Chapter 9: Internal and External Security (2)

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----. "The History of the Albanian Alphabet: A Case of Complex Cultural and Political Development," _Sudost Forschungen_ (Munich), XIX, 1960, 263-284.

----. _The Political Evolution of Albania, 1912-1944._ New York: Mid-European Studies Centers, March 8, 1954.

Skendi, Stavro (ed.). _Albania._ New York: Praeger, 1956.

_Statistical Yearbook, 1967._ Paris: United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, 1968.

_Statistical Yearbook of the German Democratic Republic, 1969._ Berlin: State Publishing House, 1969.

Stokes, William Lee. _Essentials of Earth History._ Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1966.

Thomas, John I. _Education for Communism: School and State in the People's Republic of Albania._ (Hoover Institution Studies, XXII.) Stanford: Hoover Institution Press, 1969.

Triska, Jan F. (ed.) _Constitutions of the Communist Party-States._ (Hoover Institution Publications 70.) Stanford: Hoover Institution on War, Revolution, and Peace, 1968.

_Twenty Years of Socialism in Albania._ Tirana: Naim Frasheri State Publishing House, 1964.

U.S. Congress. 83d, 1st Session. Senate. Committee on Foreign Relations. _Tensions Within the Soviet Captive Countries: Albania._ (Document No. 70, Part 6.) Washington: GPO, 1954.

U.S. Department of Commerce. Bureau of the Census. Foreign Demographic Analysis Division. _Projections of the Population of the Communist Countries of Eastern Europe, by Age and Sex, 1969 to 1990._ (International Population Reports Series, P91, No. 18.) Washington: GPO, 1969.

U.S. Department of Commerce. Office of Technical Services. Joint Publications Research Service (Washington). The following publications are JPRS translations from foreign sources:

"Abuses of Principle of Compensation According to Labor," by
Dervish Gjiriti, in _Puna_ (Labor), Tirana, 1970. (JPRS:
50,847, _Translations on Eastern Europe, Economic and
Industrial Affairs_, No. 310, 1970.)

"Advanced Technology: An Important Factor in Surmounting the
Artisan Stage of Industrial Production," by Koco Theodhosi,
in _Zeri i Popullit_ (Voice of the People), Tirana, 1969.
(JPRS: 47,891, _Translations on Eastern Europe, Economic and
Industrial Affairs_, No. 114, 1969.)

"Against the Handicraft Method of Management in the
Engineering Industry," by Vangjush Gambeta, in _Zeri i
Popullit_ (Voice of the People), Tirana, 1968. (JPRS:
47,544, _Translations on Eastern Europe, Economic and
Industrial Affairs_, No. 92, 1969.)

"The Agricultural Tasks of 1970 Demand Greater Use of
Organic Fertilizer," by Xhemal Barushi, in _Bashkimi_
(Unity), Tirana, 1970. (JPRS: 50,065, _Translations on
Eastern Europe, Economic and Industrial Affairs_, No. 265,
1970.)

"Bank Activities and Bank Control as a Component Part of
State Control Must be Improved," by Zeqir Lika, in _Ekonomia
Popullore_ (People's Economy), Tirana, 1969. (JPRS: 48,892,
_Translations on Eastern Europe, Economic and Industrial
Affairs_, No. 186, 1969.)

"Concentration and Specialization Cannot be Accomplished
Without a Struggle Against Outdated Concepts," by Fejzo
Rino, in _Zeri i Popullit_ (Voice of the People), Tirana,
1968. (JPRS: 46,647, _Translations on Eastern Europe,
Economic and Industrial Affairs_, No. 41, 1968.)

"Control by the Working Class and Problems of Finance and
Accounting," by Mensur Saraci, in _Zeri i Popullit_ (Voice
of the People), Tirana, 1968. (JPRS: 46,647, _Translations
on Eastern Europe, Economic and Industrial Affairs_, No. 41,
1968.)

"The Country's Power Resources and the Ways to Use Them More
Economically," by Harilla Nishku, in _Ekonomia Popullore_
(People's Economy), Tirana, 1970. (JPRS: 50,784,
_Translations on Eastern Europe, Economic and Industrial
Affairs_, No. 305, 1970.)

"Development of the Machine Industry," by Thoma Afezolli, in
_Zeri i Popullit_ (Voice of the People), Tirana, 1969 (JPRS:
48,685, _Translations on Eastern Europe, Economic and
Industrial Affairs_, No. 171, August 26, 1969.)

"Disappearance and Reduction of Social and General Diseases,
Great Victory of the Party in the Health Field," by Josif
Adhami, et al., in _Shendetesia Popullore_ (People's
Health), Tirana, 1969. (JPRS: 50,302, _Translations on
Eastern Europe, Economic and Industrial Affairs_, 1969.)

"Elements of Internal Democracy in the Agricultural
Cooperatives in Berat District," by Omer Mero, in _Bashkimi_
(Unity), Tirana, 1968. (JPRS: 46,439, _Translations on
Eastern Europe, Economic and Industrial Affairs_, No. 34,
1968.)

"Expansion of Mechanization in Agriculture," by Xhelal
Shkreta, in _Ekonomia Popullore_ (People's Economy), Tirana,
1968. (JPRS: 47,515, _Translations on Eastern Europe,
Economic and Industrial Affairs_, No. 90, 1969.)

"The Extension and Protection of the Forests is the
Responsibility of All the People," by Thoma Dine, in _Rruga
e Partise_ (Party Path), Tirana, 1969. (JPRS: 48,096,
_Translations on Eastern Europe, Economic and Industrial
Affairs_, No. 129, 1969.)

"For the Implementation of the Tasks Concerning the Further
Revolutionization of Our Schools," by Mehmet Shehu, in _Zeri
i Popullit_ (Voice of the People), Tirana, 1968 (JPRS:
45,432, _Translations on Eastern Europe, Economic and
Industrial Affairs_, No. 256, 1968.)

"The Great Revolutionary Transformations in the Development
of Our Socialist Health on the Twenty-fifth Anniversary of
the Victory of the People's Revolution and the Establishment
of the Dictatorship of the Proletariat," by Ciril Pistoli,
in _Shendetesia Popullore_ (People's Health), Tirana, 1969.
(JPRS: 50,345, _Translations on Eastern Europe, Political,
Sociological, and Military Affairs_, No. 207, 1970.)

"Immediate Interests Must be Correctly Combined With
Long-Term Ones," by Perikli Samsuri, in _Bashkimi_ (Unity),
Tirana, 1969. (JPRS: 49,222, _Translations on Eastern
Europe, Economic and Industrial Affairs_, No. 221, 1969.)

"Improper Use of Investment Funds," by Andrea Nako, in
_Bashkimi_ (Unity), Tirana, 1968. (JPRS: 46,570,
_Translations on Eastern Europe, Economic and Industrial
Affairs_, No. 38, 1968.)

"The Improvement of Fodder: A Fundamental Condition of the
Development of Livestock," by Andrea Shundi and Petrit
Disdardi, in _Zeri i Popullit_ (Voice of the People),
Tirana, 1970. (JPRS: 49,941, _Translations on Eastern
Europe, Economic and Industrial Affairs_, No. 256, 1970.)

