Chapter IV: The Aztecs (2)

Some of the finest pre-Cortesian codices that have come down to us are probably of Zapotecan and Mixtecan origin although reflecting to some extent the religion of the Aztecs. Several of these have been interpreted by Doctor Seler in terms of Aztecan religion and art. Among the documents from southern Mexico that belong to the late period are:—

Codex Borgia
Codex Vaticanus 3773
Codex Bologna
Codex Féjervary-Mayer
Codex Vindobonensis
Codex Nuttall or Zouche

Several _lienzos_ or documents written on cloth are also from this region. The Lienzo of Amoltepec which is a fine example of this class is conserved in the American Museum of Natural History. The documents from southern Mexico are distinguished by details of geometric ornament that resemble the panels of geometric design on the temples of Mitla. They record historical events, give astronomical information and present much pictographic evidence on various ceremonies and religious usages. In giving a date a somewhat different method is used than we have seen in the historical records from the Valley of Mexico. There is a definite year sign (Fig. 83) and with it is combined the year bearer, or initial day of the year, and often the particular day of the event. Unfortunately, this is not entirely satisfactory because no month signs are recorded and a day with a certain name and number frequently occurs twice in one year. The year bearers are the same as among the Aztecs for most of the documents, namely, Knife, House, Rabbit, and Reed, but in a manuscript ascribed to a tribe in southern Mexico called the Cuicatecs, the year bearers are Wind, Deer, Herb, and Movement (Fig. 84). Conquest of a town is shown by a spear thrust into the place name. Individuals are often named after the day on which they were born. Thus 8 Deer is a warrior hero in the Codex Nuttall and 3 Knife is a woman who also plays a prominent part. In some of the manuscripts from southern Mexico we see details that are very close to those in the codices of the Mayas.

Aztecan Influence in Central America.

The influence from the late Mexican cultures can be traced far to the south. Decorative motives that show affiliations to those of the Aztecs and their immediate predecessors are found as far south as Costa Rica but the strain is thin and not to be compared with the evidences of culture connection over wide territories that are found on earlier horizons. There was clearly a brisk trade in gold in Aztecan times between the Isthmus of Panama and Mexico.

After the breakdown of the civilization of the humid lands of Central America, following the Mayan cataclysm, the abandoned regions appear to have been repopulated by a stream of tribes from South America who swept up the coast of the Caribbean Sea and across the peninsula of Yucatan, as far as Tehuantepec. There was also a strong northern movement of tribes along the Pacific Coast seen most clearly in the distribution of languages belonging to the Chiapanecan or Chorotegan stock. The early historic records show the Mazateca in transit from their old home in Costa Rica to their new one in northern Oaxaca. Cortez in 1526 found these Indians in Yucatan.

A Cross-Section of New World History

This survey of ancient history in Mexico and Central America discloses a condition which doubtless holds true of the archæological record in other parts of the world. The earliest sedentary culture was by far the most homogeneous and widespread. This means it modified slowly and lasted for ages. At the same time, owing to the connection of the archaic complex with agriculture, the initial spread may have been rapid. The plants domesticated by the American Indians were developed far beyond the wild types, much farther indeed, than the domestic plants of the Old World. This development must have extended over many centuries. The first horizon of agriculture was based on plants of an arid highland environment. The second horizon of agriculture was based on these same plants after they had been slowly modified to fit a humid lowland environment, as well as on certain new plants of humid lowland origin.

The Maya civilization was specialized to the wet lowlands of the tropic zone and while the influence exerted by this dominant culture of the New World was felt over a great area, the exact characters were not reproduced elsewhere. Trade relations can be traced from Yucatan to Colombia on the one hand and on the other to New Mexico. The cycle of the Mayan civilization was comparatively short and the cycles of the resultant civilizations were even shorter. All New World history must be referred ultimately to the horizons of culture described above, with the standard chronology of the Mayas as the only definite scale.

In the cross-section of New World history presented herewith the horizontal measures represent space and the vertical measures represent time. The line A-B-C-D begins at Victoria Island and ends at Cape Horn, cutting across the culture areas named on the diagram. Over a large part of this cross-section the “horizon of recorded history” is in fact the time of the first European exploration, but in Colombia and Peru, there are well-defined traditions giving lists of kings, while in Central America there is exact chronology going back 2000 years before the coming of the white man. Below this and within it there are archæological records of culture sequence which in some regions, such as the Pueblo Area, have been nicely classified. On the basis of trade relations and diffused ideas in material and esthetic arts the marginal chronology can be tied in with that of the central standard section of history. Of course, all dates earlier than the first recorded ones are theoretical. The beginning of agriculture in America is put at 4000 B. C.—it may be earlier, but can hardly be much later.

In the Pueblo or Southwest Area a single type of flint corn, doubtless introduced from the south, appears on the first agricultural level. Contacts with Mexico and Central America are inferable during Basket Maker II and III, the latter stratum having female fetishes roughly comparable with those of the Archaic Horizon of Mexico. Later Southwest evolution is autochthonous until the end of Pueblo III when the concepts of the Plumed Serpent, the Eagle Man, Four-direction symbolism, etc., come from Mexico with Toltec trade. Culture sequence in the Southwest is about as follows:—

Pueblo V Modern 1692 to present time
Pueblo IVb Early Historic 1538 to 1692
Pueblo IVa Protohistoric 1200 to 1538
Pueblo IIIb Toltec Trade 1000 to 1200
Pueblo IIIa Urban Developments
Pueblo II Small House
Pueblo I Proto-Pueblo
Basket Maker III First Pottery
Basket Maker II First Agriculture
Basket Maker I Nomadic

In Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru culture successions are now being worked out. The best criterion of age is found in metals which enter Central America from South America after the fall of the First Mayan Empire, i.e., after 630 A. D. The technology of metal working is continuous from southern Colombia to central Mexico. Negative painting with wax has a wider and perhaps earlier distribution, reaching Ecuador and Peru in association with tripod pottery which is otherwise rare in the Andean region. Various motives of design link the two continents, especially on the Toltec-Chorotegan level. Between 1000 and 1200 A. D. civilization seems to have been generally stabilized, but this halcyon age was followed by disorganization and far-reaching migrations. The pre-Spanish horizons of southern Peru are tentatively arranged as follows by A. L. Kroeber, the apparently earlier material of Ancon being omitted for lack of the cross-ties.

