Chapter VII: Part 7

A very important group of shell ornaments represent, more or less distinctly, the human face. By a combination of engraving and sculpture a rude resemblance to the features is produced. The objects are generally made from a large pear-shaped section of the lower whorl of heavy marine univalves. The lower portion, which represents the neck and chin, is cut from the somewhat restricted part near the base of the shell, while the broad outline of the head reaches the first suture of the noded shoulder of the body whorl. The simplest form is represented by a specimen from a mound at Sevierville, Tenn. It is a plain, pear-shaped fragment, with evenly dressed margin and two perforations, which take the position of the eyes. A sketch of this is presented in Fig. 1, Plate LXIX. Similar specimens have been obtained from mounds in other States. A little further advance is made when the surface of the most convex part is ground away, with the exception of a low vertical ridge, which represents the nose. Further on a boss or node appears below the nose, which takes the place of the mouth, as seen in Fig. 2.

From the elementary stages exhibited in these specimens a gradual advance is made by the addition of details and the elaboration of all the features. A corona encircles the head, the ears are outlined (Fig. 5, Plate LXX), the eyes are elaborated by adding one or more concentric circles or ovals, brows are placed above, and groups of notched and zigzag lines extend downward upon the cheeks. The node at the mouth is perforated or cut in intaglio in circular or oblong figures, and the chin is embellished by a variety of incised designs. Illustrations of the various forms are given in Plates LXIX and LXX.

These objects are especially numerous in the mounds of Tennessee, but their range is quite wide, examples having been reported from Kentucky, Virginia, Illinois, Missouri, and Arkansas, and smaller ones of a somewhat different type from New York. In size they range from two to ten inches in length, the width being considerably less. They are generally found associated with human remains in such a way as to suggest their use as ornaments for the head or neck. There are, however, no holes for suspension except those made to represent the eyes, and these, so far as I have observed, show no abrasion by a cord of suspension. Their shape suggests the idea that they may have been used as masks, and as such may have been placed upon the faces of the dead in the same manner that metal masks were used by some oriental nations.

Among the large number of interesting objects of shell obtained from the McMahan Mound at Sevierville, Tenn., were a number of these shell masks. In the notes of the collector they are mentioned as having been found on the breast or about the heads of skeletons. The example shown in Fig. 1, Plate LXVII, is a medium-sized, rather plain specimen from the above-named locality. It is seven and one-fourth inches long and nearly six inches wide, and has been made from a _Busycon perversum_. The margins are much decayed, and the convex surface is pitted and discolored. The inside is smooth, and has a slight design rudely engraved upon it. Of a very different type is the specimen shown in Fig. 2. It is new looking, and well preserved. The slightly translucent surface is highly polished, and the engraved lines are quite fresh looking. It was collected by J. D. Lucas, and is labeled Aquia Creek, Va. It is five and one-half inches in length by five in width, and is apparently made from some dextral-whorled shell. The outline is somewhat rectangular, the upper surface being pretty well rounded and ornamented with a corona of incised lines, which are arranged in six groups of four each. Inside of these a single incised line runs parallel with the edge, from temple to temple. The eyes are represented by small circles with small central pits, and the lids are indicated by long, pointed ellipses. From each of the eyes a group of three zigzag lines extends downward across the cheek, terminating near the edge of the plate, opposite the mouth. These lines may be interpreted in two ways: First, if the object is a mourning mask, made with especial reference to its use in burial, they may signify tears, since, in the pictographic language of many tribes, tears are represented by lines descending from the eyes, and, with other nations, running water is symbolized by curved or zigzag lines; in the second place, these lines may represent figures painted upon the face during the period of mourning, or they may simply represent the characteristic lines of the painting or tattooing of the clan or tribe to which the deceased belonged. It is not at all improbable that these objects were further embellished by painted designs which have been obliterated.

The nose is represented by a flat ridge, which terminates abruptly below, the nostrils being indicated by two small excavations. The mouth is represented by an oval node, in which a horizontal groove has been made.

