such a place they will roll out their challenge at sunrise on the spring mornings, wakening all the household. Occasionally they drill their nests in houses, under the eaves, and thereby may do considerable damage.

The courtship dance is animated and beautiful. With handsome wings flashing and tail widely spread, the birds bow to each other, calling rapidly _wickah, wickah, wickah_. Flickers are considerably persecuted by Starlings which oust them from their nests and use the cavities as their own.

WHIP-POOR-WILL
_Setochalcis vocifera vocifera_ (Wilson)

Description.—Head and eyes large; bill very small; mouth lined with
long, hair-like feathers which protrude in front of bill; feet small
and weak; plumage soft and lax; color pattern highly protective. Head
and upperparts rich deep brown and gray, streaked, mottled, and barred
with black, buffy, and whitish; a noticeable white band across throat;
tail with terminal half of three outer feathers white; _no white spot
in wings_; underparts buffy, irregularly and finely barred and marked
with blackish; eyes deep brown. The female differs only in having the
throat-patch and tips of the outer tail-feathers buffy instead of
white. _Length_: 10 inches.

Range in Pennsylvania.—A somewhat local summer resident from April 20
to September 30; found only in deep woodlands.

Nest.—None. _Eggs_: 2, white, spotted sparingly with grayish, lilac,
and brownish, and laid on the leaves or ground, without even a
depression.

The Whip-poor-will is never seen flying high in the sky, and the absence of white spots in the wings always distinguishes it from the Nighthawk. To find the Whip-poor-will one must go to the deep woods where, in a quiet tangle of ferns and bushes, a dark brown, silent-winged creature may fly from the leaves, to flutter a few rods farther on, and drop again to the ground. The well-known song which is given with such constancy and fervor on spring and summer nights may be written _chuck, whip-poor-wee-ah, chuck, whip-poor-wee-ah_. Sometimes the song is repeated two hundred times or more without cessation.

NIGHTHAWK
_Chordeiles minor minor_ (J. R. Forster)

Other Names.—Bull-Bat; Whip-poor-will (erroneous); Goatsucker; Night
Jar; Mosquito Hawk.

Description.—Mouth without prominent bristles protruding in front of
short bill; wings long and pointed; tail forked. _Male_: Upperparts
black, barred and variously marked with whitish, gray, buffy, and
cream-color, the flight-feathers blackish, the _middle of the
primaries marked with a prominent bar of white_ which is especially
noticeable from below, in flight; tail with a white bar across all but
the middle feathers; throat marked with a prominent white patch; chin
and upper throat black, the feathers tipped with buffy; underparts
whitish, regularly and heavily barred with blackish. _Female_:
Similar, but lacks the white on tail, the throat-patch is buffy, and
the underparts are buffy barred with blackish. _Length_: 10 inches.

Range in Pennsylvania.—A common migrant, but very local summer
resident from the first week of May to mid-September; during the fall
migration it is likely to occur in large flocks.

Nest.—None. _Eggs_: 2, white, heavily spotted with gray, placed on the
ground, _in the open_, not, as a rule, in woods.

The Nighthawk is a familiar bird of summer evenings, when even over the cities it circles back and forth, calling as it hunts its insect food, _pee-ah, pee-ah_, in a rough, grating voice. In spring it courts its mate by plunging rapidly downward on set wings, producing with the vibrating primaries a booming sound which has given the bird the nickname “Bull-Bat.” It is one of our most beneficial birds. During the day it sleeps or rests on the ground, or sits lengthwise on a horizontal branch. It has recently taken to laying its eggs on gravel-roofed buildings in the city. Young Nighthawks, equipped as they are with strong feet, can run nimbly. The parents, though able to fly well, have lost much of the power of their foot-muscles and can scarcely walk.

CHIMNEY SWIFT
_Chætura pelagica_ (Linnæus)

Other Name.—Chimney Swallow (erroneous).