III. Inca
IIc. Late Ica
IIb. Middle Ica
IIa. Epigonal
Ib. Late Nasca
Ia. Early Nasca

The early Nasca civilization was far from primitive being characterized by pyramids, fine textiles, and some metal. Mayan strains have been recognized in Chavin and Recuay in Peru and various sites in Ecuador.

The dynamic forces in the history of man in the New World have a tremendous bearing upon the present and future state of the world. The debt which we owe to the ancient civilizations of Mexico and Central America becomes apparent when we list the more important agricultural plants, fibers, gums, dyes, etc., which were taken over by Europeans from the American Indians.

Food Plants Cultivated by American Indians

Maize
Potatoes
Sweet potatoes
Tomatoes
Pumpkins
Squashes
Lima beans
Kidney beans
Peppers
Cacao
Pineapples
Nispero
Barbados cherry
Strawberries
Persimmons
Papaws
Guava
Arracacha
Peanuts
Oca
Cashew nut
Jocote
Star apples
Paraguay tea
Alligator pear
Chirimoya
Sour sop
Sweet sop
Custard apple
Cassava

Important Economic Contributions of American Indians

Fibers
Cotton
Henequen
Pita
Medicines
Tobacco
Cinchona (Quinine)
Cascara Sagrada
Cocaine
Ipecac
Sarsaparilla
Domesticated Animals
Alpaca
Llama
Guinea pig
Dog (perhaps Old World)
Muscovy duck
Turkey
Gums
Rubber
Copal
Peruvian Balsam
Chicle
Dyes
Añil (Indigo)
Cochineal
Logwood
Fustic

Diagram of American Chronology

Showing regions:
ARCTIC
CANADIAN FOREST
GREAT PLAINS
SOUTHWEST
CENTRAL MEXICAN
MAYAN
COLOMBIAN
AMAZON FOREST
PERUVIAN
SOUTHERN PLAINS
SOUTHERN FOREST
Eras:
Horizon of Recorded History
Second Horizon of Agriculture (Humid)
First Horizon of Agriculture (Arid)
Nomadic Non-Agricultural Horizon
Primary Invasion from Asia via Alaska on upper Paleolithic or lower
Neolithic, without agriculture, pottery or loom weaving.
15000-10000 BC.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

A brief list of books on Mexico and Central America is appended. These books may be consulted in the Museum Library as well as others referred to in the more complete bibliographies that will be found in the works cited.

Bancroft, H. H. _The Native Races of the Pacific States._ 5 vols. New York and London, 1875-1876.

Bandelier, Adolph F. _On the Distribution and Tenure of Lands and the Customs with Respect to Inheritance, among the Ancient Mexicans._ (Eleventh Annual Report, Peabody Museum of American Archæology and Ethnology, vol. 2, no. 2, pp. 384-448, Cambridge, 1878.)

_Social Organization and Mode of Government of the Ancient Mexicans._ (Twelfth Annual Report, Peabody Museum of American Archæology and Ethnology, vol. 2, no. 3, Cambridge, 1879.)

Bowditch, C. P. _The Numeration, Calendar Systems and Astronomical Knowledge of the Mayas._ Cambridge, 1910.

Bransford, J. F. _Archæological Researches in Nicaragua._ (Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge, XXV, Art. 2, pp. 1-96, 1881.)

Brinton, D. G. _The Maya Chronicles._ Philadelphia, 1882. (No. 1 of Brinton’s Library of Aboriginal American Literature.)

_The Annals of the Cakchiquels._ The original text with a translation, notes and introduction. Philadelphia, 1885. (No. 6 of Brinton’s Library of Aboriginal American Literature.)

_Essays of an Americanist._ Philadelphia, 1890.

Bulletin 28. _Mexican and Central American Antiquities, Calendar Systems and History._ Twenty-four papers by Eduard Seler, E. Förstemann, Paul Schellhas, Carl Sapper and E. P. Dieseldorff. Translated from the German under the supervision of Charles P. Bowditch. (Bulletin 28, Bureau of American Ethnology, Washington, 1904.)

Charnay, D. _The Ancient Cities of the New World._ Trans. by J. Gonino and H. S. Conant. London, 1887.

Dias Del Castillo, Bernal. _The True History of the Conquest of Mexico, 1568._ 3 vols. (Translated by A. P. Maudslay. Hakluyt Society, London, 1908.)

Förstemann, E. _Commentary of the Maya Manuscript in the Royal Public Library of Dresden._ (Papers, Peabody Museum, IV, No. 2, pp. 48-266, 1906.)

Gann, T. _Mounds in Northern Honduras._ (Nineteenth Annual Report, Bureau of American Ethnology, part 2, pp. 661-692, Washington, 1897-1898.)

Hartmann, C. V. _Archæological Researches in Costa Rica._ (The Royal Ethnographical Museum in Stockholm, Stockholm, 1901.)

_Archæological Researches on the Pacific Coast of Costa Rica._ (Memoirs, Carnegie Institute, vol. 3, pp. 1-95, 1907.)

Holmes, W. H. _Ancient Art of the Province of Chiriqui._ (Sixth Annual Report, Bureau of American Ethnology, pp. 3-187, Washington, 1888.)

_Archæological Studies among the Ancient Cities in Mexico._ (Publications, Field Columbian Museum, Chicago, 1895-1897.)

Joyce, T. A. _Mexican Archæology._ An Introduction to the Archæology of the Mexican and Maya Civilizations of pre-Spanish America. New York and London, 1914.

_Central American and West Indies Archæology._ Being an Introduction to the Archæology of the States of Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Panama and the West Indies. New York, 1916.

_Maya and Mexican Art._ London, 1927.

Kingsborough, Lord. _Antiquities of Mexico._ 9 vols., folio. London, 1831-1848.

Lehmann, W. _Methods and Results in Mexican Research._ Trans. by Seymour de Ricci. Paris, 1909.

_Ergebnisse einer Forschungsreise in Mittelamerika und Mexico 1907-1909._ (Zeitschrift für Ethnologie, Band 42, pp. 687-749, 1910.)

_Zentral Amerika. Die Sprachen Zentral-Amerikas in ihren Beziehungen zueinander sowie zu Süd-Amerika und Mexiko._ In zwei Banden. Band 1. Berlin, 1920.

Lothrop, S. K. _Pottery of Costa Rica and Nicaragua._ (Contributions, Museum of the American Indian, Heye Foundation, vol. VIII, 1926.)