"Increased Savings Deposits: An Index of Growing
Prosperity," by Ramadan Citaku, in _Zeri i Popullit_ (Voice
of the People), Tirana, 1969. (JPRS: 49,222, _Translations
on Eastern Europe, Economic and Industrial Affairs_, No.
211, 1969.)

"Labor Productivity in Industry Must be Raised," by Jonuz
Drishti, in _Ekonomia Popullore_ (People's Economy), Tirana,
1968. (JPRS: 46,163, _Translations on Eastern Europe,
Economic and Industrial Affairs_, No. 21, 1968.)

"Let Us Expand and Perfect Our Labor Force Plans," by Besim
Bardhoshi, in _Zeri i Popullit_ (Voice of the People),
Tirana, 1968. (JPRS: 46,940, _Translations on Eastern
Europe, Economic and Industrial Affairs_, No. 57, 1968.)

"Let Us Further Develop the Struggle for the Mechanization
of Work Processes," by Pjeter Kosta, in _Zeri i Popullit_
(Voice of the People), Tirana, 1969, (JPRS: 48,647,
_Translations on Eastern Europe, Economic and Industrial
Affairs_, No. 166, 1969.)

"Let Us Further Intensify the Participation of the Working
Masses in Reinforcing the Savings Regimen," by Aleks Verli,
in _Rruga e Partise_ (Party Path), Tirana, 1969. (JPRS:
48,349, _Translations on Eastern Europe, Economic and
Industrial Affairs_, No. 143. 1969.)

"Let Us Strengthen the Movement of the Working Class for the
Overall Development of the Villages," by Sotir Kamberi, in
_Rruga e Partise_ (Party Path), Tirana, 1968. (JPRS: 45,815,
_Translations on Eastern Europe, Political, Sociological,
and Military Affairs_, No. 9, 1968.)

"Let Us Take All Necessary Measures to Organize Better the
Export of Vegetables and Fruit," by Thechar Fundo, in _Zeri
i Popullit_ (Voice of the People), Tirana, 1968. (JPRS:
45,432, _Translations on Eastern Europe_, No. 256, 1968.)

"Massive Scientific Experimentation is an Important Factor
in the Socialist Transformation of Our Agriculture," by
Pirro Dodbiba, in _Bashkimi_ (Unity), Tirana, 1969. (JPRS:
47,948, _Translations on Eastern Europe, Economic and
Industrial Affairs_, No. 118, 1969.)

"The Maximum Utilization of Labor Time Demands Regular
Material and Technical Supply," by Pjeter Kosta, in _Zeri i
Popullit_ (Voice of the People), Tirana, 1970, (JPRS:
50,112, _Translations on Eastern Europe, Economic and
Industrial Affairs_, No. 286. 1970.)

"On Fulfillment of the 1969 State Plan and Budget and on
Tasks of the 1970 Draft State Plan and Budget," by Abdyl
Kellezi, in _Zeri i Popullit_ (Voice of the People), Tirana,
1970, (JPRS: 50,060, _Translations on Eastern Europe,
Economic and Industrial Affairs_, No. 264, 1970.)

"On Some of the Problems of Setting Work Norms in
Agricultural Cooperatives," by Lefter Peco, in _Zeri i
Popullit_ (Voice of the People), Tirana, 1969. (JPRS:
49,190, _Translations on Eastern Europe, Economic and
Industrial Affairs_, No. 209, 1969.)

"On the Work of the Party and Mass Organizations and of
Economic and State Organs for a Further Increase of
Productivity and Strengthening of Proletarian Discipline at
Work," by Xhafer Spahiu, in _Zeri i Popullit_ (Voice of the
People), Tirana, 1969. (JPRS: 49,716, _Translations on
Eastern Europe, Economic and Industrial Affairs_, No. 242,
1969.)

"Powerful Fraternal Aid in the Spirit of Proletarian
Internationalism," by Pupo Shyti, in _Ekonomia Popullore_
(People's Economy), Tirana, 1968. (JPRS: 47,677,
_Translations on Eastern Europe, Economic and Industrial
Affairs_, No. 100, 1969.)

"Problems of Mechanization in Raising Livestock and of Farm
Machinery Repair and Maintenance Bases," by Xhelal Shkreta,
in _Ekonomia Popullore_ (People's Economy), Tirana, 1968.
(JPRS: 47,677, _Translations on Eastern Europe, Economic and
Industrial Affairs_, No. 100, 1969.)

"Progress of the Machine Industry" by Tago Adhami, in
_Ekonomia Popullore_ (People's Economy), Tirana, 1968.
(JPRS: 46,163, _Translations on Eastern Europe, Economic and
Industrial Affairs_, No. 21. 1968.)

"Proper Utilization of Work Time: An Important Factor for
Fulfilling and Surpassing Planned Tasks," by Hajredin
Celiku, in _Zeri i Popullit_ (Voice of the People), Tirana,
1969. (JPRS: 47,550, _Translations on Eastern Europe,
Economic and Industrial Affairs_, No. 93, 1969.)

"Protection of Mother and Child Health, the High Expression
of Socialist Humanism, Realized by the Party During the 25
Years of People's Power," by Vera Ngjela et al., in
_Shendetesia Popullore_ (People's Health), Tirana, 1969
(JPRS: 50,302, _Translations on Eastern Europe, Political,
Sociological, and Military Affairs_, No. 204, 1970.)

"The Ratio Between Means of Production and Consumer Goods,"
by Besim Bardhoshi, in _Zeri i Popullit_ (Voice of the
People), Tirana, 1968. (JPRS: 47,242, _Translations on
Eastern Europe, Economic and Industrial Affairs_, No. 77,
1969.)

"Rebuilding: One of the Most Important Ways to Modernize
Industry," by Harilla Papajorgji, in _Rruga e Partise_
(Party Path), Tirana, 1970. (JPRS: 50,304, _Translations on
Eastern Europe, Economic and Industrial Affairs_, No. 378,
1970.)

"Relations of Collective Ownership in Agricultural
Cooperatives are Improving," by Munir Como, in _Rruga e
Partise_ (Party Path), Tirana, 1970. (JPRS: 50,304,
_Translations on Eastern Europe, Economic and Industrial
Affairs_, No. 278, 1970.)

"Rising Labor Productivity: An Economic Law of Socialism,"
by Zeqir Lika, in _Zeri i Popullit_ (Voice of the People),
Tirana, 1970. (JPRS: 50,201, _Translations on Eastern
Europe, Economic and Industrial Affairs_, No. 272, 1970.)

"Shortcomings of the Vegetable Supply," by Avni Oktrova, in
_Zeri i Popullit_ (Voice of the People), Tirana, 1968 (JPRS:
46,205, _Translations on Eastern Europe, Economic and
Industrial Affairs_, No. 22, 1968.)

"Some of the Problems of the Socialist Organization of
Labor," by Koco Stefani, in _Bashkimi_ (Unity), Tirana,
1969. (JPRS: 49,305, _Translations on Eastern Europe,
Economic and Industrial Affairs_, No. 214, 1969.)

"The Strengthening and Growth of the Various Branches and
Sectors: Important Factors in Cooperation Between and the
Overall Development of Cooperative Villages," by Baki
Karalliu, in _Rruga e Partise_ (Party Path), Tirana, 1968.
(JPRS: 47,134, _Translations on Eastern Europe, Economic and
Industrial Affairs_, No. 71, 1968.)