Description.—Wings very long; bill and feet very small; tail of stiff
feathers, all with noticeable spines at tip; sexes alike. Plumage
brownish black, grayer on the throat, a deep black spot in front of
eye; a ridge of feathers over the eye, forming a sort of brow.
_Length_: 5½ inches.

Range in Pennsylvania.—A common migrant and summer resident from about
the middle of April to October. It is widely distributed and _occurs
in all towns_.

Nest.—A shallow, basket-like structure of small twigs glued together
_with saliva from the bird’s mouth_ and fastened to the bricks on the
inside of a chimney, or rarely on boards on the inside of a barn, or
in a hollow tree. The nest has no lining. Nests built in a chimney are
usually placed well down from the top. _Eggs_: 4 to 6, white.

The familiar Chimney Swift, with its cheerful chittering cries and its rapid “bow and arrow” flight, is a common bird in all Pennsylvania towns. In the wilder sections—in the mountains, for instance—it is rare. It has come to depend upon chimneys almost exclusively as nesting-sites. This is a valuable bird, eating only flying insects, which it captures from the air.

It alights nowhere save inside the chimney, where it clings to the rough bricks with its exceedingly strong and sharply clawed feet, using its spiny tail as a prop. In securing nesting material it breaks dead twigs off with its feet _while flying_, lifting these to its mouth while in the air, there to cover them with saliva.

RUBY-THROATED HUMMINGBIRD
_Archilochus colubris_ (Linnæus)

Other Names.—Hummer; Ruby-throat.

Description.—Our smallest bird; bill about twice as long as head; feet
small, with downy plumage at base; wings with comparatively short
bones, but with powerful muscles; tail-feathers pointed in male,
rounded in female. _Adult male_: Upperparts glossy, bright green;
wings and tail with steel-blue or violet reflections; throat gorgeous
orange-red in proper lights, velvety black from some angles; breast
with noticeable white patch; rest of underparts grayish, glossed with
green on sides; tail forked. _Female_: Similar, but with almost pure
white underparts and no ruby throat-patch; tail somewhat rounded, with
three outer tail-feathers tipped with white. _Immature_: Similar to
female, the male having its throat streaked with dusky and sprinkled
with occasional ruby feathers. _Length_: 3¾ inches.

Range in Pennsylvania.—A common migrant and summer resident from May 1
to October 1 and sometimes later.

Nest.—A small, dainty structure made of plant-down, lichens, and
cobwebs, saddled to a horizontal, and often dead, branch, from 10 to
60 feet from the ground, in an orchard, yard, or woodland. _Eggs_: 2,
plain white.

The rapid, buzzing flight of these birds as they wander about the cannas, honeysuckles, or nasturtiums, fanning the leaves and petals with their shining wings as they search for nectar and tiny insects, is known to all who have a flower-garden. The Hummingbird should not be confused with the hawk-moth or sphinx-moth which come out at about the same time in the evening and which have much the appearance of tiny birds as they buzz among the flowers.

KINGBIRD
_Tyrannus tyrannus tyrannus_ (Linnæus)

Other Names.—Bee Bird; Bee Martin; Tyrant Flycatcher.

Description.—Smaller than a Robin, with upright attitude in perching;
sexes alike. Upperparts dark gray, darkest on head, wings, and tail;
crown with concealed patch of orange-red; wing-coverts edged with
lighter gray; _tip of tail white_; underparts pure white, washed with
grayish on throat and breast; eyes dark brown. Young birds are
similar, but lack the crown-patch, are duller in appearance, and the
plumage is often more or less tinged with buff. _Length_: 8½ inches.

Range in Pennsylvania.—A migrant and summer resident, common in the
agricultural districts, rather rare in forested districts, from
mid-April to mid-September.

Nest.—Well constructed, of dead weed-stalks, string, and plant-fibers,
lined with softer materials, placed from 4 to 30 feet from the ground,
in alders, orchard, or other trees, usually in a crotch of several
branches, and well toward the end of the branch. _Eggs_: 4, sometimes
3 or 5, white, spotted with dark brown.