Lumholtz, C. _Unknown Mexico._ 2 vols. New York, 1902.

_Symbolism of the Huichol Indians._ (Memoirs, American Museum of Natural History, vol. 3, part 1, 1900.)

_Decorative Art of the Huichol Indians._ (Memoirs, American Museum of Natural History, vol. 3, part 4, 1904.)

MacCurdy, G. G. _A Study of Chiriquian Antiquities._ (Memoirs, Connecticut Academy of Sciences, vol. 3, 1911.)

Maudslay, A. P. _Biologia Centrali-Americana, or Contributions to the Knowledge of the Flora and Fauna of Mexico and Central America._ _Archæology_, 4 vols. of text and plates. London, 1889-1902.

Memoirs of the Peabody Museum, vols. 1-5. Reports on excavations and exploration by Gordon, Maler, Thompson, and Tozzer.

Morley, S. G. _An Introduction to the Study of the Maya Hieroglyphs._ (Bulletin 57, Bureau of American Ethnology, Washington, 1915.)

_The Inscriptions at Copan._ (Publication 219, Carnegie Institution of Washington, Washington, 1920.)

Peñafiel, A. _Monumentos del arte Mexicano antiguo._ 3 vols. Berlin, 1890.

_Nomenclatura geografica de Mexico._ Mexico, 1897.

Sahagun, Bernardino de. _Histoire générale des Choses de la Nouvelle-Espagne._ (Edited and translated by D. Jourdanet and Rémi Siméon.) 1880.

_Historia de las cosas de Nueva España._ (Portfolio of illustrations from two Sahagun manuscripts copied under direction of F. del Paso y Troncoso and issued by the Mexican Government. Florence, 1922.)

Saville, Marshall H. _Turquois Mosaic Art in Ancient Mexico._ (Contributions, Museum of the American Indian, Heye Foundation, vol. VI, 1922.)

_The Wood-Carver’s Art in Ancient Mexico._ (Contributions, Museum of the American Indian, Heye Foundation, vol. IX, 1925.)

Schellhas, P. _Representation of Deities of the Maya Manuscripts._ 2nd edition revised. (Translated by Miss Selma Wesselhoeft and Miss A. M. Parker, Papers, Peabody Museum, vol. 4, No. 1, pp. 7-47, 1904.)

Seler, E. _Die alten Ansiedelungen von Chaculá im Districkte Nenton des Departments Huehuetenango der Republic Guatemala._ Berlin, 1901.

_Gesammelte Abhandlungen zur amerikanischen Sprach- und Alterthumskunde._ 5 vols. Berlin, 1908-1923.

_Codex Vaticanus No. 3773 (Codex Vaticanus B). An Old Mexican Pictorial Manuscript in the Vatican Library._ (Translated by A. H. Keane.) Berlin and London, 1902-1903.

Spinden, H. J. _A Study of Maya Art._ (Memoirs, Peabody Museum, vol. 6, 1913.)

_The Reduction of Maya Dates._ (Papers, Peabody Museum of American Archæology and Ethnology, Harvard University, vol. 6, no. 4, Cambridge, 1924.)

Squier, E. G. _The States of Central America: their Geography, Topography, Climate, Population,_ etc. New York, 1858.

Stephens, J. L. _Central America, Chiapas and Yucatan._ 2 vols. New York, 1841.

_Incidents of Travel in Yucatan._ 2 vols. New York, 1843.

Thomas, C. _A Study of the Manuscript Troano._ (U. S. Geographical and Geological Survey of the Rocky Mountain Region, Contributions to American Ethnology, V, pp. 1-224, 1882.)

Thomas, C., and Swanton, John R. _Indian Languages of Mexico and Central America._ (Bulletin 44, Bureau of American Ethnology, Washington, 1911.)

Tozzer, A. M. _A Comparative Study of the Mayas and Lacandones._ New York, 1907.

_A Maya Grammar, with Bibliography and Appraisement of the Works Noted._ (Papers, Peabody Museum of American Archæology and Ethnology, Harvard University, vol. 9, Cambridge, 1921.)

FOOTNOTES

[1]The word _cycle_ is applied in this book to re-entering series, or
wheels, of days. These all contain the _tzolkin_ or _tonalamatl_
without a remainder. The word _period_ is applied to fixed numbers
that do not contain the _tonalamatl_.

INDEX

A
Acropolis, artificial, 72, 74, 77.
Adobe, 63;
houses, Mexican, 15.
Agriculture, connection with archaic art, 249;
distribution of, 68, 70, 71;
distribution in the New World, 67, 68, 70;
influence on Mayan culture, 73;
invention of, 45, 51-53, 67, 251;
spread and development of, 63, 70, 250.
Ah Puch, Lord of Death, 101.
Alphabet, of Landa, 125.
Altars, Mayan, 84;
Quirigua, 108.
Amulets, archaic figurines as, 61;
gold, 198.
Animals, domestication of, 20, 59, 253.
Annals of Quauhtitlan, 171, 172.
Arch, in Mayan architecture, 79.
Archaic, art, 45-46, 53-57, 58, 75, 244;
art, on borders of Mayan area, 75;
art, local developments of, 63-68;
culture, 187, 249;
culture, distribution of, 63-66, 69;
culture, figures, 60, 61, 62;
figurines, 53-57;
horizon, 45-71;
horizon, extensions of, 63-68;
pottery, 46, 59-61;
sites, 50;
stone sculptures, 61-63.
Architecture, early period of the Mayas, 146;
great period of the Mayas, 147;
historical sequence determined by, 108-109;
Mayan, 77-83;
Mitla, 157, 163-164;
Monte Alban, 159;
period of the League of Mayapan, 149;
transition period, Mayan, 148;
types of, La Quemada, 182-183;
Zapotecan, 159.
Art, archaic, 45-46, 53-57, 75, 244;
archaic, characterization of, 53;
archaic, Colombia, and Venezuela, 66-67;
archaic, local developments of, 63-68;
bat, represented in, 20;
Chorotegan, 190-195;
decorative, Isthmian region, 64, 66;
high development of Mayan, 73;
massive sculptural, 83-84;
Mayan, 89, 146, 147, 148, 149, 150;
Mayan, human figure in, 93-94;
Mayan, sequences in, 106-109;
Mayan, serpent in, 89-93;
motives, Huichol, 37-38;
Santa Lucia Cozumalhualpa, 188;
Tarascan, 244-245;
Toltecan, influenced by Mayan, 169, 170;
Totonacan, close correspondence to Mayan, 165, 166, 167;
Zapotecan, influenced by Mayan, 159.
Arts, minor, Aztecan, 242-244;
Mayan, 87-89.
Astronomical, base line, Copan, 138;
checks, on correlation with Christian chronology, 136-137;
observatories, Mayan, 137-139.
Astronomy, Mayan knowledge of, 73, 111, 133.
_Atlatl_, 58, 244.
Atzcapotzalco, 203, 204, 209;
stratification at, 47-48, 169.
Aztecan history, 204-209.
Aztecs, 34, 201-249;
and Mayas, compared to Greeks and Romans, 201-203.