"The Struggle to Raise Healthy Children and Reduce the
Mortality Rate: A Great Social and Medical Problem," by Sh.
Josa, R. Cikuli, and Xh. Basha, in _Shendetesia Popullore_
(People's Health), Tirana, 1969. (JPRS: 50,345,
_Translations on Eastern Europe, Political, Sociological and
Military Affairs_, No. 207, 1970.)

"Why are Unnecessary Materials Imported?," by Gaslli
Vllamasi, in _Zeri i Popullit_ (Voice of the People),
Tirana, 1968. (JPRS: 46,876, _Translations on Eastern
Europe, Economic and Industrial Affairs_, No. 53, 1968.)

"The Youth Discharged from the Army: A Great Force for the
Development of Subsidiary Activities in Our Socialist
Villages," by Vasil Premti, in _Rruga e Partise_ (Party
Path), Tirana, 1968. (JPRS: 47,134, _Translations on Eastern
Europe, Economic and Industrial Affairs_, No. 71. 1968.)

_Vjetari Statistikor i R. P. Sh._ Tirana: Republika Popullore e Shqiperise, Drejtoria e Statistikes, 1967-68.

Vokopola, Kemal. "The Albanian Customary Law," _Quarterly Journal of the Library of Congress_, XXV, No. 4, October 1968, 306-315.

----. "Church and State in Albania," _Committee on the Judiciary, United States Senate_, II, April 2, 1965, 33-47.

Whitaker, Ian. "Tribal Structure and National Politics in Albania, 1910-1950." Pages 253-293 in _A.S.A. Monographs, No. 7: History and Anthropology._ London: Tavistock Publications, 1968.

"With a Hand Across Your Lens," _Economist_, CCXXIV, No. 6,464, July 15, 1967, 210.

_World Radio-TV Handbook, 1970._ (Ed., J.M. Frost.) (24th ed.) Soliljevej: H.P.J. Meakin, 1970.

_Worldmark Encyclopedia of the Nations_, V: Europe. New York: Harper and Row, 1967.

_Yearbook on International Communist Affairs, 1968._ (Ed., Richard V. Allen.) Standford: Hoover Institution Press, 1969.

Zavalani, T. _Histori e Shqipnis_, II. London: Poets and Painters Press, 1966.

OTHER SOURCES USED

"Albanian Drama Under Foreign Influences," _Radio Free Europe: Research Departments_, May 6, 1965.

"Albania's 1969 Plan Fulfillment and the 1970 Plan," _Radio Free Europe Research: Communist Area_, March 2, 1970, 1-11.

"Albania's Rapid Economic Growth at the Expense of the Consumer," _Radio Free Europe Research: Communist Area_, January 10, 1970, 1-5.

Capps, Edward. _Greece, Albania, and Northern Epirus._ Chicago: Arganout, 1963.

Churchill, Winston S. _The Second World War:_ VI: Triumph and Tragedy. Cambridge: Riverside Press, 1953.

Ciano, Galeazzo. _The Ciano Diaries, 1939-1943._ Garden City: Doubleday, 1946.

Cusack, Dymphna. _Illyria Reborn._ London: Heinemann, 1966.

Djilas, Milovan. _Conversations with Stalin._ New York: Harcourt, Brace and World, 1962.

_Fjalor i Gjuhes Shqipe._ Tirana: Instituti i Shkencavet Sekcioni i Gjuhes e i Letersise, 1954.

Foreign Broadcast Information Service. _Broadcasting Stations of the World._ Part I: Amplitude Modulation Broadcasting Stations According to Country and City. Washington: GPO, September 1, 1969.

Frasheri, Kristo. _The History of Albania._ Tirana: n.pub., 1964.

_Gazeta Zyrtare_ (Tirana), No. 6, September 29, 1966, 151-169.

Instituti i Studimeve Marksiste-Leniniste Prane KQ te PHSH. _Historia e Partise se Punes te Shqiperise._ Tirana: Shtepia Botonjese "Naim Frasheri," 1968.

Jacomoni de San Savio, Francesco. _La Politica dell' Italia in Albania._ Rocca San Casciano: Cappelli Editore, 1965.

Kasneci, Lefter. _Rruga e Lavdishme e Ushterise Popullore._ Tirana: "Naim Frasheri," 1963.

Koliqi, Ernesto. "Albania." Pages 370-531 in _Enciclopedia dei Popoli d'Europa_, I. Milan: M. Canfalonieri, 1965.

Kondi, Piro. "To Follow the Experience of Work in Studying the History of the Party," _Zeri i Popullit_, February 3, 1970, 2.

Lendvai, Paul. _Eagles in Cobwebs--Nationalism and Communism in the Balkans._ Garden City: Doubleday, 1969.

Logoreci, Anton. "Politics in Flux; Albania: The Anabaptist of European Communism," _Problems of Communism_, XVI, No. 3, May-June 1967, 22-28.

_1970 World Population Data Sheet._ Washington: Population Reference Bureau, 1970.

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_Organizatat-Baze te Partise per Revolucionarizimin e Metejshem te Jetes se Vendit._ Tirana: Shtepia Botonjese "Naim Frasheri," 1968.

Pacrami, F. "Duke Kaluar nga Diskutimi ne Zbatim per Revolucionarizimin e Metejshem te Shkolles, Rruga e Partise," XVI, No. 8, July 1969.

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U.S. Department of Commerce. Office of Technical Services. Joint Publications Research Service (Washington). The following publications are JPRS translations from foreign sources:

"The Class Struggle--the Dividing Line between Marxism and
Revisionism," by Bujar Hoxha, in _Zeri i Popullit_ (Voice of
the People), Tirana, 1968. (JPRS: 45,815, _Translations on
Eastern Europe, Political, Sociological and Military
Affairs_, No. 9, 1968.)

"The Elimination of Backward Customs Requires Continued and
Persistent Work," by Kol Tollumi, in _Rruga e Partise_
(Party Path), Tirana, 1968. (JPRS: 45,815, _Translations on
Eastern Europe, Political, Sociological and Military
Affairs_, No. 9, 1968.)

"The Problems Raised by Comrade Enver in His Speech 'The
Rights and Freedoms of Women Must be Fully Understood and
Protected by All' and What Should be Done to Solve Them," by
Piro Kondi, in _Rruga e Partise_ (Party Path), Tirana, 1970.
(JPRS: 50,462, _Translations on Eastern Europe, Political,
Sociological and Military Affairs_, No. 214, 1970.)

"Remnants of Patriarchalism in the Family and Society: A
Serious Hindrance to The Complete Triumph of the Socialist
Way of Life," by Kol Gjoka and Lluke Pashko, in _Rruga e
Partise_ (Party Path), Tirana, 1968. (JPRS: 46,588,
_Translations on Eastern Europe, Political, Sociological and
Military Affairs_, No. 32, 1968.)

"Social and Family Relations: A Broad Field for the Class
Struggle," by Hysni Kapo, in _Rruga e Partise_ (Party Path),
Tirana, 1970. (JPRS: 50,200, _Translations on Eastern
Europe, Political, Sociological and Military Affairs_, No.
198, 1970.)