The Kingbird is often to be seen on a barbed-wire fence, telegraph-wire, or prominent dead stub where he watches for passing insects or for hawks or Crows, which he chases with energy and effect. As he flies, his wings beat rapidly with a fluttering motion, and the white tip of his widely spread tail shows plainly at considerable distance. His challenge note, which may be written _pi-tink, pi-tink_, irregularly repeated, is the only outcry usually heard, though he occasionally indulges in a softer effort which may be called a song. If a small pebble is tossed at him in play, he watches it carefully in a curiously puzzled fashion, as though he were at the point of capturing and swallowing it. He has some difficulty in tiring and capturing insects as large as a dragon-fly, but he is very fond of these strong-winged insects, and pursues them assiduously. Rarely he captures bees, and these are usually drones.

He is at his best when he chases a hawk, owl, or Crow. At such times his anger mounts and he gives battle with all the fury of his small body thrown into the noisy and vicious attack. So determined a combatant is he that he sometimes actually alights on his larger, more awkward enemy, picking at the plumage, and perhaps at the skull and eyes.

CRESTED FLYCATCHER
_Myiarchus crinitus boreus_ Bangs

Description.—A little smaller than a Robin, with upright perching attitude and dignified, masterful bearing; sexes similar. Upperparts grayish olive-brown, outer primaries edged with dull reddish brown, and _inner-vane of all tail-feathers pale reddish brown_, which often shows plainly in flight; throat and breast light gray; belly pale yellow. _Length_: 9 inches.

Range in Pennsylvania.—A fairly common migrant and summer resident in the orchards and woodlands, from mid-April to mid-September.

Nest.—Of vegetable fiber, roots, downy material, and a cast-off snake-skin or two, in a cavity in a tree or a nesting-box, at from 10 to 40 feet from the ground. _Eggs_: 3 to 6, creamy white, heavily streaked, longitudinally, with rich brown.

The Crested Flycatcher’s loud, incisive _creep, creep_ rings through the spring woodlands as the handsome bird seeks mate and nesting-place. His large, crested head and yellow underparts are usually obvious in the field. He is given to perching on high dead branches, usually beneath the canopy of outer leaves, and he turns his head from side to side thoughtfully as he watches for passing insects which he captures with great agility.

This is our only bird which regularly uses cast-off snake-skins in its nest. These may serve to frighten off intruders.

PHŒBE
_Sayornis phœbe_ (Latham)

Other Names.—Bridge Bird; Phœbe-bird; Pewee (erroneous).

Description.—Larger than English Sparrow, with upright position and
comparatively long tail _which is occasionally quickly lifted_ as the
bird watches for insects. Upperparts grayish olive-brown, darkest on
top of head; bar on wings noticeable in field; tail with outer edge of
outer tail-feathers white, not noticeable in field; underparts white,
suffused with yellowish, and tinged with brownish gray on breast and
sides; bill and eyes black. _Length_: 7 inches.

Range in Pennsylvania.—Abundant migrant and summer resident from
mid-March to November.

Nest.—Of moss and vegetable substances, lined with finer, softer
materials, placed on any projection which will hold it, under a
bridge, on a stone ledge, in a well or spring-house, or under the roof
of a porch. _Eggs_: 3 to 6, white, rarely with a few small brown
spots.

The simple call-notes, _fit-i-bee_ and _zee-bee_, and the habit of wagging or jerking the tail now and then, serve to identify this bird, even though no colors be noted. Look for it along small streams or near rock-ledges, where the nests are built in April. The Phœbe is a confirmed eater of insects and is one of our most valuable birds. It comes with the pussy-willows and the first cries of the tiny tree-frogs, and stays until the host of migrating warblers has all but passed through.