B
_Baktun_, defined, 120.
Bar and dot numerals, 119, 120, 128, 154, 157, 159.
Basketry, Mayan, 88.
Bats, represented in ancient art, 20.
Bells, Aztecan, 241-242;
copper, 187;
copper and gold, 198.
Ben, Mayan day sign, 87.
Birds, Mexico and Central America, 20-21.
Blankets, Mexican, 39, 243.
Brilliant period, Mayan civilizations, 75, 77, 147-148.
Buildings, Mayan, 78;
Mitla, 164.

C
Caban, Mayan day sign, 88.
Cakchiquels, 151, 211.
Calendar, annual, Mayan, 110, 111;
Central American, 163;
ceremonial, Aztecan, 229;
lunar, Mayan, 140-142;
lunar-solar, Mayan, 112;
Mayan, scheme as presented in Codex Tro-Cortesianus, 116;
religious, Aztecan, 235-236;
system, Zapotecan, 156;
Venus, Mayan, 143-145.
Calendar round, Mayan, 117-118.
Calendar Stone, 214, 215-219, 233.
_Calpolli_, Aztecan, 211, 213.
Cannibalism, 43.
Captives, as represented in Mayan art, 93.
Caribs, characterization of culture, 43.
Caricature, in archaic figurines, 54, 58.
Carving, development in style at Copan, 107;
on Mayan monuments, 108;
stone, at Xochicalco, 179.
Celts, copper, Tarascan, 244;
stone, 63.
Cemetery, at Copilco, 49-51.
Cempoalan, 25, 169, 195.
_Cenote_, 18;
sacred, at Chichen Itza, 28, 154.
Cephalic index, Mexico and Central America, 44.
Ceremonial, bar, Mayan, 93, 98, 99, 108;
regalia, depicted in Mayan art, 94.
Ceremonies, Aztecan, 234-239;
Mexican, 41.
Chacmool, 170, 194-195, 244.
Chalchuihtlicue, Aztecan Goddess of Water, 232.
Chapultepec, 207.
Chiapanecan languages, 35-36.
Chichen Itza, 28, 110, 139, 149, 150, 170, 173, 179, 188, 244.
Chichimecas, 203-204.
Chicomoztoc, 182, 204.
Chiefs, Aztecan, 210, 213;
Texcoco, 204;
Toltecan, 171;
war, Aztecan, 208-209;
Zapotecan, 161.
Chilam, Balam, Books of, 109-111, 234.
Chimayo blankets, 39.
Cholula, 25, 180-182, 203.
Chorotegan culture, 157, 189-195.
Chronology, archaic horizon, 45-46;
Aztecan, 205;
bases of Mayan, 103-106;
diagram of New World, opposite 253;
Mayan, 250;
Mayan, correlation with Christian, 75, 110-111, 135-136;
Mayan, established by dated monuments and style of sculpture,
104, 106, 107;
Peruvian, 252;
Southwestern, 251;
Toltecan, 173.
Cities, Mayan, 75.
Civilization, Mayan, 73-151, 250.
Civilizations, middle, in Mexico and Central America, 153-198.
Clans, kinship, 210-211.
Climate, Mexico and Central America, 13-14.
_Cloisonné_ pottery, 178, 183-184;
San Juan Teotihuacan, 178.
Coatlicue, 215, 221-223.
Codex, Aubin, 205, 206, 208;
Borbonicus, 228;
Magliabecchiano, 230, 236;
Nuttall, 246, 247;
Telleriano-Remensis, 202;
Tro-Cortesianus, 116;
Xolotl, 204.
Codices, Mayan, 128-135, 248;
Mayan gods in, 99, 100, 103;
Mexican, 223;
southern Mexico, 163, 246-247.
Colhuacan, 203, 207;
stratification at, 48-49.
Collectors, specimens in Mexican Hall, 6.
Colonization, Central America, by Spaniards, 22;
Mexico, 29.
Columns, sculptured, at Tula, 179.
Comalcalco, 153.
Commerce, Aztecan objects of, 227.
Composition in design, Mayan, 94-97.
Conquest, history of Spanish, 22-32;
of Mexico, 22-31;
symbol for, 247, 248.
Construction of walls, La Quemada, 182-183;
Mayan, 78, 79, 81, 83;
Mitla, 157-158, 164.
Copan, 19, 72, 74, 77, 83, 85, 138, 139, 141, 146, 147, 188.
Copilco 49, 50.
Cora, 33, 37.
Coronado, 30.
Correlations, dates with style of carving in Mayan monuments, 104,
106, 107, 110, 111, 124-125;
Mayan and Christian chronology, 135, 136-137.
Cortez, Hernando, 24, 26, 27, 29, 30, 209, 217, 249.
Crocodile motive, in Chorotegan art, 191, 193;
Isthmian region, 194, 197.
Crops, indigenous and introduced, Mexico and Central America, 21;
principal, Mayan region, 73, 75.
Cross-section, typical, Mayan temple, 76, 78.
Cuauhtemoc, 29.
Cuicuilco, 49, 50, 51.
Cuitlahuac, 27.
Cult, of the quarters, Aztecan, 234;
of Xipe, 189.
Culture, Carib, 43;
Chorotegan, 189-195;
horizons, stratification of, 45-46;
Huichol, 38;
Lacandone Indians, 41;
Mayan, 73-151;
Mosquito Indians, 43;
peoples speaking Uto-Aztecan languages, 34-35;
sequences of, 250-252;
southern Mexico, 245-248;
strata, Atzcapotzalco, 48;
Sumo Indians, 43;
Tarascans, 244-245;
Toltecs, 169-171, 203;
Totonacan, 165-169;
Zapotecan, 156-163.
Cycle, defined, 113.

