Chapter III: The Northern Powers

The state of Tsin in Shan Si--In 771 B.C.: its ruler escorts the Emperor to his new capital--Only in 671 B.C. does Confucius mention Tsin--Divided from Ts'in by the Yellow River--Important difference between the sounds Tsin and Ts'in--Importance of the whole Yellow River as a natural boundary--The state of Ts'i also engaged in buffer work against Tartar inroads--Remote origin of Ts'i-Ts'in, Tsin, and Ts'i grow powerful as the Emperor grows weaker--The state of Yen in the Peking plain--The founder of Yen immortalized in song--Complete absence of tradition concerning Yen's origin--Its possible relations with Corea and Japan--Centre of political gravity transferred for ever to the north--Tartar movements in Asia generally 800-600 B.C.--Never was a Tarter empire--Reason for using the loose word "Tartars"--Race divisions then probably very much as now--Attempt to classify the Tartars in definite groups--Ch'wan unknown by any name--Nothing at all was known in China of the north and west: _á fortiori_ of Central Asia

CHAPTER IV

_THE SOUTHERN POWER_

The collapse of the Emperor led to restlessness in the south too-- The Jungle country south of the River Han--Ancient origin of its kings--Claim to equality--Buffer state to the south--Ruling caste consisted of educated Chinese--Extension of the Ts'u empire-- Annamese connections--Claims repeated 704 B.C.--Capital moved to King-thou Fu near Sha-shï--First Ts'u conquests of China--Five hundred years of struggle with Ts'in for the possession of all China

CHAPTER V

_EVIDENCE OF ECLIPSES_

How far is history true?--Confucius and eclipses--Evidence notwithstanding the destruction of literature in 213 B.C.-- Retrospective calculations of eclipses and complications of calendars--Eclipse of 776 B.C.--Errors in Confucian history owing to rival calendars

CHAPTER VI

_THE ARMY_

Paraphernalia of warfare--Ten thousand and one thousand chariot states--Use of war-chariots, leather or wood--Chariots allotted according to rank--Seventy-five men to one cart--War-chariots date back to 1800 B.C.--Tartar house-carts--Rivers mostly unnavigable in north--Introduction of canals and boat traffic--Population and armies--Vague descriptions--Early armies never exceeded 75,000 men--The use of flags--Used in hunting as well as in war--Victims sacrificed to drums--A modern instance of this in 1900 A.D.

CHAPTER VII

_THE COAST STATES_

The coast states in possession of the Yang-tsz delta--The state of Wu really of the same origin as the imperial dynasty of Chou-- Comparison with Phoenician colonists--Wu induced by Tsin to attack Ts'a-Ancient name was _Keugu_--Wu falls into the whirl of Chinese politics--Confucius and his contemptuous treatment of barbarians-Lu, in South Shan Tung, the place where Confucius held official posts--Great Britain and Duke Confucius--Five ranks for rulers of vassal states--Sacking of the Ts'u capital by Wu in 506 B.C.--Wu's vassal Yüeh turns against Wu--_Uviet_ the native name of Yüeh--Bloody wars between Wu and Yiieh--Extinction of Wu in 483 B.C.--Yüeh was always a coast power--Reasons for Confucius' endeavours to re-establish the old feudal system

CHAPTER VIII

_FIRST PROTECTOR OF CHINA_

The first Hegemon or Protector of China and his own vassal kingdom of Ts'i--Limits of Ts'i and ancient course of the Yellow River-- Absence of ancient records--Shiftings of capital in the ninth century B.C.--Emperor's collapse of 842 and its effect upon Ts'i-- Aid rendered by Ts'i in suppressing the Tartars--Inconsiderable size of Ts'i--Revenges a judicial murder two centuries old--Rapid rise of Ts'i and services of the statesman--philosopher Kwan-tsz-- The governing caste in China--Declares self Protector of China 679 B.C.--Tartar raids down to the Yellow River in Ho Nan-Chinese durbars and the duties of a Protector--Ts'in and Ts'u too far off or too busy for orthodox durbars--Little is now known of the puppet Emperor's dominions--Effeminate character of all the Central Chinese orthodox stales--Fighting instincts all with semi- Chinese states--Struggle for life becoming keener throughout China