OLIVE-SIDED FLYCATCHER
_Nuttallornis borealis borealis_ (Swainson)

Description.—Smaller than a Robin, with upright carriage and dull,
unmarked appearance. Upperparts, sides of breast, and sides dark
olive-gray; wings and tail darker; throat and middle of breast and
belly very pale yellow, or yellowish white; under tail-coverts marked
with dusky; a loose tuft of fluffy, silver-white feathers on either
flank, sometimes _protruding through wings, on back_; bill dark, save
base of lower mandible which is yellow. _Length_: 7½ inches.

Range in Pennsylvania.—A rather regular but rare migrant from mid-May
to about the end of the month and from late August to the middle of
September. As a summer resident, found only in coniferous woodlands at
high altitudes or in the northernmost counties.

Nest.—Rather well made of twigs and mosses, placed on a branch of
hemlock or other conifer at from 25 to 40 feet from the ground.
_Eggs_: 3 or 4, creamy white, spotted, chiefly at larger end, with
reddish brown.

The Olive-side will usually be seen on the _topmost twig_ of a tree, sitting quietly in a dignified, upright manner. His call-note, _pit, per-wheer_, is very distinctive—not to be confused with any other bird-song of this latitude. The white tufts of feathers on the flanks I have found not to be a good field-mark, for they do not, apparently, often show; but the call-note and the dark sides are unmistakable. At Pymatuning Swamp I have seen fair-sized flocks of Olive-sided Flycatchers late in spring. The bird is usually so rare that the sight of several of them sitting about on the tips of the hemlocks is long to be remembered. Additional records of this species are desirable. (See illustration page 87.)

WOOD PEWEE
_Myiochanes virens_ (Linnæus)

Description.—About the size of an English Sparrow, with _upright
perching attitude_. _Adults_: Dark grayish olive above, the wings with
two rather indistinct whitish wing-bars; underparts white or pale
yellowish, washed with grayish on sides of throat and on breast; upper
mandible dark; lower mandible yellowish; eyes black. _Immature birds_:
Similar, but the wing-coverts tipped with buffy and underparts more
yellowish. _Length_: 6½ inches.

Range in Pennsylvania.—A common migrant and summer resident from May 1
to October 1.

Nest.—A shallow cup made of vegetable fibers, small twigs, cocoons,
lichens, and moss, saddled on a horizontal branch from 25 to 40 feet
from the ground, usually in a shady woodland. _Eggs_: 3 or 4, creamy
white, with a wreath of dark brown spots about larger end.

The Wood Pewee’s plaintive, musical _pee-a-wee, pee-wee_, the first half ending with an upward inflection, the latter with a distinct falling, is a characteristic bird-note of the summer woodlands. The singer is usually seen high in a tree, not near the ground, as is the Phœbe. It does not have the habit of flicking its tail. A bird of the shadowy woodland, not of the open stream-sides, it will not be confused with any other bird if its song may be heard. In appearance it is much like the other small flycatchers. The song is often almost perfectly imitated by the Starling, so that Pewee songs heard in winter or in unlikely places should be investigated.

THE SMALL FLYCATCHERS

The bird student will find the shy, dull-colored, small flycatchers difficult to identify. All forms of the group found regularly in Pennsylvania, aside from the Phœbe and Pewee, are dull olive-green or grayish above, lighter or whitish below, have a more or less noticeable eye-ring and two noticeable wing-bars. These small flycatchers are so similar in size and color that it is at times almost impossible to distinguish specimens in the hand. But they are reasonably easy to identify in the field, _chiefly from their call-notes_ which are very distinctive, from their habitat which differs considerably, and from the dates upon which they are seen. They are all under 6 inches in length. All of these birds have an erect perching attitude; none of them, strictly speaking, sings a song; all are equipped with broad, flat bills, for capturing insects.