D
Dances, hunting, Huichol, 38;
Mosquito Indians, 43.
Dates, of dedication, Mayan, 123-125;
early Mayan, 146, 153;
Mayan, 96, 107, 117-118, 122,
123;
on National Stone, 218;
Olmeca, 154, 156;
Toltecan, 172-173.
Day, count, Mayan, elements of the, 112-114;
signs, Aztecan, 218, 225-226;
signs, hieroglyphs used on Mayan pottery, 87-88;
signs, Mayan, 112, 125;
signs, Zapotecan, 159.
Death God, Mayan, 101, 116.
Decoration, Mayan buildings, 83;
Mayan pottery, 85, 87-88;
pottery, archaic period, 59, 61.
Decorative motives, Chorotegan art, 190-193;
distribution of, 252.
Dedication, dates of, Mayan, 123-125.
Design, composition and perspective, Mayan, 94-98;
on Leyden plate, 146;
on Mexican blanket, 243;
motives, archaic pottery, 46, 61;
motives, Costa Rica, 191, 192, 193, 194, 196, 197.
Designs, archaic horizon, 64;
on blankets, 39;
developed in negative painting, 184-185;
geometric, at Mitla, 164, 246;
Mayan pottery, 85-88;
polychrome pottery, 87;
realistic, Mayan pottery, 85, 87;
textile, archaic, 58;
textile, Aztecan, 243;
textile, Mayan, 88;
Totonacan sacrificial yokes and paddle stones, 167;
woven, Huichol, 37, 38.
Dogs, domestication of, 58-59.
Donors, collections in Mexican Hall, 6.
Dresden Codex, 101, 128, 130, 134, 141, 142, 143, 145.
Dress, shown in archaic figurines, 57;
Mexico and Central America, 39-41;
modern Mexican, 39.
Drums, Aztecan, 240-241.
Dyes, 253.

E
Early Period, in Mayan history, 146-147.
Earrings, archaic figurines, 57.
Economic contributions, of American Indians, 253.
Ehecatl, God of Winds, 58, 226, 230.
Ek Ahau, war god, Mayan, 103.
Elevations, Mayan buildings, 81-83.
Environment, Mayan, 153;
Mexico and Central America, 13-21.
Ethnology, 36-44, 57-59.
European contact, history of, 22-32.
Exploration, of Central America, by Spaniards, 22;
Mexico, 22, 29.
Eyes, archaic sculptures, 63;
color and Mongoloid tilt, 44;
Totonacan figurines, 165;
types of, on archaic figurines, 56-57, 64.

F
Façade decoration, Mayan, 83-84.
Face numerals, Mayan inscriptions, 121, 126.
Fauna, Mexico and Central America, 20-21.
Feast, in connection with planet Venus, 239;
of the twelfth month, 237-238.
Feasts, Aztecan, 235-239;
Sumo, 43.
Feather mosaics, Aztecan, 243-244;
Tarascan, 244.
Fertility, female figurines associated with, 46, 59, 63.
Fetishes, female, Southwestern Pueblo, 251.
Figurines, archaic, 46, 53-57;
archaic, at Atzcapotzalco, 47;
archaic, Colombia and Venezuela, 66-67;
archaic, Isthmian region, 64, 65;
archaic, Nicaragua, 64;
archaic, Salvador, 56, 64;
clay, transition period, 75;
female, Basket-Maker III, 63-64;
female, distribution of, 59, 63-64;
female, Island of Marajo, 67;
pottery, Aztecan, 242;
pottery, San Juan Teotihuacan, 177-178.
Filigree, modern Mexican work, 243.
First Empire, Mayan, 111, 123, 142, 148, 195, 251.
Flageolets, Aztecan, 241.
Flora, Mexico and Central America, 21.
Flores, 28.
Flying façade, Mayan buildings, 83.
Food plants, cultivated by American Indians, 253;
most widely distributed in the New World, 52.
Frescoes, Mitla, 163-164.
Frontier cities, of the northwest, 183-187.
Fruits, native, 21.
Funerary urns, Zapotecan, 159, 160; also frontispiece.

G
Games, ceremonial Toltecan, 170;
sacred, Olmeca, 154.
Genealogical table, Mexican, 230.
Genealogies, Aztecan, 210.
Geography, Mexico and Central America, 13-21.
Geology, Mexico and Central America, 19-20.
Gladiator stones, 219.
Glaze, on modern Mexican pottery, 39.
Glyphs, introducing, 122, 123;
period, Mayan, 121, 123, 126;
supplementary series, 123, 141, 142.
God houses, Huichol, 38.
God of War, Mayan, 103.
God’s eyes, Huichol, 38.
Gods, Aztecan, 225, 229, 231;
beast, Mayan representation of, 99;
in Dresden Codex, 101;
Mayan, 89, 98-103, 135;
Mexican, 58, 229, 230-232;
represented in pottery from San Juan Teotihuacan, 178.
Gold work, ancient, Isthmian region, 66;
Aztecan, 242-243;
in cruciform tombs, 164;
Isthmian, 195-198;
Mayan, 89;
Zapotecan, 160.
Gourd vessels, Tarascan, 245.
Government, Aztecan, 209, 213;
theocratic of the Mayas, 93.
Graves, Isthmian, gold objects found in, 198.
Great Mound, Copan, 147.
Great Period, Mayan history, 147-148.
Great Pyramid, Mexico City, 206, 208.
Grooving, archaic figurines, 56.
Groundplans, Toltecan buildings, 170;
Yaxchilan temples, 77.
Guatuso, 44.
Gums, 253.