"Some Problems of the Academic, Cultural, and Aesthetic
Education of Youth," by Ismail Hoxha, in _Nendori_
(November), Tirana, 1967. (JPRS: 43,672, _Translations on
Eastern Europe, Political, Sociological, and Military
Affairs_, 1967.)

(The periodical, _Ekonomia Popullore_ [Tirana], November to December 1965, was used in the preparation of this book.)

GLOSSARY

Albanian Workers' Party--The Communist Party of Albania. This name adopted by the First Party Congress in 1948.

basic party organization--The Albanian Workers' Party unit established in state enterprises and institutions, on collective or cooperative farms, and in military organizations. In some Communist states--for example, the Soviet Union--the equivalent is a primary party organization.

Bektashi--A dervish order, offshoot of the Shia branch of Islam, emphasizing abstinence from violence and charity to all people.

_besa_--A pledge to faithfully fulfill an obligation or promise. Formerly used to effect a truce during hostilities involving clans or conflicts between individuals.

_bey_--The head of a feudal estate or an administrative official under the Turks. Became the dominant class after Albanian independence in 1912. Also formerly used as a title of respect.

CEMA--Council for Economic Mutual Assistance; members: Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Hungary, Mongolia, Poland, and the Soviet Union.

civil war--The hostilities from September 1943 to November 1944 in which partisans of the Communist-led National Liberation Front fought the two principal anti-Communist organizations, Balli Kombetar (National Front) and Levizja e Legalitetit (Legality Movement).

clan--An organization that included several families and provided controls as stipulated by unwritten codes. In 1945 the clans were broken up by the Communist regime.

collective or cooperative--An organization in which members retain only their personal effects; all other belongings become community property. Production from group efforts goes into a common fund. Members are paid on the basis of their contribution of work units.

Cominform--Communist Information Bureau. International organization of Communist parties, established in 1947 and dissolved in 1956.

Democratic Front--The largest and most important social organization utilized by the Albanian Workers' Party to gain the support of the masses for their objectives. Its work includes political, economic, social, and cultural tasks. It succeeded the National Liberation Front in 1945.

district--The major subdivisions of the country. There were twenty-six in 1970.

Gegs--The larger of the two subgroups of Albanians. They inhabit the area north of the Shkumbin River. Differentiated until World War II by their tribal organization and primitive life style; also have distinctive physical features.

Kosovo--An autonomous region within the Serbian Republic of Yugoslavia. This area previously called Kosovo-Metohija and frequently referred to as Kosmet.

lek--The standard monetary unit. Does not have an international official exchange rate. Nominally valued in Tirana at 5 leks to 1 United States dollar; the tourist rate in early 1970 was 12.5 leks to US$1. Devalued in August 1965 by exchanging 1 new lek for 10 old leks.

Marxism-Leninism--From the Albanian Communist viewpoint, the ideology of Karl Marx and Vladimir Lenin as reflected in the experience of the Soviet Union until the death of Joseph Stalin.

mass organization--Generally of a social or professional nature with broad membership designed to link the Party with the masses and to gain support for Party objectives.

National Liberation Front--Created in 1942; Communist-led; fought Italian and German occupying forces and immobilized other Albanian factions to seize power in 1944.

Ottoman--Relating to the Turks or to Turkey. Derived from name of fourteenth-century founder of the Ottoman Empire.

party cadre--A thoroughly indoctrinated and reliable Party group. Utilized wherever deemed necessary to maintain efficiency and performance. Frequently specially trained in management.

_pasha_--A person of high rank; formerly used as a title of respect; title given to appointed provincial heads during the Ottoman period.

People's Army--The armed forces of Albania. Composed of ground, air, and navy elements.

People's Council--The highest government organ at district and lower echelons. Members are elected for three-year terms.

Politburo--The highest and most powerful executive body of the Albanian Workers' Party. In early 1970 it consisted of eleven full members and five candidate members.

Presidium of the People's Assembly--Administers and conducts governmental functions between Assembly meetings. Issues decrees and judges constitutionality of laws. In early 1970, composed of a president, two vice presidents, and ten members.

revisionism--As interpreted by Albanian Communists, the actions and ideologies of Communist states that are inconsistent with Albanian interpretations of Marxism-Leninism.

Sigurimi--Name applied to state security police under the Communist regime; derived from the Directorate of State Security (Drejtorija e Sigurimit te Shtetit).

Sunni--One of the two major branches of Islam.

Tosks--The smaller of the two subgroups of Albanians. They live south of the Shkumbin River. Differences in social organization between the two groups lessened under Communist rule. They abandoned their tribal pattern of life earlier and were more influenced by foreign cultures before 1945 than were the Gegs.

Zogu, Ahmet--Served as prime minister and president during the early 1920s; then ruled as King Zog from 1928 until 1939. Was leader of conservative forces composed of landowners, former Ottoman bureaucrats, and tribal chiefs.

INDEX

Abazi, Dede (religious leader): 98

administrative divisions: vii, 33, 34 (fig. 3), 35

adult education: 87, 88, 90-91

agas: 95

agrarian reform: 15, 16, 75; law, 21, 96

agreements. _See_ treaties and agreements

agriculture (_see also_ collective farms, crops, state farms):
deterrents to goal attainment, 145;
exports, 151, 174;
five-year plans, 145, 152, 155-59 _passim_;
imports, 173;
investment, 167;
land use, acreage, 152;
mechanization, 146, 152;
new methods, 145, 152;
pattern of organization, 146, 151, 153;
production, 145, 151-52, 155-56 (tables 10, 11), 157-59;
productivity, 149;
share of labor force, 147;
summary, viii

aid, foreign (_see also under specific country and under_ Communist
countries): 3, 4;
economic, 146, 169-71;
military, 175-79 _passim_, 190;
summary, ix

air force: 180, 184-85; chief, 184

air transport: ix, 46-47

airbases: 184-85

Albanian (language): 55-56, 137

Albanian Party Political Bureau. _See_ Politburo

Albanian Telegraphic Agency (news agency): 131-32

Albanian Workers' Party (_see also_ Central Committee, Central Commission
on Education, Directorate of, Politburo, Secretariat): v, 1;
activists and agitators, 107, 125, 128, 129;
book publishing, 134;
communication channels, 125;
Conference, 114;
Congress, 113;
control over people and institutions, 2, 93-94, 111, 135, 137, 140, 142,
146, 147, 176, 185-86, 192-93, 194;
and the courts, 107;
discipline, 114;
economic goal, 145;
founded, 17;
institutes, 117;
mass organizations as levers of, 117-18;
members in security forces, 193;
membership, 115;
national and regional organization, 111-15;
operations, 115-16;
organization within armed forces, 175;
political power, 103-04, 106;
religious policy, 100;
schools, 116-17;
slogan, 181;
Stalinist methods, 121;
statutes, 113-14, 115, 116, 118, 128

