Chapter II: Preface

The great antiquity of mankind upon the earth has been conclusively established. It seems singular that the proofs should have been discovered as recently as within the last thirty years, and that the present generation should be the first called upon to recognize so important a fact.

Mankind are now known to have existed in Europe in the glacial period, and even back of its commencement, with every probability of their origination in a prior geological age. They have survived many races of animals with whom they were contemporaneous, and passed through a process of development, in the several branches of the human family, as remarkable in its courses as in its progress.

Since the probable length of their career is connected with geological periods, a limited measure of time is excluded. One hundred or two hundred thousand years would be an unextravagant estimate of the period from the disappearance of the glaciers in the northern hemisphere to the present time. Whatever doubts may attend any estimate of a period, the actual duration of which is unknown, the existence of mankind extends backward immeasurably, and loses itself in a vast and profound antiquity.

This knowledge changes materially the views which have prevailed respecting the relations of savages to barbarians, and of barbarians to civilized men. It can now be asserted upon convincing evidence that savagery preceded barbarism in all the tribes of mankind, as barbarism is known to have preceded civilization. The history of the human race is one in source, one in experience, and one in progress.

It is both a natural and a proper desire to learn, if possible, how all these ages upon ages of past time have been expended by mankind; how savages, advancing by slow, almost imperceptible steps, attained the higher condition of barbarians; how barbarians, by similar progressive advancement, finally attained to civilization; and why other tribes and nations have been left behind in the race of progress—some in civilization, some in barbarism, and others in savagery. It is not too much to expect that ultimately these several questions will be answered.

Inventions and discoveries stand in serial relations along the lines of human progress, and register its successive stages; while social and civil institutions, in virtue of their connection with perpetual human wants, have been developed from a few primary germs of thought. They exhibit a similar register of progress. These institutions, inventions and discoveries have embodied and preserved the principal facts now remaining illustrative of this experience. When collated and compared they tend to show the unity of origin of mankind, the similarity of human wants in the same stage of advancement, and the uniformity of the operations of the human mind in similar conditions of society.

Throughout the latter part of the period of savagery, and the entire period of barbarism, mankind in general were organized in gentes, phratries and tribes. These organizations prevailed throughout the entire ancient world upon all the continents, and were the instrumentalities by means of which ancient society was organized and held together. Their structure, and relations as members of an organic series, and the rights, privileges and obligations of the members of the gens, and of the members of the phratry and tribe, illustrate the growth of the idea of government in the human mind. The principal institutions of mankind originated in savagery, were developed in barbarism, and are maturing in civilization.

In like manner, the family has passed through successive forms, and created great systems of consanguinity and affinity which have remained to the present time. These systems, which record the relationships existing in the family of the period, when each system respectively was formed, contain an instructive record of the experience of mankind while the family was advancing from the consanguine, through intermediate forms, to the monogamian.

The idea of property has undergone a similar growth and development. Commencing at zero in savagery, the passion for the possession of property, as the representative of accumulated subsistence, has now become dominant over the human mind in civilized races.

The four classes of facts above indicated, and which extend themselves in parallel lines along the pathways of human progress from savagery to civilization, form the principal subjects of discussion in this volume.

There is one field of labor in which, as Americans, we have a special interest as well as a special duty. Rich as the American continent is known to be in material wealth, it is also the richest of all the continents in ethnological, philological and archæological materials, illustrative of the great period of barbarism. Since mankind were one in origin, their career has been essentially one, running in different but uniform channels upon all continents, and very similarly in all the tribes and nations of mankind down to the same status of advancement. It follows that the history and experience of the American Indian tribes represent, more or less nearly, the history and experience of our own remote ancestors when in corresponding conditions. Forming a part of the human record, their institutions, arts, inventions and practical experience possess a high and special value reaching far beyond the Indian race itself.