H
_Haab_, defined, 139.
_Hablatun_, defined, 120.
Hair form, Indians of Mexico and Central America, 44;
Lacandone, 42.
Headdresses, archaic figurines, 55, 57;
Zapotecan funerary urns, 159-160;
Zapotecan, 42.
Head form, Indians of Mexico and Central America, 44.
Hieroglyphs, Aztecan, of precious stones, 224;
containing phonetic element _kin_, 127;
decorative use on pottery, Mayan, 87-88;
of the Four Directions, 126, 127;
Mayan, 73, 97, 125-128;
Mayan, Venus and the Moon, 137;
Nahuan, 224;
on stelæ at Monte Alban, 159;
on the Stone of Tizoc, 221;
at Xochicalco, 179;
Zapotecan, 160-161.
History, Aztecan, 204-209;
Chichimecan, 203-204;
cross-section of New World, 249-253;
of European contact, Mexico and Central America, 22-32;
Mayan, 136;
Mayan, recovery of, 103-106;
Mayan, summary of, 145-151;
summary in relation to archaeological evidences, on the
archaic horizon, 68, 71;
Toltecan, 171-175;
traditional, southern Mexico, 245-246.
Hochob, 80, 148.
Hokan linguistic stock, distribution of, 36.
Horse, introduction of, 67-68.
Hotun periods, 124.
Houses, adobe, Mexican, 15, 39;
archaic period, 63;
Mayan, 79.
Huastecas, 35, 165.
Huichol, 33, 37.
_Huipili_, decorated, 40, 41.
Huitzilihuitl, 207, 210.
Huitzilopochtli, 215, 221, 231, 237.
Human, form, carved in stone, archaic period, 61, 63;
form, in Mayan art, 89, 93-94, 106-108.
Hunac Ceel, identification of, 150.
Hunting implements, Lacandone, 41.

I
Ilhuicatl, inferior heavens, 233.
Imix, day sign, Mayan, 87;
first day of formal permutation, 114.
Incense burners, Lacandone, 41.
Incised designs on pottery, 88.
Influence, Aztecan, in Central America, 248-249;
Mayas, on other civilizations, 170;
Mexican, in northern Yucatan, 150.
Initial Series dates, 123, 124, 135, 141, 149.
Inscriptions, hieroglyphic, 103;
hieroglyphic, on Mayan monuments, 123-125;
Mayan, face numerals on, 121;
Mayan, Great Period, 141-148;
Mayan, typical, 122.
Invention of agriculture, in the New World, 45, 51-53, 67, 251.
Irrigation, in the New World, 17, 52-53, 63.
Itzamna, 99, 103, 116.
Ixchel, Goddess of the Rainbow, 103.
Ixtapalapan, 26.
Ixtubtun, Mayan goddess, 103.

J
Jade, carving of, Mayan, 89;
Zapotecan, 160;
work in, Aztec, 243.
Jaguar design, Chorotegan art, 191, 193.

K
Kan, day sign, Mayan, 88;
maize sign, 135.
Katun, defined, 110, 120.
Kukulcan, 150.

L
Lacandone Indians, 35, 41, 151.
Lakes, Mexico and Central America, 17, 18-19.
Land laws, Aztecan, 211.
Language, Toltecan, 170;
Totonacan, 165.
Languages, Central America, 239;
Mexico and Central America, 32-36.
La Quemada, 182, 183.
League, Aztecan, 209;
of Mayapan, 145, 149.
Leyden Plate, 146.
Lienzo of Amoltepec, 246.
Linguistic stocks, Mexico and Central America, 32-36.
Lintels, Mayan sculptured, 83, 97;
Zapotecan, with hieroglyphs, 159.
Long count, Mayan, 123, 141.
Long-nosed God, Mayan, 98, 100, 101, 160, 232.
Lunar, calendar, Mayan, 112, 140-142.
Lunar-solar calendar, Mayan, 112.

M
Macuilxochitl, God Five Flower, 248.
Maize God, Mayan, 99, 100, 103.
Maize, distribution of use, 52;
most important food of the New World, 52;
staple, in Mayan region, 75.
Manikin Scepter, 93, 99, 100.
Manioc, cultivation of, 52;
use and preparation by Carib, 43.
Marimba, origin of, 242.
Mask panels, on Mayan structures, 84, 159.
Matlatzincas, 245.
Mayan civilization, 73-151;
linguistic stock, distribution of, 35-36.
Mayas, and Aztecs, compared to Greeks and Romans, 201-203.
Mazatecas, 189.
Medicines, 253.
Metal, ornaments made of, Mayan, 89;
working, technology of, 251-252;
Zapotecan, 145.
Metates, elaborately sculptured, 193.
Metonic cycle, Greeks, 140.
Mexican, Hall, American Museum, 5-6;
influence, period of, in Mayan history, 149-150.
Mexitin, 34.
Mictlan, 163, 233, 234.
Mictlanteuctli, Lord of Death, 233-234.
Middle Period, in Mayan history, 147.
Migrations, Aztecan, 205-207;
indicated by distribution of linguistic stocks, 35-36.
Mitla, 19, 156-157, 163-165, 246.
Mixtecan stock, 35.
Mixtecas, 156, 246.
Moctezuma, 25, 26, 27, 215, 245.
Modeling, archaic figurines, 53, 55-57;
archaic sculptures, 63;
clay, San Juan Teotihuacan, 178.
Modern Period, Mayan history, 150.
_Mogotes_, Zapotecan burial mounds, 160.
Monkey, in Chorotegan art, 190-191.
Monte Alban, 152, 155, 156, 246.
Month, Mayan, twenty day signs of, 113;
signs, of Mayan year, 115;
signs, Zapotecan, 159.
Months, Aztecan, 227;
Mayan, length of, 115;
Mayan, names of, 115.
Monuments, Mayan, dated, 123-125;
sequence of Mayan determined by style of sculpture, 106-109.
Moon, representations of the, 142.
Mosaic, feather, Aztecan, 242;
feather, Tarascan, 244;
masks and ceremonial objects, 89.
Mosquito Indians, 43.
Mound, artificial, at Copan, 77, 147;
at Cholula, 80;
at Cuicuilco, 49, 51.
Mounds, at Atzcapotzalco, 47;
foundation for temples, 77;
Mayan, 146;
at Monte Alban, 152, 157;
Tarascan, 244;
Zapotecan, 160.
Mountains, Mexico and Central America, 14-16.
Music, Aztecan, 240-242.
Musical instruments, Aztecan, 240-241.
Mythology, Aztecan, 204, 217, 229, 232-233;
Mayan and Aztecan, 229.
Myths, cosmogonic, 232-233.

N
Nahuan linguistic stock, distribution of, 33, 203.
Naranjo, 75, 108, 147.
Nasca, 252.
National Stone, Aztecan, 218, 220.
Negative painting, 46, 66, 184-185, 187, 252.
New Fire Ceremony, Aztecan, 218;
Toltecan, 173.
Nezahualcoyotl, 204, 239.
Niquiras, 34.
Nose form, Indians of Mexico and Central America, 44.
Noserings, on archaic figurines, 57.
Notation system, Mayan, 111, 118-121.
Numbers, Aztecan, 227, 234;
Mayan, 118-121;
Mexican system of, 227-229;
Zapotecan system of, 157.