Albanian Writers' Union: 56

Ali, Hafez Musa Haxhi (religious leader): 98

Alia, Ramiz (Politburo secretary): 111, 112

alphabet, Albanian: 49, 56, 83

American Agricultural School (Kavaje): 84

American Junior Red Cross: 84

American Technical School (Tirana): 84

anti-Communists:
organizations, 18;
records on, 195

Antoniu, Kristaq (singer): 142

Apponyi, Geraldine (wife of Zog I): 16

area: vii, 1, 25

armed forces (_see also_ People's Army): chief of staff, 180;
civilian activities, 152, 181;
decorations, 187-88;
defense budget, 191;
equipment, 175, 179, 181-82, 183, 184;
foreign aid, 175-79 _passim_, 190;
historical background, 177-79;
medical services, 187;
military courts, 108;
military schools, 186-87;
mission, 181;
mobilization potential, 185;
Party control of, 111, 185-86;
Party organization within, 115, 175;
political indoctrination of, 185-86, 190;
rank designations, 175, 180;
resistance to Italian occupation, 178-79;
strength, 175, 181, 183, 184;
summary, ix

Army of National Liberation: 18, 64, 111

arts, fine: 142-43

Asdreni, ---- (poet): 139

Austria-Hungary: 14

authority:
under communism, 68;
traditional attitude toward, 67, 71

automobiles: 65

Bajraktari, Muharem (chieftain): 72

_bajraktars_ (tribal chieftains): 67, 71, 74

balance of trade, 171

Balli Kombetar (National Front): 18, 74, 139;
supporters, 72

Balluku, Beqir (min. of defense): 111, 180

banking: 168-69

_Bashkimi_ (newspaper): 129, 130 (table 7)

Bektashi (religious group): 97, 98

Belishova, Liri (former Politburo member): 23

_besa_ (pledge): 53

_beys_: 2, 5, 10, 13, 17, 72, 73, 74;
creation of the class, 95;
during civil war, 74;
seizure of their land, 21;
social position, 67, 70, 73

bibliography: 197-207

bicycles: 65

birth rate: 51

books: publishing and distribution, 133-34

boundaries: 25, 26, 31-33;
border security (_see_ Frontier Guards);
potential for dispute, 4, 9, 31;
settlement (1913), 14, 25

Broz, Josip (Tito): 19, 21, 22, 122

budget (_see also_ expenditures, revenue, taxes): 164-67;
defense, 191;
responsibility for preparing, 106;
social and cultural sectors, 58

Buene River: 39, 47, 183

Bulgaria: aid and trade, 170, 172

Byron, Lord: 96

Cako, Hito (chief, Army Political Directorate): 186

capital goods: output, 160-61

Carcani, Adil (Politburo member): 112, 120

Central Commission on Education: 92, 94, 112

Central Committee: 92, 94, 105, 113, 116, 117, 127;
composition, 77, 112;
functions, 114;
and labor situation, 147, 148, 149;
members in Council of Ministers, 106;
publications, 129, 131

Charles I of Anjou: 11

children: welfare provisions, 64

China, Communist: aid, economic, 122-23, 160, 170, 171, 172;
aid, military, 175, 176-77, 179, 184, 190;
debt to, 171;
economic effect of alignment with, 146;
education and training in, 92;
influence, 23;
jointly owned shipping line, 47;
relations with, v, 3, 104, 121-23;
trade, 172, 174

Christianity: introduction, 11, 95

chrome: 44

Churchill, Winston: 19

Ciano, Count (Italian Foreign Min.): 16

Cikuli, Ziza (poet): 140

cities: growth, 75; population, 49, 50, 51, 56

civil war (1943-44): 18-19;
fate of anti-Communists, 74

clans. _See_ tribes and clans

clergymen: 73;
Communist actions against, 96, 97-98, 99-101

climate: vii, 4, 26, 35, 36 (table 1), 37

collective farms: 145, 146, 151;
basic features, 153-54;
labor force, size, 147, 148;
number and size, 154-55;
patriarchalism, 80;
personal income, 153-54;
private plots, 154, 157, 159, 166;
work performance, 151-52

Cominform. _See_ Communist Information Bureau

communications (_see also_ press, radio, television): 125-35;
ownership, 110;
summary, ix

Communist Information Bureau (Cominform): 21, 179

Communist countries:
aid, 21, 169, 170;
education and training in, 91;
trade, 172

Communist Party. _See_ Albanian Workers' Party

Communist regime:
attitudes toward population growth, ethnic differences, and blood feuds,
51, 53;
consolidation of power, 20-23;
efforts to alter social structure, 67-69, 73-83;
gains claimed, 6, 45, 50, 53, 58, 59, 75, 91, 94, 145, 149, 151, 155,
159, 165-66;
goals, 2;
installation date, 9;
policy toward religious groups, 96, 97, 100

Communists: seizure of power, 17-20 concentration camps. _See_ labor camps

cooperatives: agricultural, 136

copper ore: export, 44

Conference of Peze (1942): 17

Constituent Assembly: People's Republic proclaimed by, 20

constitution:
first Communist, 20, 74, 86, 96, 113;
independence, 14;
provisions, 101, 104-08 _passim_

consumer goods: output, 161

cotton: 151, 155, 156 (table 10)

Council for Economic Mutual Assistance (CEMA): 21;
member, 121

Council of Ministers: 132, 134, 150, 164, 179;
description, 106;
and religious control, 97

courts: 107-08;
military, 108, 190;
summary, viii

crime: 79, 128, 176;
military, 190

crops (_see also specific crop_):
industrial, 151;
production, 155, 156 (table 10);
yields, 41

culture:
achievements, 137-38;
development, 135-43;
dominant themes under communism, 136;
indoctrination through institutions, 135;
Party control of activities, 135, 137, 140, 142

currency: viii, 167-68

Czechoslovakia: 123;
aid, 170;
trade, 172

Dako, Kristo (school founder): 84

death rate: 51

defense: budgetary expenditures, 166

Deljana, Thoma (Min., Education and Culture): 88

Democratic Front: 1, 103, 109, 117;
described, 118-19;
newspaper, 129;
NLF renamed, 19

Dhrami, M. (artist): 143

diet: 62

Directorate of:
Agitation and Propaganda (Agitprop), 112, 127;
Cadres and Organizations, 112;
Education and Culture, 92, 94, 112;
Mass Organizations, 112;
Radiobroadcasting, 132;
State Administrative Organs, 112;
State Security, 111, 176, 193-94

disease: 59-60

divorce: 79-80

doctors: 61

drainage. _See_ lakes, rivers

Drin River: 37, 39, 47, 160, 164

Dume, Gen. Petrit (army chief of staff): 180, 192

Durres (port): 11, 183;
facilities, 47;
population, 51, 57;
transportation, 46

East-West conflict: position in, 2, 121

economic planning: Communists view of, 110

economic plans (_see also_ Five-Year Plans): responsibility for
preparation, 106

economy:
major objective, 7;
status of, 146;
summary, viii

education (_see also_ schools): 83-94;
discrimination, 77;
eight-year, obligatory, 88-89;
first objective, 69;
function of information media, 126-27;
indoctrination of youth, 69;
medical training, 61;
military, 88, 90;
Party control, 93-94;
pre-Communist period, 83-85;
reform, 88;
and social mobility, 69;
status of, 6;
summary, viii;
system, 87-89 (fig. 5), 90-94;
technical, 86-87

Educational Reform Law (1946): 86

Elbasan (city): 46, 49, 57

elections: 1, 19, 20;
Assembly representatives, 105;
candidate selection, 103, 104, 107, 109, 116-17;
character and procedure, 108-09;
mobilization of voters, 128

electricity. _See_ power, electric

elite: Party, 64, 69, 77, 78, 106;
ruling, 2, 10, 68, 73, 96, 121

employment: 147

ethnic groups: 5, 6, 9, 49, 52-55; minor, 54-55

European nations: relations with, 123; trade, 174

expenditures: 165, 166-67; defense, 191

exports: 172, 173-74;
agricultural, 151, 174;
industrial, 161, 162, 174;
principal, 44;
summary, viii