The most elaborately engraved example of these masks yet brought to the notice of the public is shown in Plate LXVIII. It was obtained by Mr. Lucien Carr from a large mound, known as the Ely Mound, near Rose Hill, Lee County, Virginia, and is described and illustrated by that gentleman in the tenth annual report of the Peabody Museum.[151] Wishing to present this fine specimen to the best advantage possible, I have had a large cut made from a photograph furnished by Professor Putnam, curator of the Peabody Museum. Parts of the design which were obscure I have strengthened, following the guidance of such fragments of lines as were still traceable, or by simply duplicating the lines of the opposite side, as these designs are in all cases bi-symmetrical.

Having described a great number of relics exhumed from this mound, Mr. Carr goes on to say "that the most interesting of the articles taken from this grave was an engraved shell made from the most dilated portion of the _Strombus gigas_, and carved on the convex side into the likeness of a human face." It measures 138 millimeters in length, by 120 in breadth. It is perforated with three holes, "the two upper of which are surrounded with circles, and represent eyes; between these is a raised ridge of shell, in place of the nose, and below this is a third hole, which is just above a series of lines that were probably intended as the mouth. Four lines, parallel to each other during three-fourths of their length, begin at the outer corner of the eye and are zigzaged to the lower jaw, where they are drawn to a point. The concave side of the shell is perfectly plain, and still preserves its high polish, though the right portion of the face on the carved or convex side shows the sad effects of time and exposure."

Although I have not had an opportunity of examining this specimen closely, I am inclined to the opinion, judging by its outlines, that the shell from which it was made has been sinistrally whorled, and hence a _Busycon perversum_. I should also prefer to consider the hole beneath the nose as representing the mouth, as it certainly does in many other cases, and the peculiar figure--the three vertical lines which extend downward from the hole and the two banded figures that cross them at right angles--as a representation of some painted or tattooed design characteristic of the builders of the mound.

Other examples of these objects are represented in Plate LXIX. Of especial interest I may mention the specimen shown in Fig. 4, obtained, with other similar examples, by Professor Putnam, from the Lick Creek mound, in East Tennessee. The perforations which represent the eyes are surrounded by two concentric circles, and the zigzag lines beneath are supplemented by two sets of pendant figures formed of notched lines, the two longer of which extend down the sides of the nose, the others being connected with the lower margin of the eye. In one example four parallel lines pass from the mouth downward over the chin.

Fig. 3 represents a specimen from the Brakebill Mound, East Tennessee. The mouth is not indicated, and the nose is but slightly relieved. Each eye, however, is inclosed by a figure which extends downward over the cheek, terminating in three sharp points.

So far as the specimens at hand show, this peculiar embellishment of the eyes and mouth is characteristic of Virginia and East Tennessee. A small specimen from Georgia, now preserved in the Natural History Museum at New York, has a somewhat similar ornamentation of the eyes. This specimen is shown in Fig. 6, Plate LXX.

In Fig. 8 of the same plate we have the representation of a face modeled in clay, on which a number of incised lines, similar to those engraved on shell, have been drawn. The crown of notches is also present. The specimen has been illustrated by Professor Jones.[152] It is now in the museum of Natural History at New York, and was probably obtained from the Etowah Valley, Georgia. Examples in stone are also numerous, and show certain features in common with those in shell.

Fig. 9 is from Northern Ohio, and is carved from a nodule of iron ore.

The very beautiful little head shown in Figs. 1 and 2 is from a cave at Mussel Shoals, Ala. It is made of shell, and is somewhat altered by decay. The crown is peculiarly notched, and resembles a very common Mexican form. The notch in the middle of the forehead can be traced to a division in the head-dress noticed in the more elaborately carved Mexican specimens.

The example shown in Figs. 3 and 4 is copied from a rather rude cut given by Schoolcraft, who describes it as follows: "This well-sculptured article was discovered in the valley of the Kasauda Creek, Onondaga County. The material is a compact piece of sea-shell. It still preserves in a considerable degree the smoothness and luster of its original finish. * * * At the angle of the temples are two small orifices for suspending it around the neck. The entire article is finished with much skill and delicacy."[153]

The very rude specimen presented in Fig. 7 is from a mound at Franklin, Tenn. It seems to have been some natural form, but slightly changed by art. A somewhat similar specimen from a mound in Tennessee may be seen in the Peabody Museum.