O
Observatories, astronomical, Mayan, 137-139.
Obsidian, Aztecan ornaments of, 243.
Ochpaniztli, eleventh feast of the year, 236.
Olin, Aztecan day sign, 214, 217, 218.
Olmeca, 154-156, 187.
Ometeuctli, Lord of Duality, 231, 233.
Organization, political, Mayan, 201;
social Aztecan, 209-213.
Ornaments, precious and semi-precious stones, Aztecan, 243;
shown on archaic figurines, 57.
Otomi, 36, 189, 203, 245.

P
Pachtli, twelfth month, Aztecan, 237-238.
Paddle-shaped stones, Totonacan, 167.
Painting, archaic figurines, 57, 64;
archaic pottery, 61;
body, shown on archaic figurines, 58;
on Mayan pottery, 87;
negative, on pottery, 46, 66, 184-185, 187, 252;
Zapotecan pottery, 160.
Palaces, structure of Mayan, 78-79.
Palenque, 75, 76, 83, 146, 156.
Palmate stone, 168.
Pantheon, Mayan, 98-103.
Papantla, pyramid at, 167, 169.
Peregrinations, Aztecan, 205-207.
Peresianus Codex, 128.
Period, defined, in Mayan time count, 113;
glyphs, Mayan, 121, 126.
Permutation system, Aztecan, 238;
Mayan, 111, 113-114.
Perspective, in Mayan design, 94, 97.
_Peyote_ worship, Huichol and Tarahumare, 38.
Phonetic use of signs, Mayan hieroglyphs, 125, 127.
Physical types, 42, 44.
Pictographic hieroglyphs, Mayan, 125.
Piedras Negras, 75, 96, 105, 108, 147.
Pima, 36.
Pipiles, 34, 157, 188.
Place names, Aztecan, 225.
Plants, food, cultivation of, in the New World, 51, 249-250.
Poetry, Aztecan, 239-240.
Polychrome pottery, Cholula, 180, 182;
Mayan, 87.
Portraiture, in archaic art, 54, 58;
in Mayan art, 94, 124;
Totonacan art, 166.
Post-Archaic Horizon, 68-71.
Potato, cultivated in Peru, 52.
Pottery, archaic, 46, 59, 61, 165;
Atzcapotzalco, 47;
Aztecan, 215, 242;
from Cholula, 180, 182, 246;
Chorotegan, 191-193;
cloisonné, San Juan Teotihuacan, 178;
at Cuicuilco, 51;
distribution of, 63-64, 69, 70;
Lacandone, 41;
Mayan, 85, 86, 87-88;
Mitla, 164-165;
modern Mexican, 39;
northwestern region of Mexico, 183-184;
polychrome, Cholula, 180, 182;
polychrome, Mayan, 87-88;
San Juan Teotihuacan, 178;
with semi-glaze, 188-189;
Zapotecan, 160.
Pouches, Valiente Indians, 40.
Pre-Archaic Horizon, 68.
Priests, in Mayan art, 93;
Zapotecan, 161.
Protohistoric Period, Mayan history, 145-146.
Pueblo Viejo, 23.
_Pulque_, 38, 170.
Pyramid, Cholula, 180-181;
Mayan, 78-79;
Monte Alban, 157;
San Juan Teotihuacan, 175-176;
Toltecan, 169, 170.

Q
Quetzalcoatl, 25, 149, 171, 205, 232;
and the Toltec era, 171-175.
Quichés, 151.
Quinatzin, map, 203.
Quirigua, 15, 75, 108, 141.

R
Rank, among the Aztecs, 209-210.
Rattles, Aztecan, 241.
Religion, Aztecan, 229-232;
as evidenced by archaic art, 58;
Isthmian region, 198;
Lacandone Indians, 41;
Mayan, 99-103, 146, 201;
Toltecan, 170;
Zapotecan, 146.
River systems, Mexico and Central America, 17-18.
Roman-nosed God, Mayan, 98, 99, 100.
Roof comb, on Mayan buildings, 76, 83, 109.
Roofs, Mayan buildings, 81.
Rooms, Mayan buildings, 79, 81, 109.
Rubber, uses of, 154.
Ruins, Usumacinta Valley, 18.
Rulers, Toltec, 171.

S
Sacrifices, Aztecan, to the gods, 201;
human, 215, 219, 229;
human, archaic horizon, 59;
human, Aztecan, 229, 234, 235;
human, in sacred cenote, 28;
human, shown on sculptures, 188;
human, Toltecan, 179;
human, Zapotecan, 161.
Sacrificial yokes, Totonacan, 167, 168.
Saltillo blankets, 39.
San Andres Tuxtla, 146, 153.
San Blas Indians, 44.
San Juan Teotihuacan, 169, 175-179.
San Miguel blankets, 39.
Santa Lucia Cozumalhualpa, 187-189.
Sculptural art, massive, 83-84.
Sculptures, archaic, 61-63;
common material for, 19;
developments in, as a check to chronology, 104;
Mayan, Early Period, 146;
Mayan, Middle Period, 147;
San Juan Teotihuacan, 177;
Santa Lucia Cozumalhualpa, 188;
sequence in style, 106-108;
style, correlated with dates, 124-125;
Tenochtitlan, 242;
at Tula, 179;
wall, at Copan, 83;
Zapotecan, 162.
Second Empire, Mayan, 149, 195.
Seibal, 75, 95.
Seri, 36.
Serpent, archaic pottery, 59, 61;
in Chorotegan art, 190-191;
conventional, of the Mayas, 91, 92-93;
heads, comparison of Mayan and Zapotecan, 156;
heads, on Mayan buildings, 84;
motive, importance in Mayan art, 89-93;
in religion of the Mayas, 98.
Shield stone, Cuernavaca, 216.
Sky God, 102.
Slabs, sculptured stone, from Costa Rica, 192, 193, 194;
Zapotecan, 162.
Smiling faces, Totonacan, 165-167.
Social organization, Aztecan, 209-213.
Songs, Aztecan, 239, 240.
Southern Mexico, culture of, 245-248.
Spear-thrower, Tarascan, 244.
Speech scroll, 188.
Stability, Mayan buildings, 81.
Stature, Indians of Mexico and Central America, 44.
Stelæ, Mayan, 84, 106;
Zapotecan, 157.
Stocks, language, distribution of, 32-36.
Stone, collars, Totonacan, 167-168;
great development of building in, Copan and Mitla, 19;
sculpture in, 60-63;
yokes, 167;
Zapotecan art in, 160.
Stratification, archaeological, at Atzcapotzalco, 47-48, 169;
Mexican sites, 45-46, 47-49;
in Salvador, 49.
Structure, two-roomed, Mayan, 79-81.
Subtiaban stock, 36.
Sumo Indians, culture of, 43.
Sun God, Aztecan, 217, 231.
Suns, sequence of, in Aztecan mythology, 233.
Superstructures, on Mayan buildings, 83.
Supplementary series, 123, 141, 142.
Syllables, phonetic use of Mayan, 125, 127.
Symbolism, religious, Mayan, 95, 98, 234.