Faja, Baba. _See_ Martaneshi, Baba Mustafa Faja

family:
under communism, 74;
efforts to revolutionize, 68, 81-83;
rate of increase in number of, 75;
role in politics, 77;
as social force, 6;
traditional organization, 67, 70-71

farm credits: 169

farms. _See_ collective farms, state farms

Fejzo, Baba (clergyman): 98

fertilizer: 160

feuds, blood: 6, 53-54, 71

Fier (city):
oil refinery and power plant, 160;
population, 49, 57

Filce, Gjorgjija (singer): 142

films: 141

finance (_see also_ currency, banking, budget): 164-69;
summary, viii

Five-Year Plans:
First (1951-55) and Second (1956-60), 159;
Third (1961-65), 145, 149, 165, 170;
Fourth (1966-70), 145, 152, 155-59 _passim_, 165, 171, 172;
Fifth (1971-75), 164, 171

Floqi, Kristo (playwright): 140

food:
prices, 64;
processing, 162

foreign aid. _See_ aid, foreign

foreign relations: 121-23

forests: 26, 41-42

France:
relations with, 23;
trade, 173

Franciscans: 97, 100, 139

Frasheri, Midhat (political leader): 18, 139

Frasheri, Naim (writer): 139

Frasheri, Sami (playwright): 140

Frontier Guards: 111, 176, 194

fruit:
citrus, 30;
exports, 174;
production, 151, 155, 156 (table 10)

Fuga, Myqerem (Institute head): 117

gas: reserves, 44

Geg (language): 56, 137

Gega, Lira (former Politburo member): 22

Gegs (ethnic group): 6;
ethnic characteristics, 53;
population, 52;
social structure, 70-72

Germany: resistance to occupation by, 179

Germany, East: aid and trade, 170, 172

Gjata, Fatmir (writer): 140

glossary: 209

government:
appointment of officials, 116;
character of, 1, 103, 104, 108;
local, 106-07;
Party control of, 103, 104, 106;
structure, 104-07;
summary, vii

grain: bread grain production, 151, 155, 156 (table 10)

Great Britain: 178

Greece:
Albanians living in, 55;
boundary claim, 14, 26;
relations with, 9, 123;
shared border, 25, 31, 32;
trade, 173

Greeks (ethnic group): 54

gross industrial product (GIP): minerals share, 44

gross national product (GNP): per capita, 50

Gypsies: 54, 55

harbors: 183

Hasbiu, Gen. Kadri: 77, 111, 193

Hasko, Arif (air force chief): 184

health and medicine:
facilities, 61;
military medicine, 187;
mobile medical teams and equipment, 61;
personnel and training, 61;
services, 58;
status of, 6, 50, 59-62;
summary, viii

history: 9-23

Hitler, Adolf: 17

holidays: 10, 78

hospitals: 61

houses: description, 63

housing:
investment, 167;
loans, 169;
status, 51, 62-63

Hoxha, Enver (Party first secretary): 1, 3, 11, 17-23
_passim_, 53, 62, 77, 80, 84, 88, 100-05
_passim_, 111, 115-27
_passim_, 136, 142;
relation to defense establishment, 180;
relation to security police, 193;
rise to leadership, 179

Hoxha (Enver) United Army Officers School: 186

Hoxha, Nexhmije (Party official): 77, 93, 112, 117

Hoxha-Shehu duumvirate: overthrow attempt, 22

Hungary: 172

Hunyadi (Hungarian king): 12

hydroelectric power:
potential, 40, 162, 163;
station, 159, 160, 164

identification cards: 195

illiteracy: 7, 86, 94, 126

imports: viii, 172, 173

income:
collective farm workers, 153-54;
national, major source, 7;
taxes, 165

independence: 2, 3, 9, 10, 13-16, 139, 176, 177;
proclaimed, 14

indoctrination: political and social, 69, 126, 135, 140, 147, 185-86, 190

industry: 146, 159-64;
budgetary expenditures, 166, 167;
construction projects, 159, 160;
deterrents to development, 161;
exports, 161, 162, 174;
five-year plans, 159, 164,170;
imports, 173;
nationalization, 21, 110;
production, 160-63 (table 12);
productivity, 149-50, 161;
progress toward goal, 145;
structure, 160;
summary, viii

infant mortality: 50, 60

information media (_see also_ press, radio, television): functions,
ownership, and control, 2, 125-29

Institute for Economic Studies: 117

Institute of Marxist-Leninist Studies: 117

Institute of Party History: 117

intellectuals: 73, 76-77

interest rate: 169

investment: budgetary expenditures, 167

iron: 44

irrigation: 40, 152, 153

Islam. See Muslim religion

Italy:
aid, military, 178, 192;
and Albanian independence, 13-14;
invasion and annexation by, 3, 9, 16-17;
relations with, 9, 16, 23, 121;
resistance to occupation by, 178-79;
trade, 173

Jakova, Tonin (trade union officer): 120

Jakova, Tuk (former Politburo member): 100

Jesuits: 83, 97

judges: election of, 108

justice (_see also_ courts): summary, viii

Kapo, Hysni (Party official): 77, 82, 112, 117, 118

Kapo, Vito (women's organization head): 77, 119

Kastrioti, Gjergj. _See_ Skanderbeg

Kastrioti, John of Kruje (tribal chieftain): 12

Kellezi, Abdyl (chmn., People's Assembly): 105

Khrushchev, Nikita: 22, 23, 122

Kisi, Archbishop Kristofor: 98

Koliqi, Ernest (playwright): 140

Kominino, Gjergi (poet): 140

Kono, Kristro (composer): 142

Korce (city): 51, 57

Kosmet: disposition of, 18

Kosovo area (Yugoslavia): 31, 33

Kryeziu, Gani bey (chieftain): 73

Kupi, Abas (founder, political organization): 18

labor (_see also_ labor force):
summary, vii;
voluntary, 150-51, 162

labor brigades (youth): 118

labor camps: 20, 74, 77, 98, 193, 194

Labor Code: 110

labor force:
adequacy, 146-47;
attitude toward employment, 148;
attitude toward industrial modernization, 161;
education and indoctrination, 147, 161-62;
effect of socialization of the land, 151;
labor norms, 150;
nonagricultural workers, 73;
Party control over, 146, 147;
productivity and discipline, 147-50 _passim_, 161;
size and distribution, 147-48;
working conditions, 78

lakes: 31, 32, 38 (fig. 4), 39, 47

land:
in agricultural use, 152;
arable, 26, 41;
private plots, 154, 157, 159, 166;
reclamation and melioration, 152;
seizure and redistribution, 21;
socialization, 151

language: 49, 55-56;
foreign broadcasts, 132-33;
official, 56;
summary, viii

League for Defense of Rights of the Albanian Nation: 13

Legality Movement: 18, 74;
supporters, 72

lek (currency): exchange rates, 167

Lenin (V. I.) Institute: 117

Leshi, Haxhi (head of state): 72, 105

libraries: 134-35

life expectancy: 51

limestone: 30, 31, 44

literature: 138-40

livestock and livestock products: 154;
production, 152, 155, 156 (table 11), 157-58