The cut presented in Fig. 5 is taken from Jones's Antiquities of Tennessee, page 48. The specimen was obtained from the stone grave of a child at the foot of a mound near Nashville, Tenn. It has diamond-shaped eyes, a feature of very rare occurrence in the art of this region.

THE HUMAN FIGURE.

I now come to a class of works which are new and unique, and in more than one respect are the most important objects of aboriginal art yet found within the limits of the United States. These relics are four in number, and come from that part of the mound-building district occupied at one time by the "stone grave" peoples--three from Tennessee and one from Missouri. Similar designs are not found in other materials, and, indeed, nothing at all resembling them can be found, so far as I know, either in stone or in clay. If such have been painted or engraved on less enduring materials they are totally destroyed. I shall first describe the specimens themselves, and subsequently dwell at some length upon their authenticity, their significance, and their place in art.

First, I present, in Plate LXXI, a shell gorget on which is engraved a rather rude delineation of a human figure. The design occupies the concave side of a large shell disk cut from a _Busycon perversum_. Near the upper margin are the usual holes for suspension. The engraved design fills the central portion of the plate and is inclosed by two approximately parallel lines, between which and the edge of the shell there is a plain belt three-fourths of an inch wide. A casual observer would probably not recognize any design whatever in the jumble of half obliterated lines that occupies the inclosed space. It will first be noticed that a column about three-fourths of an inch in width stands erect in the center of the picture; from this spring a number of lines, forming serpentine arms, which give the figure as much the appearance of an octopus crowded into a collector's alcohol jar as of a human creature. A little study will convince one, however, that the central column represents the human body, and the tangle of lines surrounding it will be found to represent the arms, legs, hands, feet, and their appendages--no line within the border being without its office. The upper extremity of the body is occupied by a circle one-eighth of an inch in diameter, which represents the eye. The head is not distinguished from the body by any sort of constriction for the neck, but has evidently been crowned by a rude aurora-like crest similar to that found in so many aboriginal designs. This does not appear in the engraving given, as it, as well as other features, was so nearly obliterated as to escape observation until the idea was suggested by the study of other similar designs. The mouth is barely suggested, being represented by three shallow lines placed so low on the trunk that they occupy what should be the chest. From the side of the head a number of lines, probably meant for plumes, extend across the bordering lines almost to the edge of the shell; below this are two perforated loops, which seem to take the place of ears; the one on the right is doubly perforated and has a peculiar extension, in a bent or elbowed line, across the border. The arms are attached to the sides of the body near the middle in a haphazard sort of way and are curiously double jointed; they terminate, however, in well-defined hands against the right and left borders, the thumb and fingers being, in each case, distinctly represented. The legs and feet are at first exceedingly hard to make out, but when once traced are as clear as need be. The body terminates abruptly below within an inch of the base of the inclosed space. One leg extends directly downward, the foot resting upon the border line; the other extends backward from the base of the trunk and rests against the border line at the right; the legs have identical markings, which probably represent the costume. Each foot terminates in a single well-defined talon or claw, which folds upward against the knee. This is a most interesting feature, and one which this design possesses in common with the three other drawings of the human figure found in Tennessee. The spaces between the various members of the figure are filled in with ornamental appendages, which seem to be attached to the hands and feet, and probably represent plumes. The numerous perforations in this specimen are worthy of attention: within the border line there are twenty-six, which vary from one-fourth to one-sixteenth of an inch in diameter. They are placed mostly at the joints of the figure or at the junction of two or more lines. Such perforations are of frequent occurrence in this class of gorgets and may have had some particular significance to their possessors. This specimen was found in the great mound at Sevierville, Tenn., upon the breast of a skeleton, and is now in the National Collection. It has suffered considerably from decay, the surface being deeply furrowed, pitted, and discolored. The holes are much enlarged and the lines in places are almost obliterated.

I began the study of this design with the thought that, in reference to this specimen at least, Professor Jones was right, and that the confused group of lines might be the meaningless product of an idle fancy, but ended by being fully satisfied that no single line or mark is without its place or its significance.