YELLOW-BELLIED FLYCATCHER
_Empidonax flaviventris_ (W. M. and S. F. Baird)

The Yellow-bellied Flycatcher is a migrant in mid-spring and early autumn, _not found during summer_, save at one or two high altitudes, where it nests rarely. It is always rather noticeably yellow below and is found in low, thick woodlands, not often far from the ground. The call-note is a nervous _tsek_, or _chuh-bec_, its song a querulous _tsu-eek_, with a rising inflection. In fall immature birds are sometimes exceedingly abundant.

ACADIAN FLYCATCHER
_Empidonax virescens_ (Vieillot)

This flycatcher lives in shadowy woodlands _along ravines_ where long, swaying branches of beech, maple, or hemlock overhang a stream. Here, not at great height, is built the shallow, thin nest, where three eggs are laid. These are creamy white, spotted with dark brown at the larger end. The call of this bird may be written _pit-i-yuk_ or _wee-zee-eep_, and is of an explosive character. _Do not look for this bird save in woodlands along streams._ It will not be found in swamps, or in orchards. It comes in early May and stays until mid-September and occurs chiefly in the southern and less mountainous counties.

ALDER FLYCATCHER
_Empidonax traillii traillii_ (Audubon)

The Alder Flycatcher will be seen in low growth along streams or in swamps, often actually among alders. Its sides are yellowish, but the belly is always white. The song of this species, which is usually delivered from a prominent and sometimes high perch, may be written _becky-weer_, and is different from any other flycatcher song, save, perhaps that of the Olive-sided. Its nest is a compact structure, built in the alders, 2 to 3 feet from the ground, usually in a swamp. The three or four eggs are white, sparsely spotted with brown. The Alder Flycatcher is found chiefly in the more northerly counties as a summer resident, from early May to September.

LEAST FLYCATCHER; CHEBEC
_Empidonax minimus_ (W. M. and S. F. Baird)

The Least Flycatcher is a bird of open aspen copses or orchards. Its energetic _che-bec_, which is given with a violent toss of the head, is always characteristic and is responsible for its common name. Look for the bird during migration in May and in September. As a summer resident it occurs chiefly in the more northern counties, where it builds its deep nest in the crotch of some low tree. The eggs, 3 or 4 in number, are pure white. Feathers are often used in the nest, which is made of vegetable fiber and hair.

HORNED LARK
_Otocoris alpestris alpestris_ (Linnæus)

This northern relative of our Prairie Horned Lark visits Pennsylvania occasionally in winter, especially in the northern counties. It is a larger, more reddish bird, and the line above the eye is distinctly yellow, sometimes quite colorful.

PRAIRIE HORNED LARK
_Otocoris alpestris praticola_ Henshaw

Other Name.—Shore Lark.

Description.—Larger than an English Sparrow; a bird of the ground,
with straight toe-nails, the hind one very long. _Adult male_: Patch
on forepart of crown with lateral lines leading to two tiny tufts or
horns on nape, patch in front of and below eye, and another on upper
breast, black; forehead and line above eye whitish, sometimes very
faintly tinged with yellow; throat pale yellow; back of head and
upperparts pale grayish brown mixed with reddish brown on neck, back,
and wings; middle tail-feathers brown, the other feathers blackish,
the outer vanes of the outer feathers white; lower breast and belly
whitish, suffused with pinkish brown on sides and flanks; bill, feet,
and eyes black. _Female and immature_: Similar, but duller. Young
birds in their first plumage are much spotted, with pale yellowish
above, and with blackish below. _Length_: A little over 7 inches.

Range in Pennsylvania.—Local permanent resident, sometimes quite
common, and found only in the opener sections, on bald hilltops or in
wide fields in agricultural districts.

Nest.—A cup in the ground lined with grasses, plant-down, and other
vegetable material. _Eggs_: 3 to 5, greenish white, heavily marked
with grayish brown, sometimes with a wreath of heavier spots around
larger end. The nest is always placed in a wide-open field, sometimes
on a bare hilltop. It is built very early in the season, sometimes in
early or mid-March, while snow is still on the ground.