living conditions: 49-50, 58-65

loans and credits: 169, 170-71

machine tractor stations: 146, 153, 165

machinery: 161

malaria: 59

malnutrition: 60

Mana, A. (sculptor): 143

management:
attitude toward industrial modernization, 161;
and productivity lag, 149-50

marriage:
under communism, 74;
customs, 68, 71;
laws and rate, 79

Martaneshi, Baba Mustafa Faja (clergyman): 98

Marxism-Leninism: 67, 68, 104, 121, 122;
teaching of, 86, 87, 88, 94, 117, 119, 126, 128-29, 135

medical services. _See_ health and medicine

midwives: 61

migration: 51, 75, 148

Mijo, Sokrat (theater entrepreneur): 140

Mijo, Vangjush (artist): 142

military training (_see also_ schools, military): in school system, 88, 90

minerals: 30, 31, 44, 160, 173

Ministry of:
Education and Culture, 87, 93, 134, 137, 141, 142;
Foreign Affairs, 134;
Health, 59, 60, 61;
Interior, 115, 176, 190, 193, 194;
National Defense, 134;
People's Defense, 115, 175, 176, 179, 186

Mjeda, Dom Ndre (poet): 139

Mugosha, Dusan (Party founder): 17

Mukaj agreement (political parties): 18

museums: 135

music: 141-42

Muslim religion: 7;
conversion to under Ottomans, 12, 67, 94-95;
number of members, 95

Mussolini, Benito: 16

name of country: vii, 11

National Liberation Front: 1, 175;
seizure of government, 19

National Liberation Movement: 103, 139, 179;
created, 17;
supporters, 72, 73

nationalism: 5, 9, 126, 136, 139, 175, 177

nationalization:
effect on social structure, 75;
of industry, 21, 141;
information media, 126;
of schools, 84

naval forces: 180, 182-84;
commander, 182

Ndoja, Mark (poet): 140

Ndreu, Dalli (former Gen.): 22

Near East Foundation: 84

_Nendori_ (literary monthly): 100, 101

news agency: 131-32

newspapers: 129, 130 (table 7)

Nigris, Monsignor (apostolic nuncio): 99

Nikon, Bishop: 99

Noli, Bishop Fan S.: 15, 16, 73, 139

North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO): 176

nurseries (day care): 68, 148

nurses: 61

Nushi, Gogo (president, trade unions): 120

nutrition: 62

oil:
production, 163 (table 12);
refinery, 160;
reserves, 44

organizations:
anti-communist, 18;
mass, 117-21

Orthodox Church of Albania: 7, 67, 98;
members, 95

Ottoman rule: 3, 12-13

Paco, J. (sculptor): 143

Paisi, Archbishop: 99

Paluca, Maria (singer): 142

paramilitary training: 188-90

Pasha, Mehmet Ali (governor of Egypt): 12

Pasha, Pasko Vasa (playwright): 140

_pashas_: 2, 5, 13;
creation of the class, 95;
social leadership, 70

Paskal, Odhise (sculptor): 142

pastures: 41, 152

patriarchalism: 67;
efforts to eradicate, 68, 80-83

peasants:
attitude toward collectivism and modern methods, 145, 151, 157, 158,
159;
conditions under communism, 78-79;
religion, 95

People's army (_see also_ air force, naval forces): ground forces, 181-82;
organizational patterns, 180;
position in government, 179-80;
rank designations, 180-81;
strength, ix, 181, 183, 184;
training and paramilitary training, 182-90 _passim_

People's Assembly: 106, 108, 116, 164, 179-80, 190;
aim and sphere of action, 109;
description, 104-05;
power and influence, 110

People's councils:
description, 106-07;
as Party levers, 117-18

People's Police: 111, 176, 195

periodicals: 130, 131 (table 8)

Pioneer organizations: 118

pipeline: xiv (fig. 1), 44, 46

Plasari, Ndreci (institute head): 117

poetry: 139

Poland: 172

police. _See_ Directorate of State Security, Frontier Guards, People's
Police

Politburo: 21, 105, 112, 113;
communication media policy, 127;
composition, 77;
and the educational system, 92;
and the labor situation, 148, 150;
members in Council of Ministers, 106;
Secretariat, 111;
top executive branches, 111

politics:
and creation of the modern state, 15-17;
historical background, 5-6;
locus of power, 2, 103, 108-11 _passim_;
role of family connections, 77;
the system, 108-21

Popovic, Miladin (Party founder): 17

population:
control by Party and police, 2, 93-94, 137, 146, 176, 192-93, 194;
ethnic composition, 1, 5, 6, 9, 49, 52-55;
growth rate, 49, 51;
rural character, 50, 56;
social composition, 76 (table 4);
statistics, 1, 49, 50-52 (table 3);
summary, vii;
working age, 147

Poradeci, Lasgush (poet): 139

ports: ix; facilities, 47

potatoes: 155, 156 (table 10)

power, electric (_see also_ hydroelectric power):
extent of use, 50, 58, 162, 163 (table 12);
insufficiency, 44;
production, 163 (table 12), 164;
thermal plant, 160, 162

Prennushi, P. Vincenc (poet): 139

Presidium: 108;
description, 105-06, 111;
president, 72, 105

press: 125-28 _passim_, 129-32;
use for Party purposes, 126-27

prices: consumer commodities, 64-65

proletariat: dictatorship of, 108-11

_Puna_ (newspaper): 129, 130 (table 7)

radio:
foreign broadcasting, 132-33;
receivers and stations, 132, 133 (table 9);
use for Party purposes, 126-27

Radio Tirana: v, 132

railroads: ix, xiv (fig. 1), 45-46

rainfall: 4, 26, 27, 29, 35, 36 (table 1), 37

Rama, K. (artist): 143

Red Cross: 61

regions, natural: 26-31

religion (_see also_ clergymen, Orthodox Church, Muslim religion, Roman
Catholic Church): 5;
under Communists, 96-102;
eradication efforts, 7, 69, 96-102;
law to control, 96-97;
summary, viii;
traditional attitudes toward differences, 67, 96;
wealth confiscation, of religious bodies, 96

resources, natural: 41-44;
ownership, 110

revenue: 164, 165-66

rice: 155, 156 (table 10)

rivers: 37, 38 (fig. 4), 39-40 (table 2)

roads: ix, xiv, (fig. 1), 25, 27, 45

Rockefeller Foundation: 59

Roman Catholic Church: 7, 67;
actions against, 99-100;
membership, 95

Romania: aid and trade, 170, 172

_Rruga e Partise_ (Party monthly): 117, 127, 131

Russia: 13, 14

Sako, Zihni (writer): 140

salt: 44

sanitation: 58, 62

Sazan Island:
air base, 185;
Sea Defense Brigade, 183

schools:
Catholic, 99;
enrollment, 91, 92 (table 5), 93 (table 6);
higher institutes, 86, 90, 93 (table 6);
military, 186-87;
nationalization, 84;
number of, 92 (table 5);
paramilitary training, 188-90;
Party, 116-17;
pre-Communist period, 83-85;
secondary, 90

security forces (_see also_ Directorate of State Security, Frontier
Guards, People's Army, People's Police): 175-95;
control of population by, 176, 192-93;
Party control of, 111;
summary, ix