After having examined this design so critically, it will be an easy matter to interpret that engraved upon the tablet illustrated in Plate LXXII. Although found in widely separated localities, and engraved in a somewhat different style, they are identical in type, and exhibit but slight differences in detail. At the top of the plate we have the two doubly conical perforations for suspension, but the double border line is not completed above, being interrupted by the plumes from the head. The head itself is decorated with the usual crown of radiating lines, a small circle with a central pit represents the eye, and below this is a well-defined mouth with a double row of teeth. Extending to the right from the mouth is an appendage consisting of one straight and two interrupted lines, which may be a part of the costume, or, since it issues from the mouth, may possibly symbolize speech. The body, which is short and straight, is divided vertically into three parts; the central space contains a large conical perforation, and is covered with a lace-work of lines; the lateral spaces are ornamented with rows of buttons or scales, which consist of meagerly outlined circles with central dots. The curiously folded arms have precisely the same relative positions as the corresponding members in the other specimen, and the fingers touch the bordering line on the right and left, the thumb being turned backward against the elbow. The legs are represented in a manner that suggests a sitting posture, the rounded knees coming in front of and joining the base of the body; in position and decoration they repeat the other specimen. The feet, or the rounded extremities that represent them, rest upon the border line, as in the case previously described, and terminate in upturned talons that are long, curved, and jointed, and terminate in square or blunt tips. Plume-like appendages are attached to the arms and legs, and fill the spaces not occupied by the members of the body; these plumes or pendants are always represented by folded bands or fillets which are ornamented on one side with dots. A plume attached to the left side of the head is represented by two curved lines, which reach to the edge of the shell. There are five perforations, two for suspension, two at the sides of the face, and one near the middle of the trunk. This specimen is in a very perfect state of preservation, the surface being smooth and but little stained. It is somewhat pear-shaped, resembling in this respect the mask-like gorgets previously described. It is about seven inches in height and five in width, and has been made from a very thick and compact shell, probably a _Busycon_. It was obtained from a mound in Meigs County, Tennessee, and is preserved in the Peabody Museum. In mechanical execution this specimen is much superior to the preceding one; the edges and surface of the shell are nicely dressed, although the lines of the design are indifferently cut.

Another unique shell gorget is presented in Plate LXXIII. It was obtained from a mound in Southeastern Missouri, and is now in the possession of Professor Potter, of Saint Louis. The disk is about four and a half inches in diameter, and was originally nearly circular, but the edges are now much decayed and battered. A cut with a brief description is given by Mr. A. J. Conant in his recent work, "Foot-prints of Vanished Races," page 95. My cut is made from a photograph obtained from Professor Putnam, of the Peabody Museum. This is probably the same photograph used by Mr. Conant. The engraved design is of a totally distinct type from the last, and evinces a much higher grade of skill in the artist. It is encircled by six nearly parallel lines, which occupy about half an inch of the border of the disk. Portions of these still remain, the inner one being nearly entire. Between this and the second line are two perforations for suspension. The idea first suggested by a glance at the engraved design is that it strongly resembles the work of the ancient Mexicans, and the second idea of many archæologists will probably be that there may be a doubt of its genuineness. Setting this question aside for the present, let us examine the engraving in detail. Placing the plate so that the two perforations are at the left, we have the principal figure in an upright posture. This figure apparently represents a personage of some importance, as he is decked from head to foot with a profusion of ornaments and symbols. He is shown in profile with the arms extended in action, and the feet separated as if in the act of stepping forward. The head is large, occupying about one-third of the height of the design. The elaborate head-dress fills the upper part of the inclosed space, pendant plumes descend to the shoulders before and behind, and circular ornaments are attached to the hair and the ear. The conventionalized eye is lozenge or diamond shaped, with a small conical pit for the pupil.