When discovered, the American Indian tribes represented three distinct ethnical periods, and more completely than they were elsewhere then represented upon the earth. Materials for ethnology, philology and archæology were offered in unparalleled abundance; but as these sciences scarcely existed until the present century, and are but feebly prosecuted among us at the present time, the workmen have been unequal to the work. Moreover, while fossil remains buried in the earth will keep for the future student, the remains of Indian arts, languages and institutions will not. They are perishing daily, and have been perishing for upwards of three centuries. The ethnic life of the Indian tribes is declining under the influence of American civilization, their arts and languages are disappearing, and their institutions are dissolving. After a few more years, facts that may now be gathered with ease will become impossible of discovery. These circumstances appeal strongly to Americans to enter this great field and gather its abundant harvest.

ROCHESTER, NEW YORK, March, 1877.

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

PART I.

GROWTH OF INTELLIGENCE THROUGH INVENTIONS AND
DISCOVERIES.

CHAPTER I.

ETHNICAL PERIODS.

Progress of Mankind from the Bottom of the Scale.—Illustrated
by Inventions, Discoveries and Institutions.—Two Plans
of Government—one Gentile and Social, giving a Society
(_Societas_); the other Political, giving a State
(_Civitas_).—The former founded upon Persons and Gentilism;
the Latter upon Territory and Property.—The First, the Plan of
Government of Ancient Society.—The Second, that of Modern or
Civilized Society.—Uniformity of Human Experience.—Proposed
Ethnical Periods—I. Lower Status of Savagery; II. Middle
Status of Savagery; III. Upper Status of Savagery; IV. Lower
Status of Barbarism; V. Middle Status of Barbarism; VI. Upper
Status of Barbarism; VII. Status of Civilization. 3

CHAPTER II.

ARTS OF SUBSISTENCE.

Supremacy of Mankind over the Earth.—Control over Subsistence
the Condition.—Mankind alone gained that Control.—Successive
Arts of Subsistence—I. Natural Subsistence; II. Fish
Subsistence; III. Farinaceous Subsistence; IV. Meat and
Milk Subsistence; V. Unlimited Subsistence through Field
Agriculture.—Long Intervals of Time between them. 19

CHAPTER III.

RATIO OF HUMAN PROGRESS.

Retrospect on the Lines of Human Progress.—Principal
Contributions of Modern Civilization.—Of Ancient
Civilization.—Of Later Period of Barbarism.—Of Middle
Period.—Of Older Period.—Of Period of Savagery.—Humble
Condition of Primitive Man.—Human Progress in a Geometrical
Ratio.—Relative Length of Ethnical Periods.—Appearance of
Semitic and Aryan Families. 29

PART II.

GROWTH OF THE IDEA OF GOVERNMENT.

CHAPTER I.

ORGANIZATION OF SOCIETY UPON THE BASIS OF SEX.

Australian Classes.—Organized upon Sex.—Archaic Character of
the Organization.—Australian Gentes.—The Eight Classes.—Rule
of Marriage.—Descent in the Female Line.—Stupendous
Conjugal System.—Two Male and Two Female Classes in each
Gens.—Innovations upon the Classes.—Gens still Rudimentary. 49

CHAPTER II.

THE IROQUOIS GENS.

The Gentile Organization.—Its Wide Prevalence.—Definition of
a Gens.—Descent in the Female Line the Archaic Rule.—Rights,
Privileges and Obligations of Members of a Gens.—Right of
Electing and Deposing its Sachem and Chiefs.—Obligation not
to marry in the Gens.—Mutual Rights of Inheritance of the
Property of deceased Members.—Reciprocal Obligations of
Help, Defense and Redress of Injuries.—Right of Naming its
Members.—Right of Adopting Strangers into the Gens.—Common
Religious Rites, Query.—A Common Burial Place.—Council of the
Gens.—Gentes named after Animals.—Number of Persons in a Gens. 62

CHAPTER III.

THE IROQUOIS PHRATRY.

Definition of a Phratry.—Kindred Gentes Reunited in a
Higher Organization.—Phratry of the Iroquois Tribes.—Its
Composition.—Its Uses and Functions.—Social and
Religious.—Illustrations.—The Analogue of the Grecian Phratry;
but in its Archaic Form.—Phratries of the Choctas.—Of the
Chickasas.—Of the Mohegans.—Of the Thlinkeets.—Their Probable
Universality in the Tribes of the American Aborigines. 88

CHAPTER IV.

THE IROQUOIS TRIBE.