CHAPTER IX

_POSITION OF ENVOYS_

Sanctity of envoys--Rivalry of Tsin north and Ts'u south for influence over orthodox centre--The state of CHÊNG (imperial clan)--The state of Sung (Shang dynasty clan)--Family sacrifices-- Instances of envoy treatment--The philosopher Yen-tsz: his irony-- The statesman Tsz-ch'an of CHÊNG--Ts'u's barbarous and callous conduct to envoys--Greed for valuables among high officers-- squabble for precedence at Peace Conference--Confucius manipulates history--Yen-& and Confucius together at attempted assassination

CHAPTER X

_THE SECOND PROTECTOR_

Death of First Protector and his henchman Kwan-tsz, 648-643 B.C.-- Ts'i succession and Sung's claim to Protectorate--Tartar influence in Ts'i--Ts'u's claim to the hegemony--Ridiculous orthodox chivalry--Great development of Tsin--A much-married ruler-- Marriage complications--Interesting story of the political wanderings of the Second Protector--Tries to replace Kwan-tsz deceased--Pleasures of Ts'i life--Mean behaviour of orthodox princes to the Wanderer--Frank attitude of Ts'u--Successive Tartar-born rulers of Tsin, and war with T&n--Second Protector gains his own Tsin throne--Puppet Emperor at a durbar--Tsin obtains cession of territory--Triangular war between the Powers-- Description of the political situation--China 2500 years ago beginning to move as she is now doing again

CHAPTER XI

_RELIGION_

I'Jo religion except natural religion--Religion not separate from administrative ritual--The titles of "King" and "Emperor"--Prayer common, but most other of our own religious notions absent--Local religion in barbarous states--Distinction between loss and annihilation of power--Ducal rank and marquesses--Distinction between grantee sacrifices and personal sacrifices--Prayer and the ancient Emperor Shun, whose grave is in Hu Nan--Chou Emperor's sickness and brother's written prayer--Offers to sacrifice self-- Messages from the dead--Lao-tsz's book--Ts'in and conquered Tsin Sacrifices--Further instances of prayer

CHAPTER XII

_ANCESTRAL WORSHIP_

Ancestral tablets carried in war-Shrines graduated according to rank--Description of shrines--Specific case of the King of Ts'u-- Instance of the First August Emperor much later--Temple of Heaven, Peking, and the British occupation of it--Modern Japanese instance of reporting to Heaven and ancestors--Tsin and Ts'i instances of it--Sacrificial tablets--Writing materials--Lu's special spiritual status--Desecration of tombs and flogging of corpses--Destruction of ancestral temples--Imperial presents of sacrificial meat-- Fasting and purification--Intricate mourning rules. So-65

CHAPTER XIII

_ANCIENT DOCUMENTS FOUND_

History of Tsin and the Bamboo Annals discovered after 600 years' burial--Confirmatory of Confucius' history--Obsolete and modern script--Ancient calendars--Their evidence in rendering dates precise--The Ts'in calendar imposed on China--Rise of the Ts'in power--Position as Protector--Vast Tartar annexations by Ts'in-- Duke Muh of Ts'in and Emperor Muh of China--Posthumous names-- Discovery of ancient books--Supposed travels of Emperor Muh to Tartary--Possibility of the Duke Muh having made the journeys-- Ts'in and Tsin force Tartars to migrate--Surreptitious vassal "emperors"--Instances of Annam and Japan--Tsin against Ts'in and Ts'u after Second Protector's death--Ts'i never again Protector-- Ts'in's Chinese and Tartar advisers--Foundations for Ts'in's future empire.