The profile shows a full forehead, a strong nose, and a prominent chin. Two lines extend across the cheek from the bridge of the nose to the base of the ear. In and projecting from the mouth is a symbolic figure, the meaning of which can only be conjectured. The shoulders and body are but meagerly represented. From the waist a peculiar apron-like object is suspended, which reaches to the knees; it may be a part of the costume or a priestly symbol. The legs and feet are dwarfed, but quite well outlined. There are encircling bands at the knees and ankles, and a fan-like extension of the costume, somewhat resembling the tail of a bird, descends between the legs. Attached to the back, is a figure of a rather extraordinary character. Similar figures may be seen in some of the Mexican paintings, and seem to represent a contrivance for carrying burdens, in which at times elfish figures are accommodated. The right arm is extended forward, and the hand grasps a singular shaft, with which a blow is aimed at the severed head of a victim, which is held face downward by the left hand of the standing figure. The severed head still retains the plumed cap, from which a long pendant descends in front of the face. The eye is lozenge-shaped. A zigzag line crosses the cheek from the ear to the bridge of the nose, and a curious symbolic figure is represented as issuing from the mouth. The shaft held in the right hand seems to issue from a circular figure, doubtless of symbolic character, which occupies the space in front of the head of the standing figure. It is possible that the figure which issues from the mouth of the victim represents the point of this mystic shaft which has penetrated the head, although we should have to allow some inaccuracies in the drawing if this were the case. Any one at all familiar with the curious pictographic manuscripts of the ancient Mexicans will see at a glance that we have here a sacrificial scene, in which a priest seems to be engaged in the sacrifice of a human being. In the extraordinary manuscripts of the ancient Aztecs we have many parallels to this design. So closely does it approach the Aztec type that, although no duplicate can be found in any of the codices, there is not a single idea, a single member or ornament that has not its analogue in the Mexican manuscripts. To make this clear to every one I present, in Plate LXXV, Fig. 4, a single example for comparison. This one is selected from the manuscript of M. De Féjerváry, preserved at Budapest, Hungary.[154] Fortunately for the credit of this Missouri relic we do not find its duplicate--there are only family resemblances; there are similar plumes, with similar ornaments and pendants, similar costume and attitudes; there are similar features and similar symbols; but there is no absolute identity, except in motive and conception.

Among the multitude of works of art collected within the last decade very few will be found to surpass in interest the fragment of a shell gorget from the McMahan Mound, at Sevierville, Tenn. The disk, when entire, has been nearly five inches in diameter. A little more than one-third had crumbled away, and the remaining portion was only preserved by the most careful handling, and by immediate immersion in a thin solution of glue. This specimen is the first of the kind ever brought to light in this country, and must certainly be regarded as the highest example of aboriginal art ever found north of Mexico. The design, as in the other cases, has been engraved on the convex surface of a polished shell disk, and represents two human figures, plumed and winged and armed with eagles' talons, engaged in mortal combat. As in the last specimen described, this has, at first sight, an exotic look, bearing certainly in its conception a general resemblance to the marvelous bas-reliefs of Mexico and Central America; but the resemblance goes no further, and we are at liberty to consider it a northern work _sui generis_. The design has apparently covered the entire tablet, leaving no space for encircling lines. The two figures are in profile and face each other in a fierce onset. Of the right-hand figure only the body, one arm, and one leg remain. The left-hand figure is almost complete; the outline of the face, one arm, and one foot being obliterated. The right hand is raised above the head in the act of brandishing a long double-pointed knife. At the same time this doughty warrior seems to be receiving a blow in the face from the right hand of the other combatant, in which is clutched a savage-looking blade, with a curved point. The hands are vigorously drawn, the joints are correctly placed, and the thumb presses down upon the outside of the forefinger in its natural effort to tighten and secure the grasp. Two bands encircle the wrists and probably represent bracelets. The arms and shoulders are plain. The head is decorated with a single plume, which springs from a circular ornament placed over the ear; an angular figure extends forward from the base of this plume and probably represents what is left of the head-dress proper; forward of this, on the very edge of the crumbling shell, is one-half of the lozenge-shaped eye, the dot intended to represent the pupil being almost obliterated. It is certainly a great misfortune that both faces are completely gone; their exact character must remain conjectural. A neat pendant ornament is suspended upon the well-formed breast, and a broad belt encircles the waist, beneath which, covering the abdomen, is a design that suggests the scales of a coat of mail. The legs are well-defined and perfectly proportioned; the left knee is bent forward and the foot is planted firmly on the ground, while the right is thrown gracefully back against the rim at the left. Double belts encircle the knees and ankles. The legs terminate in wonderfully well-drawn eagle's feet, armed with vigorously curved talons. A very interesting feature of the design is the highly conventionalized wing, which is attached to the shoulder behind, and fills the space beneath the uplifted arm. A broad many-feathered tail is spread out like a fan behind the legs. The right hand figure, so far as seen, is an exact duplicate of the left. A design of undetermined significance occupies the space between the figures beneath the crossed arms; it may represent conventionalized drapery, but is more probably symbolic in its character. The heads have probably been a little too large for good proportion, but the details of the anatomy are excellent. The muscles of the shoulder, the breast and nipple, the waist, the buttock, and the calves of the legs are in excellent drawing. The whole group is most graphically presented. A highly ideal design, it is made to fill a given space with a directness of execution and a unity of conception that is truly surprising.