The Tribe as an Organization.—Composed of Gentes Speaking
the same Dialect.—Separation in Area led to Divergence
of Speech, and Segmentation.—The Tribe a Natural
Growth.—Illustrations.—Attributes of a Tribe.—A Territory and
Name.—An Exclusive Dialect.—The Right to Invest and Depose its
Sachems and Chiefs.—A Religious Faith and Worship.—A Council
of Chiefs.—A Head-Chief of Tribe in some Instances.—Three
successive Forms of Gentile Government: First, a Government of
One Power; Second, of Two Powers; Third, of Three Powers. 102

CHAPTER V.

THE IROQUOIS CONFEDERACY.

Confederacies Natural Growths.—Founded upon Common Gentes,
and a Common Language.—The Iroquois Tribes.—Their Settlement
in New York.—Formation of the Confederacy.—Its Structure
and Principles.—Fifty Sachemships Created.—Made Hereditary
in certain Gentes.—Number assigned to each Tribe.—These
Sachems formed the Council of the Confederacy.—The Civil
Council.—Its Mode of Transacting Business.—Unanimity Necessary
to its Action.—The Mourning Council.—Mode of Raising up
Sachems.—General Military Commanders.—This Office the Germ of
that of a Chief Executive Magistrate.—Intellectual Capacity of
the Iroquois. 122

CHAPTER VI.

GENTES IN OTHER TRIBES OF THE GANOWÁNIAN FAMILY.

Divisions of American Aborigines.—Gentes in Indian Tribes;
with their Rules of Descent and Inheritance.—I. Hodenosaunian
Tribes.—II. Dakotian.—III. Gulf.—IV. Pawnee.—V. Algonkin.—VI.
Athapasco-Apache.—VII. Tribes of North-west Coast.—Eskimos,
a Distinct Family.—VIII. Salish, Sahaptin, and Kootenay
Tribes.—IX. Shoshonee.—X. Village Indians of New Mexico,
Mexico and Central America.—XI. South American Indian
Tribes.—Probable Universality of the Organization in Gentes in
the Ganowánian Family. 151

CHAPTER VII.

THE AZTEC CONFEDERACY.

Misconception of Aztec Society.—Condition of
Advancement.—Nahuatlac Tribes.—Their Settlement in
Mexico.—Pueblo of Mexico founded, A. D. 1325.—Aztec
Confederacy established, A. D. 1426.—Extent of Territorial
Domination.—Probable Number of the People.—Whether or not
the Aztecs were organized in Gentes and Phratries.—The
Council of Chiefs.—Its probable Functions.—Office
held by Montezuma.—Elective in Tenure.—Deposition of
Montezuma.—Probable Functions of the Office.—Aztec
Institutions essentially Democratical.—The Government a
Military Democracy. 186

CHAPTER VIII.

THE GRECIAN GENS.

Early Condition of Grecian Tribes.—Organized into
Gentes.—Changes in the Character of the Gens.—Necessity for
a Political System.—Problem to be Solved.—The Formation of a
State.—Grote’s Description of the Grecian Gentes.—Of their
Phratries and Tribes.—Rights, Privileges and Obligations of
the Members of the Gens.—Similar to those of the Iroquois
Gens.—The Office of Chief of the Gens.—Whether Elective or
Hereditary.—The Gens the Basis of the Social System.—Antiquity
of the Gentile Lineage.—Inheritance of Property.—Archaic and
Final Rule.—Relationships between the Members of a Gens.—The
Gens the Center of Social and Religious Influence. 215

CHAPTER IX.

THE GRECIAN PHRATRY, TRIBE AND NATION.

The Athenian Phratry.—How Formed.—Definition of
Dikæarchus.—Objects chiefly Religious.—The Phratriarch.—The
Tribe.—Composed of Three Phratries.—The Phylo Basileus.—The
Nation.—Composed of Four Tribes.—Boulê, or Council of
Chiefs.—Agora, or Assembly of the People.—The Basileus.—Tenure
of the Office.—Military and Priestly Functions.—Civil
Functions not shown.—Governments of the Heroic Age, Military
Democracies.—Aristotle’s Definition of a Basileus.—Later
Athenian Democracy.—Inherited from the Gentes.—Its Powerful
Influence upon Athenian Development. 235

CHAPTER X.