Sejko, Teme (former naval commander): 22, 190

Semen River: 39

settlement: patterns, 4, 49, 56-58

Shehu, Fiqrete (Party school head): 77, 117

Shehu, Mehmet (Prime Minister): 1, 22, 77, 84, 88, 90, 92, 103, 104, 105,
111, 116, 122

Shehu (Mehmet) Military Academy: 187

Shijak: airbase, 184

Shijaku, S. (artist): 143

shipping: 47

Shkoder (city):
population, 51, 57;
theater, 140

Siliqi, Llazar (poet): 140

Skanderbeg (national hero): 5, 10, 12, 138, 175, 177

Skanderbeg military school: 186

Skenderi, Vehbi (poet): 140

social insurance, 63-64
society (_see also_ authority, divorce, elite, family, marriage, peasants,
tribes and clans, women, youth):
character of, 1-7;
under communism, 68, 73-83;
structure, 67-102;
traditional patterns and values, 67, 69-73;
by type of employment, 76 (table 4)

soils: 26, 41

Soviet Union:
aid, economic, 7, 122, 141, 154, 169, 170;
aid, military, 175, 176, 179, 183, 184, 192;
break with, 122;
debt to, 170;
de-Stalinization campaign repercussions, 21;
education and training in, 61, 87, 91;
farm model, 153;
relations with, v, 2, 3, 21, 23, 104, 112, 121, 122, 123;
trade, 172

Spahiu, Xhafer (Politburo secretary): 111

Stalin, Joseph V.: 19, 22, 121, 122, 140, 142, 192, 193

Stalin (formerly Kucove): pipeline from, 44, 46

Stalin-Tito rupture: 21

standard of living: 7, 49-50, 58

state farms: 146, 151, 153;
labor force size, 147;
number and size, 154;
private plots, 154, 157, 159, 166

State Planning Commission: 58, 146, 150

State University of Tirana:
enrollment, 91;
established, 137-38;
Faculty of Jurisprudence, 74;
Faculty of Medicine, 61;
Library, 135;
Linguistics and History Institute, 56;
paramilitary training, 188

status: social mobility, 69

steel-rolling mill: 160

Stratoberdha, Llazi (Directorate head): 112

sugar beets: 151, 155, 156 (table 10)

sugar mill: 159

summary: vii-ix

Sunni (religious group): 97, 98

Tashko, Koco (former Party Leader): 23

Tashko, Tefta (singer): 142

taxes: 164, 165-66;
and property confiscation, 20;
turnover tax, 165, 166

teachers:
number of, 91, 92 (table 5);
Party membership, 94;
training, 83, 87

television: 125, 133

temperature: 36 (table 1)

Tepelena, Ali Pasha (Lion of Yannina): 13

textbooks: 86, 87

textiles:
mills, 159, 160;
production, 163, (table 12)

theater: 140-41

Tirana (capital city):
airbase, xiv (fig. 1), 184;
description, 57;
population, 51, 56, 57;
transportation, 46

Tito. _See_ Broz, Josip

Tittoni-Venizelos Agreement: 15

tobacco: 151, 155, 156 (table 10)

topography: vii, 4, 26-27, 28 (fig. 2), 29

Tosk: official language, 49, 56, 137

Tosks (ethnic group): 6, 52;
characteristics, 53, 54;
social structure, 70-72

tractors (_see also_ machine tractor stations): spare parts, 160

trade, foreign: 146, 171-74;
agreements, 173

Trade Union Workers:
Agriculture and Procurements, 120;
Education and Trade, 120;
Industry and Construction, 120

trade unions (_see also_ United Trade Unions): 120;
administration of social insurance activities, 63;
and control of labor, 147

Trako, Konstantine (composer): 142

transportation:
problems, 4-5;
status, 44-47;
systems, xiv (fig. 1)

treaties and agreements, international:
boundary, 14, 15, 32;
defense, 16;
summary, ix;
trade, 173

Treaty of San Stefano: 13

trials: accessibility, 107

tribes and clans:
description, 70;
social patterns and values, 69-73

tuberculosis: 60

Turkey: Ottoman rule period, 12-13

Union of Albanian Women: 117, 119

Union of Albanian Working Youth: 1, 93, 115, 117, 175;
described, 118;
newspaper, 129;
paramilitary training, 190

Union of Artists and Writers: 137, 142

unions. _See_ trade unions, United Trade Unions

United Nations: Communist China mouthpiece in, v; Relief and
Rehabilitation Administration (UNRRA): 59

United States:
Albanians living in, 55;
relations with, 23, 122

United Trade Unions: 1, 117, 129;
description, 120

university. _See_ State University of Tirana

urbanization: 56, 75;
government policy, 50-51, 147-48

values: traditional, 69-73 _passim_

vegetables:
exports, 174;
production, 151, 156 (table 10)

vegetation: 26, 41

Vijose River: 37, 39

villages:
description, 57-58;
electric power, 58;
health services, 61-62;
population, 49, 56

Vlachs (ethnic group): 54-55

Vlora, Ismail Qemal bey (independence leader): 3, 14

Vlore (port):
airbase, 185;
facilities, 47;
pipeline to, 44, 46;
population, 51, 57;
Sea Defense Brigade, 183;
transportation, 46

vocational and technical training: 86-87

Vodica, Pashko (clergyman): 98

voting: constitutional provision, 108

wages: 64

Warsaw Pact: 121, 123, 176, 192

West, the:
East-West conflict, position, 2, 121;
relations with, 23;
trade, 172, 173

Wied, Prince Wilhelm zu: 15

wildlife: 43

Wilson, Woodrow: 15

women and girls:
attitudes toward, 81, 82, 148;
and blood feuds, 6, 71;
mobilization potential, 185;
paramilitary training, 189;
part in production and government, 119;
position in society, 54, 119;
rights, 119-20;
social changes under communism, 68;
union of women, 117, 119;
welfare benefits, 64

workers' compensation: 64

World War I: 3, 15, 32, 121, 177

World War II: 45, 50, 62-63, 175, 178-79

Xoxe, Jakov (writer): 140

Xoxe, Koci (government official): 21, 22, 193

_Ylli_ (periodical): 131

youth (_see also_ Pioneer organizations, Union of Albanian Working Youth):
antireligious mission, 100, 118;
attitudes toward, 82;
organizations, 118;
paramilitary training, 188-90

Yugoslav Communist Party: 17, 18, 19

Yugoslavia:
aid, economic, 169;
aid, military, 176, 179, 192;
Albanians living in, 55;
influence, 21;
relations with, v, 2, 3, 9, 22, 23, 104, 121, 122, 123;
shared border, 25, 32;
trade, 173

Zengo, Androniqi (artist): 142

Zeqir, Ymer (commander, naval forces): 182

_Zeri I Popullit_ (Party's official daily): 80, 81, 91, 121, 129

_Zeri i Rinise_ (newspaper): 129, 130 (table 7)

Zicishti, Mihalaq (chief, State Security): 193

Zogu, Ahmet (King Zog I): 15, 16, 70, 72, 73, 178

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Comments

Area Handbook for AlbaniaChapter 9: Internal and External Security (2)

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