CHAPTER XIV

_MORE ON PROTECTORS_

The Five Protectors of China more exactly defined--No such period as the "Five Tyrant period" can be logically accepted as accurate-- Chinese never understand the principles of history as distinct from the detailed facts--International situation defined--Flank movements--Appearance of barbarous Wu in the Chinese arena-- Phonetic barbarian names--The State of Wei--Enlightened prince envoy to China from Wu--Wu rapidly acquires the status of Protector--Confucius tampers with history--Risky position of the King of Wu--Yüeh conquers Wu, and poses as Protector--The River Sz (Grand Canal).

CHAPTER XV

_STATE INTERCOURSE_

Further explanations regarding the grouping of states, and the size of the smallest states--Statesmen of all orthodox states acquainted with one another--No dialect difficulties in ancient times--Records exist for everything--Absence of caste, but persistence of the hereditary idea--The great political economist Kwan-tsz--Tsz-ch'an, the prince-statesman of Cheng--Shuh Hiang, statesman of Tsin--Reference to Appendix No. r--The statesman Yen- tsz of Ts'i--Confucius' origin as a member of the royal Sung family--Confucius' wanderings not so very extensive--Confucius no mere pedant, but a statesman and a humorist--Hiang Suh of Sung, inventor of "Hague" Conferences--Ki-chah, prince-envoy of Wu--K'u- peh-yuh, an authority in Wei--Ts'in had no literary men--Lao-% of Ts'u--Reasons why Confucius does not mention him

CHAPTER XVI

_LAND AND PEOPLE_

Ancient land and land-tax-Combination of military service with land cultivation--Studious class had to study _tao_ (in its pre-Lao-tsz sense)--Next the trading classes--Next the cultivators-- Last the handicraftsmen--Another division of the people--Responsibility of rulers to God--Classification of rulers and ruling ranks--Eunuchs and slaves--Cadastral survey in Ts'u state--Reserves for sporting-- Cemeteries--Salt-flats Another land and military service system in Ts'u--Kwan-tsz's system in Ts'i--Poor relief--Shrewd diplomacy--His master becomes First Protector--commerce and fairs--"The people" ignored in history--Tsin reforms and administration--The "great family" nuisance--Roads, supplies, post-stages--Ts'i had developed even before Kwan-tsz--Restlessness of active minds under the yoke of ritual.

CHAPTER XVII

_EDUCATION AND LITERARY_

Very little mention of ancient writing or education--Baked inscribed bricks unknown to the _loess_ region--Cession of land inscribed upon metal--The Nine Tripods--Ts'u claims them-- Instances of written grants and prayers--Proof of teaching--A written public notice--Probable use of wood--Conventions upon stone--Books in sixth century B.C.--Maps, cadastre, and census records--A doubtful instance--A closed letter--Indentures--A military map--Treaties--Ancient theory _of_ juvenile education for office--Invention of new-written script 827 B.C.--Patriarchal rule inconsistent with enlightenment--Unification of script, weights, measures, and axle-breadths by the First August Emperor Further invention of script and first dictionary--Facility of Chinese writing for reading purposes-- Chinese now in a state of flux.

CHAPTER XVIII

_TREATIES AND VOWS_

Treaties and imprecations--Smearing with blood of victims-- Squabble _re_ precedence in the treaty-making--Shuh Niang's philosophy--Confucius' tampering with history condoned--Care of Chinese in preserving first-hand evidence--Emperor ignored by treaty-makers--Form of a treaty, with imprecation--Mesne lords and their vassals--Negotiations and references for instructions-- Ts'u's first protectorate in 538--Ts'u's difficulty with Wu--The Six Families of Tsin--Sacrificing cocks as sanction to vows-- Drawing human blood as sanction--Pigs for the same purpose--Kwan- tsz's honourable behaviour in keeping treaty--Confucius not so honourable: instances given--Casuistry backed up by a proverb.