THE INSTITUTION OF GRECIAN POLITICAL SOCIETY.

Failure of the Gentes as a Basis of Government.—Legislation
of Theseus.—Attempted Substitution of Classes.—Its
Failure.—Abolition of the Office of Basileus.—The
Archonship.—Naucraries and Trittyes.—Legislation of Solon.—The
Property Classes.—Partial Transfer of Civil Power from the
Gentes to the Classes.—Persons unattached to any Gens.—Made
Citizens.—The Senate.—The Ecclesia.—Political Society
partially attained.—Legislation of Cleisthenes.—Institution
of Political Society.—The Attic Deme or Township.—Its
Organization and Powers.—Its Local Self-government.—The Local
Tribe or District.—The Attic Commonwealth.—Athenian Democracy. 256

CHAPTER XI.

THE ROMAN GENS.

Italian Tribes Organized in Gentes.—Founding of
Rome.—Tribes Organized into a Military Democracy.—The
Roman Gens.—Definition of a Gentilis by Cicero.—By
Festus.—By Varro.—Descent in Male Line.—Marrying out of the
Gens.—Rights, Privileges and Obligations of the Members of a
Gens.—Democratic Constitution of Ancient Latin Society.—Number
of Persons in a Gens. 277

CHAPTER XII.

THE ROMAN CURIA, TRIBE AND POPULUS.

Roman Gentile Society.—Four Stages of Organization.—1.
The Gens; 2. The Curia, consisting of Ten Gentes; 3. The
Tribe, composed of Ten Curiæ; 4. The Populus Romanus,
composed of Three Tribes.—Numerical Proportions.—How
Produced.—Concentration of Gentes at Rome.—The Roman
Senate.—Its Functions.—The Assembly of the People.—Its
Powers.—The People Sovereign.—Office of Military Commander
(Rex).—Its Powers and Functions.—Roman Gentile Institutions
essentially Democratical. 300

CHAPTER XIII.

THE INSTITUTION OF ROMAN POLITICAL SOCIETY.

The Populus.—The Plebeians.—The Clients.—The
Patricians.—Limits of the Order.—Legislation of Servius
Tullius.—Institution of Property Classes.—Of the
Centuries.—Unequal Suffrage.—Comitia Centuriata. —Supersedes
Comitia Curiata.—Classes supersede the Gentes.—The
Census.—Plebeians made Citizens.—Institution of City
Wards.—Of Country Townships.—Tribes increased to Four.—Made
Local instead of Consanguine.—Character of New Political
System.—Decline and Disappearance of Gentile Organization.—The
Work it Accomplished. 323

CHAPTER XIV.

CHANGE OF DESCENT FROM THE FEMALE TO THE MALE LINE.

How the Change might have been made.—Inheritance of
Property the Motive.—Descent in the Female Line among the
Lycians.—The Cretans.—The Etruscans.—Probably among the
Athenians in the time of Cecrops.—The Hundred Families of
the Locrians.—Evidence from Marriages.—Turanian System of
Consanguinity among Grecian Tribes.—Legend of the Danaidæ. 343

CHAPTER XV.

GENTES IN OTHER TRIBES OF THE HUMAN FAMILY.

The Scottish Clan.—The Irish Sept.—Germanic Tribes.—Traces
of a prior Gentile System.—Gentes in Southern Asiatic
Tribes.—In Northern.—In Uralian Tribes.—Hundred Families of
Chinese.—Hebrew Tribes.—Composed of Gentes and Phratries
Apparently.—Gentes in African Tribes.—In Australian
Tribes.—Subdivisions of Fejees and Rewas.—Wide Distribution of
Gentile Organization. 357

PART III.

GROWTH OF THE IDEA OF THE FAMILY.

CHAPTER I.

THE ANCIENT FAMILY.

Five successive Forms of the Family.—First, the Consanguine
Family.—It created the Malayan System of Consanguinity and
Affinity.—Second, the Punaluan.—It created the Turanian
and Ganowánian System.—Third, the Monogamian.—It created
the Aryan, Semitic, and Uralian System.—The Syndyasmian
and Patriarchal Families Intermediate.— Both failed to
create a System of Consanguinity.—These Systems Natural
Growths.—Two Ultimate Forms.—One Classificatory, the other
Descriptive.—General Principles of these Systems.—Their
Persistent Maintenance. 383

CHAPTER II.