Let us turn for a moment from this striking effort of the mound-builders to the early efforts of other peoples in the engraver's art. Here are the drawings of the Troglodytes of France, scintillations of paleolithic genius, which appear as a flash of light in the midst of a midnight sky. They are truly remarkable. The clear-cut lines that shadow forth the hairy mammoth suggest the graphic and forcible work of the Parisian of to-day. The rude Esquimaux of our own time engraves images of a great variety of natural objects on his ornaments and implements of ivory in a manner that commands our admiration. But these shell tablets have designs of a much higher grade. They not only represent natural objects with precision, but they delineate conceptions of mythical creatures of composite character for which nature affords no model. In execution the best of these tablets will not compare with the wonderful works in stucco and stone of Palenque, or the elaborate sculptures of the Aztecs, but they are, like them, vigorous in action and complete in conception.

In case the authenticity of these relics be questioned, the facts in regard to them, so far as known, are here presented for reference. As to the two specimens from Sevierville, Tenn. (Plates LXXI and LXXII), the shadow of a doubt cannot be attached to them. Were there no record whatever of the time or place of discovery, the evidence upon the faces of the relics themselves would show satisfactorily that they are genuine. They were taken from the great mound, which I have called the McMahan Mound, at Sevierville, Tenn. This mound was opened in 1881 by one of our most experienced collectors, Dr. E. Palmer. The specimens when found were in a very advanced stage of decay, pitted, discolored, and crumbling, and had to be handled with the utmost care to prevent total disintegration. They were dried by the collector, immersed in a weak solution of glue, and forwarded immediately to the National Museum at Washington. In this mound a multitude of relics were found, a large number being of shell, many of which are figured and described in this paper. These two gorgets, as well as many others of more ordinary types were found on or near the breasts of skeletons, and it is highly probable that they were suspended about the necks of the dead just as they had been worn by the living. By accurately ascertaining the authenticity of one of these specimens we establish, so far as need be, the genuineness of all of the same class. If one is genuine that is sufficient; the others may or may not be so, without seriously effecting the questions at issue, yet the occurrence of duplicate or closely related specimens in widely separated localities furnishes confirmatory evidence of no little importance. I do not wish to be understood as casting a doubt upon any of the four specimens described, as I am thoroughly convinced that there is no cause for suspicion.

The Missouri gorget, which has already been described and figured, was obtained by unknown persons in Southeastern Missouri. Several years back it came into the hands of Colonel Whitley, and from him it was obtained by its present owner, Professor Potter, of Saint Louis. There has never been a question as to its genuineness, and according to Professor Hilder, who saw it shortly after its discovery, the appearance and condition of the specimen were such that it could not have been of fraudulent manufacture. It was chalky and crumbling from decay, the lines of the design bearing equal evidence with the general surface of the shell of great age. Beside this, even if it were possible to produce such a condition in a recently carved shell, there existed no motive for such an attempt. Nothing was to be made by it; no benefit could accrue to the perpetrator to reward him for his pains, and, further, there was no precedent, there was extant nothing that could serve as a model for such a work.