CHAPTER XIX

_CONFUCIUS AND LITERATURE_

Life-time of Confucius--Secret of his influence--Visit of the Wu prince to Confucius' state--Lu's "powerful" family plague--Lu's position between Tsin and Ts'u influences--Ts'i studies the ritual in Lu: Yen-tsz goes thither--Sketch of Lu history in its connection with Confucius--What were his practical objects?-- Authorities in support of what Confucius' Annals tell us--Original conception of natural religion--Spread of the earliest patriarchal Chinese state--No other people near them possessed letters--The way in which the Chinese spread--Lines of least resistance--The spiritual emperor compared with some of the Popes--Lu's spiritual position--Confucius of Sung descent, and at first not an influential official in Lu--Lu's humiliation--Ts'i's intrigues to counteract Confucius' genius--Travels of Confucius and his history--His edited works.

CHAPTER XX

_LAW_

Original notion of law--War and punishment on a level--Secondary punishments--Judgment given as each breach occurs--No distinction between legislative and judicial--Private rights ignored by the State--Public weal is Nature's law--First law reform for the Hundred Families--Dr. Legge's translation of the Code-- Proclamation of the Emperor's laws--Themistes or decisions-- Capricious instances: boiling alive by Emperor--Interference of Emperor in Lu succession--Tsang Wen-chung's coat--Barbarity of the Ts'u laws--Lu's influence with the Emperor--Tsin's engraved laws--Tsz-ch'an's laws on metal in Cheng--Confucius disapproves of published law--English judge-made law--All rulers accepted Chou law--Reading law over sacrificial victim--Laconic ancient laws-- Command emanates from the north--Definition of imperial power--The laws of Li K'wei in Ngwei state (part of old Tsin)--Direct influence on modern law.

CHAPTER XXI

_PUBLIC WORKS_

Engineering works of old Emperors--Marvellous chiselled gorge above Tch'ang--Pa and Shuh kingdoms (= Sz Ch'wan)--The engineer Li Ping in Sz Ch'wan: his sluices still in working order after 2200 years of use--Chinese ideas about the sources of the Yang-tsz--The Lolo country and its independence--The Yellow River and its vagaries--Substitution of the Chou dynasty for the Shang dynasty-- First rulers of Wu make a canal--Origin of the Grand Canal-- Explanation of the old riverine system of Shan Tung--Extension of the Canal by the First August Emperor--Kublai Khan's share in it-- The old Wu capital--Soochow and its ancient arsenals--No bridges in old clays: fords used--Instances--Limited navigability of northern rivers--Various Great Walls--Enormous waste of human life--New Ts'in metropolis--Forced labour and eunuchs.

CHAPTER XXII

_CITIES AND TOWNS_

Ancient cities mere hovels--Soul, the capital of modern Corea-- Modern cities still poor affairs--Want of unity causes downfall of Ts'in and China--Magnificence of Ts'i capital--Ts'u's palaces imitated in Lu--The capital of Wu--Modern Soochow--Nothing known of early Ts'in towns--Reforms of Wei Yang in Ts'in--Probable population--Magnificent buildings at new Ts'in metropolis-- Facility with which vassal states shifted their capitals-- Insignificant size of ancient principalities--Walled cities.

CHAPTER XXIII

_BREAK-UP OF CHINA_

Collapse of Wu, flight in boats to Japan--Ground to believe that the ruling caste of Japan was influenced by Chinese colonists in the fifth century B.C.--Rise of Yueh, and action in China as Protector--Changes in the Hwai River system--Last days of the Chou dynasty--The year 403 B.C. is the second great pivot point in history--Undermining of Ts'i state by the T'ien or Ch'en family-- Confucius shocked at the murder of a Ts'i prince--Sudden rise of Ts'in after two centuries of stagnation--The reforms of Wei Yang lead to the conquest of China--Orthodox China compared with Greece--The "Fighting State" Period.