THE CONSANGUINE FAMILY.

Former Existence of this Family.—Proved by Malayan System of
Consanguinity.—Hawaiian System used as Typical.—Five Grades of
Relations.—Details of System.—Explained in its origin by the
Intermarriage of Brothers and Sisters in a Group.—Early State
of Society in the Sandwich Islands.—Nine Grades of Relations
of the Chinese.—Identical in Principle with the Hawaiian.—Five
Grades of Relations in Ideal Republic of Plato.—Table of
Malayan System of Consanguinity and Affinity. 401

CHAPTER III.

THE PUNALUAN FAMILY.

The Punaluan Family supervened upon the
Consanguine.—Transition, how Produced.—Hawaiian Custom of
Punalua.—Its probable ancient Prevalence over wide Areas.—The
Gentes originated probably in Punaluan Groups.—The Turanian
System of Consanguinity.—Created by the Punaluan Family.—It
proves the Existence of this Family when the System was
formed.—Details of System.—Explanation of its Relationships
in their Origin.—Table of Turanian and Ganowánian Systems of
Consanguinity and Affinity. 424

CHAPTER IV.

THE SYNDYASMIAN AND THE PATRIARCHAL FAMILIES.

The Syndyasmian Family.—How Constituted.—Its
Characteristics.—Influence upon it of the Gentile
Organization.—Propensity to Pair a late Development.—Ancient
Society should be Studied where the highest Exemplifications
are found.—The Patriarchal Family.—Paternal Power its
Essential Characteristic.—Polygamy subordinate.—The Roman
Family similar.—Paternal Power unknown in previous Families. 453

CHAPTER V.

THE MONOGAMIAN FAMILY.

This Family comparatively Modern.—The Term Familia.—Family
of Ancient Germans.—Of Homeric Greeks.—Of Civilized
Greeks.—Seclusion of Wives.—Obligations of Monogamy not
respected by the Males.—The Roman Family.—Wives under
Power.—Aryan System of Consanguinity.—It came in under
Monogamy.—Previous System probably Turanian.—Transition
from Turanian into Aryan.—Roman and Arabic Systems of
Consanguinity.—Details of the Former.—Present Monogamian
Family.—Table of Roman and Arabic Systems. 468

CHAPTER VI.

SEQUENCE OF INSTITUTIONS CONNECTED WITH THE FAMILY.

Sequence in part Hypothetical.—Relation of these Institutions
in the Order of their Origination.—Evidence of their
Origination in the Order named.—Hypothesis of Degradation
Considered.—The Antiquity of Mankind. 498

PART IV.

GROWTH OF THE IDEA OF PROPERTY.

CHAPTER I.

THE THREE RULES OF INHERITANCE.

Property in the Status of Savagery.—Slow Rate of
Progress.—First Rule of Inheritance.—Property Distributed
among the Gentiles.—Property in the Lower Status of
Barbarism.—Germ of Second Rule of Inheritance.—Distributed
among Agnatic Kindred.—Improved Character of Man.—Property in
Middle Status.—Rule of Inheritance imperfectly Known.—Agnatic
Inheritance Probable. 523

CHAPTER II.

THE THREE RULES OF INHERITANCE—CONTINUED.

Property in the Upper Status of Barbarism.—Slavery.—Tenure
of Lands in Grecian Tribes.—Culture of the Period.—Its
Brilliancy.—Third Rule of Inheritance.—Exclusively in
Children.—Hebrew Tribes.—Rule of Inheritance.—Daughters of
Zelophehad.—Property remained in the Phratry, and probably in
the Gens.—The Reversion.—Athenian Inheritance.—Exclusively
in Children.—The Reversion.—Inheritance remained in
the Gens.—Heiresses.—Wills.—Roman Inheritance.—The
Reversion.—Property remained in the Gens.—Appearance of
Aristocracy.—Property Career of the Human Race.—Unity of
Origin of Mankind. 537