T
Talamanca, 44.
Tarahumare, 33, 36.
Tarascan, culture, 244-245;
stock, 35.
Tarascans, 44.
Tattooing, shown on archaic figurines, 56, 58.
Tecpan, 208, 209, 212, 213, 215.
Temple, of the Cross, model of, 76;
enclosure, Tenochtitlan, 212, 213, 215;
structure of Mayan, 78, 79, 81, 83;
of the Sun, Aztecan, 217;
at Xochicalco, 179.
Temples, Mayan, 78-83, 109, 146, 150;
Mitla, 163-164;
Tenochtitlan, 212, 213, 215;
Toltecan, 170;
Zapotecan, 157.
Tenochtitlan, 25, 26, 27, 29, 34, 47, 209, 210, 213, 219, 242.
_Teocentli_, sacred maize, 51, 52.
_Teonanacatl_, peyote, use of, 38.
Teotihuacan, 157.
Teotleco, twelfth month, Aztecan, 237-238.
Tepanecas, 47, 205, 209.
Tepehuane, 33, 36.
_Teswin_, 38.
Teteocan, 233.
Teteoinnan, 236.
Texcoco, 172, 195, 203, 204, 209, 239.
Textile, art, Cora and Huichol, 37;
art, Mayan, 88;
decoration, Aztec, 243;
designs, on archaic effigies, 58.
Tezcatlipoca, feast of, 26.
Tikal, 75, 83, 146, 148.
Time, count, Aztecan, 205;
Mayan, 111;
Toltecan, 172;
Zapotecan, 161, 163.
Time-relations, in New World culture, 249-252.
Tizoc, stone of, 209, 215, 219-221.
_Tlachtli_, Mexican ball game, 170, 179.
Tlacopan, 209.
Tlaloc, God of Rain, 58, 178, 215, 230, 231.
Tlalocan, 234.
Tlappaneca, 189.
Tlaxcala, 25, 27, 34, 44, 209.
Tlotzin, map of, 203.
Toltec, era, and Quetzalcoatl, 171-175.
Toltecs, 110, 149, 154, 156, 169-171, 203, 232.
Tomb, cruciform, near Mitla, 158, 164.
_Tonalamatl_, Aztecan, 113, 228, 238-239.
Tonatiuh, the Sun god, 217, 221, 231.
Topography, Mexico and Central America, 14-19.
Totonacan, culture, 165-169;
stock, 35.
Totonacs, 187.
Toxcatl, Aztecan month, 235.
Traditions, Colombia and Peru, 250;
Mayan, 104.
Transition Period, Mayan history, 148-149.
Trees, Mexico and Central America, 21.
Tribes, Indian, Mexico and Central America, 33, 34, 35, 36.
Tribute, lists, Aztecan, 243;
roll, 200, 245;
taken by Toltecs, 171.
Tripod vessels, archaic period, 59.
Tro-Cortesianus Codex, 128.
Tropical year, 139.
Tula, 169, 173, 179.
Tulum, 150, 151.
Tun, defined, 139.
Tuxtla Statuette, 146, 153.
Turquoise, Aztec work in, 243.
Two-Headed Dragon, 93, 100, 101, 102, 105, 108.
Tzendals, 44.
Tzintzuntzan, Tarascan capital, 244.
Tzolkin, defined, 113, 115, 117, 118;
in Dresden Codex, 133-135;
origin of, 113;
permutation table, 114.

U
Uayeb period, Mayan, 115.
Uaxactun, 139, 146, 148.
_Uinal_, lunar month, 112.
Universe, Aztecan conceptions of the, 232-234.
Urns, Zapotecan funerary, 159-160.
Uto-Aztecan languages, distribution of, 33-35.
Uxmal, 149, 150;
House of the Governor at, 82.

V
Vault, Mayan buildings, 79.
Venus, Aztecan festivals in connection with, 239;
calendar, Mayan, 143-145, 146.
Viceroys, Spanish, in Mexico, 31.
Vigesimal system of counting, Mayan, 118, 119.
Volcanoes, Mexico and Central America, 16, 19.

W
Wall construction, La Quemada, 182-183;
Mayan, 76, 79, 81-83;
Mitla, 161, 164.
War God, Aztecan, 219, 237;
Mayan, 103.
War, importance in Aztecan organization, 209-210;
Toltecan, 170-171.
Weapons, shown in archaic figurines, 58.
Weaving, shown in archaic figurines, 57-58;
Cora and Huichol, 37;
Lacandone, 41;
Mayan, 88;
Tarascan, 244.
Whistles, Aztecan, 241.
Writing, hieroglyphic, Mayan, 73;
Mayan and Aztecan, 125-128;
Mexican, 223-229.

X
Xcalumkin, 134.
Xipe, 178, 189, 232, 236.
Xkichmook, 84.
Xochicalco, 157, 179.
Xochimilco, 48, 207.
Xolotl, 204.

Y
_Yatacas_, Tarascan mounds, 244.
Yaqui, 44.
Yaxchilan, 75, 83, 94, 102.
Year, bearers, Cuicatecan, 246, 247;
conventional, Mayan, 114-117;
length of Mayan, 112;
Mayan, the true, 139-140;
symbol, southern Mexico, 245.
Yellow fever, presence in Central America, 148.
Yokes, sacrificial, 167;
designs on, 167, 168.
Yum Kaax, Lord of the Harvest, 103.

Z
Zapotecan stock, 35.
Zapotecs, culture of, 44, 156-163.
Zero, invention of sign for, Mayas, 119.
Zotzils, 211.

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Transcriber’s note:

—Where possible, transcribed text within images.

—Silently corrected apparent typographical errors; left non-standard spellings and dialect unchanged.