CHAPTER XXIV

_KINGS AND NOBLES_

Titles of the Emperors of the Chou dynasty--The word "King" in modern times--Posthumous names--The title "Emperor" and the word "Imperial"--"God" confused with "Emperor"--Lao-tsz's view-- Comparison with Babylonia, Egypt, etc.--No feudal prince was recognized by the Emperor as possessing the same title as the Emperor--The Roman Emperors--The five ranks of nobles--The Emperor's private "dukes" compared with cardinals--The state of Lu--The state of Ts'i--The state of Tsin--No race hatreds in China--The state of Wei--Clanship between dynasties--Sacrificial rights--The state of Cheng: a fighting ground for all--The state of Ch'en--Explanation of the term "duke" as applied to all sovereign princes.

CHAPTER XXV

_VASSALS AND EMPEROR_

The vassal princes of the Chou and previous dynasties--Vassal princes and their relations with the Emperors--Protectors make great show of defending the Emperors rights--The Emperor's sacrifices to God--Rules and rights concerning fees--All China belongs to the Emperor--Peculiar notions about the Emperor's territory--Respect due to imperial envoys--Direct and indirect vassals--Ts'u's group of vassals--Ts'u compared with Macedon-- Never subject to the Emperors--Right of passage for armies-- Special complimentary use of the term "viscount"--Titles not inherited during mourning--Forms of address--Rival Protectors and their respective subordinate states--Tribute from the states to the Emperor, and presents from the Emperor to the vassal states-- The Emperor accepts _faits accomplis_, and takes what he can get.

CHAPTER XXVI

_FIGHTING STATE PERIOD_

Period of fighting states--Tsin divided into Han, Ngwei, and Chao- Ts'in developing herself in Tartary and in Sz Ch'wan--Want of orderly method in Chinese history--How the statesmen of each vassal state developed resources--Ts'in's military development compared with that of Prussia from 1815 to 1870--"Perpendicular and Horizontal" period--Object to crush Ts'in--Rival claimants for universal empire--First appearance of the Huns or Turks-Helpless position of Old China--Bloody battles in Ts'in's final career of conquest--A million men decapitated--Immense cavalry fights- Ts'in's supreme effort for conquest of China.

CHAPTER XXVII

_FOREIGN BLOOD_

_Resume_ of Chinese historical development--General lines of Chinese advance--Methods of Chinese colonization--Equal pedigree claims of half-Chinese states--Tsin and Ts'i were even more ancient than orthodox China--Degree of foreignness in Ts'u-Ts'u native words and music--Ts'u peculiarities-Succession laws in Ts'u and Lu compared--Further evidence of Ts'u's foreign ways--Beards-- Titles, posthumous and other--Ts'u admits her own savagery--Ts'u's claim to the Nine Tripods--Ts'u and the Chou rites--Ts'u's gradual civilization--Confucius' admiration of Ts'u--Confucius' style in speaking of barbarians--Distinction between "beat" and "battle"-- German distinctions of rank compared with Chinese--The historical honour of "naming"--Vagueness of testimony and the way to test evidence.

CHAPTER XXVIII

_BARBARIANS_

The state of Wu--First Chinese princely emigrants adopted barbarian usages--The Jungle country and Wu--Wu's way of doing the hair and Wu's confession of barbarism--Federal China uses Wu against Ts'u--Wu the same language and manners as Yueh--Native Wu words--Wu's ignorance of war--Wu's early isolation--Ts'i enters into marriage relations with Wu--Mencius objects retrospectively-- Wu ruling caste--The Wu language--Succession laws of Wu--A Wu prince's views on the soul--Confucius' views on ghosts--Ki-chah's intimacy with orthodox statesmen--Rumours of Early Japan--Japan and Wu tattooing customs alike--Japanese traditions of a connection with Wu--Dangers of etymological guess-work--Doubts about racial matters in Wu--Small value of Japanese history and tradition--General conclusions.