In Plate LXXV I have arranged a number of figures for convenience of comparison, Figs. 1, 3, 5, and 6, being outlines of the four examples just described. In regard to the restored part of the outline in Fig. 1, I wish to say that my only object in filling out the figure on the right was to secure as far as possible the full effect of the complete original. Observing that all that remains of the right hand figure--the arm, the body, the leg and foot, is a duplicate of the left, it is safe to conclude that the design has been approximately bi-symmetrical, slight discrepancies probably occurring in the details of head and arm, in the expression of face, or in the character of the weapon. It is much to be regretted that the faces are totally destroyed.

In Fig. 2 I present a group of two figures from the so-called "sacrificial stone" found in the Plaza Mayor, city of Mexico. It seems to represent the submission of one warrior or ruler to his victorious opponent, and is one of many designs that might be presented to illustrate the analogies of the Tennessee relic with the interesting works of the far South. There is what might be called a family resemblance, a similarity in idea and action, but little analogy of detail. The northern work is by far the more spirited, and is apparently superior in all the essentials of artistic excellence.

In the composite character of the personages represented this picture finds no parallel. Composite figures are of frequent occurrence in Peruvian art, as in the running figures sculptured on the great monolith at Tiahuanuco, or the mythical combats of the gods of the earth and sea painted on the pottery of Chimu. They are also found in the manuscripts of the ancient Mexicans, as well as in the paintings of the modern Pueblos of New Mexico (Fig. 1, Plate LXXVI), and in the totemic art of the Haidahs (Fig. 2, Plate LXXVI). The most frequent combinations are of birds with men, the inspiration of the work in all cases being derived from the mythology of the people. The wearing of masks has doubtless given rise to many such conceptions, and where the head alone of the human creature has undergone metamorphosis, we may suspect that a mask has originated the conception; but the Tennessee example appears to be the only one in which wings are added independently of the arms or in which bird's feet are attached to the otherwise perfect human creature.

And now we come to the question of the origin of these objects, and especially of the example most closely resembling Mexican work. The Missouri gorget is in many respects quite isolated from known works of the Mississippi Valley. Must it be regarded as an exotic, as an importation from the South, or does it belong to the soil from which it was exhumed? In order to answer this question we must not only determine its relations to the art of Mexico, but we must know just what affinities it has to the art of the mound-builders.

In the first place, gorgets of shell are a marked characteristic of the personal embellishment of the northern peoples. They may have been in use among the Aztecs, but do not appear among southern antiquities, and no evidence can be derived from history. This gorget belongs, in its general character as an ornament, to the North. It is circular in form, it has two small perforations near the margin for suspension, and is made from the wall of a large univalve. The design occupies the central portion of the convex side of the disk and is inclosed by a number of incised lines. In all of these features, together with its technical execution and its manner of inhumation, it is identical with the well-known work of the mound-builders. These analogies could hardly occur if it were an exotic. It is true, however, as we have already seen, that the design itself has a closer affinity to Mexican art than to that of the North. It represents a sacrificial scene, and has many parallels in the paintings and sculpture of the South, whereas no such design is known in the art of any nation north of Mexico.

The engravings of the mound-builders represent legendary creatures derived from the myths of the fathers, and in this respect have their parallels in the bird-man of the Haidahs, the war-god of the Zuñis, and the mythical deities of other countries; but they are never illustrative of the customs or ceremonies of the peoples themselves. As an ornament this Missouri gorget is a member of a great family that is peculiarly northern, but the design engraved upon it affiliates with the art of Mexico, and so close and striking are the resemblances, that accident cannot account for them, and we are forced to the conclusion that it must be the offspring of the same beliefs and customs and the same culture as the art of Mexico.

FOOTNOTES:

[1] I am greatly indebted to Prof. W. H. Dall, of the Coast Survey, for
assistance in the identification of Pacific coast varieties.

[2] Putnam: in Surveys West of the 100th Meridian, Vol. VII, p. 251.

[3] Reiss and Stübel: Necropolis of Ancon, Peru, Plate 83.

[4] De Bry: Collectio Pars 2. Brevis Narratio, 1591, Plate 29.

[5] Kohl: Kitschi-Gami, vol. I, p. 186, Rau, trans.

[6] Cabeça de Vaca: Relation et Naufrages. Paris, 1837, p. 121. Spanish
ed., 1555.

[7] Rau, in Smithsonian Report for 1872, p. 376.

[8] Jones: Antiquities of the Southern Indians, p. 233.

[9] Jones: Aboriginal Remains of Tennessee, p. 59.

[10] _Ibid._, p. 60.

[11] _Ibid._, p. 45.

[12] Putnam, in Eleventh Annual Report, Peabody Museum, p. 355.

[13] Wyman, in Third Annual Report, Peabody Museum, p. 7.

[14] Wyman, in Third Annual Report, Peabody Museum, p. 8.

[15] Foster: Prehistoric Races of the United States, p. 78.

[16] Since the shell here named is quite small it is probable that the
specimens found were _Busycons_.

[17] Long's Expedition to the Rocky Mountains, Vol. I, p. 361.

[18] Atwater, in Transactions American Antiquarian Society, Vol. I.

[19] Squier and Davis: Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley,
p. 283.

[20] _Ibid._, p. 284.

[21] Farquharson, in Proceedings of the Am. Association, 1875, page 296.

[22] _Ibid._, p. 297.

[23] Putnam, in Eleventh Annual Report, Peabody Museum, p. 235.

[24] I am indebted to Dr. Charles A. White, of the Geological Survey,
for the identification of the numerous specimens of _Unionidæ_
mentioned in this paper.

[25] Archæological Explorations by the Literary and Scientific Society
of Madisonville, 1879.

[26] Putnam, in Eleventh Annual Report, Peabody Museum, p. 334.

[27] _Ibid._, p. 344.

[28] Jones: Antiquities of Tennessee, p. 64.

[29] Beverly: History of Virginia, 1722, pl. 10, p. 154.

[30] Strachey, in Hakluyt Society Publications, vol. VI, p. 52.

[31] _Ibid._, vol. VII, p. 67.

[32] Kalm's Travels, London, 1772, vol. I, p. 341.

[33] Collections New York Historical Society, vol. I, 2nd series, p. 198.

[34] Beverly: History of Virginia, 1722, p. 197.

[35] Drake, in Hakluyt Society Publications, vol. XVI, p. 74.

[36] _Ibid._, p. 78.

[37] Sproat's Savage Life, p. 86.

[38] De Bry: Collectio Pars 1. "Admiranda Narratio," Plate 12.

[39] Catlin: Indians of the Rocky Mountains and Andes, page 101.

[40] Wood: New England Prospect, p. 102.

[41] Archæological Explorations by the Literary and Scientific Society
of Madisonville, Ohio, Part I, p. 17.

[42] Mass. Hist. Soc. Coll., vol. VII, p. 193.

[43] Wood: New England Prospect, p. 87.

[44] Wood: New England Prospect, p. 106.

[45] Archæological Explorations by the Literary and Scientific Society,
part II, p. 38, fig. 31.

[46] Putnam, in Explorations West of the 100th Meridian, vol. VII,
p. 223.

[47] Cook: Voyage Around the World, 1770, vol. II, p. 218.

[48] Rau: Archæological Collection of the National Museum, page 67.

[49] Knight: Savage Weapons at the Centennial Exhibition, page 10.

[50] Wyman: American Naturalist for October, 1878, p. 453.

[51] Adair: History of the American Indians, p. 6.

[52] Beverly: History of Virginia, p. 140.

[53] Heckewelder's Indian Nations, p. 205.

[54] Reiss and Stübel: Necropolis of Ancon, Plate 83, fig. 17-1/2.

[55] Jones: Antiquities of the Southern Indians, pp. 234, 518.

[56] Wyman, in the American Naturalist, November, 1868, Plate X, p. 455.

[57] Putnam, in Surveys West of the 100th Meridian, Vol. VII, p. 230.

[58] Putnam, in Surveys West of the 100th Meridian, Vol. VII, p. 259.

[59] Perkins, on An Ancient Burial-Ground in Swanton, Vt., Proceedings
of the American Association, 1873.

[60] Squier and Davis: Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley,
p. 232.

[61] Putnam, in Surveys West of the 100th Meridian, Vol. VII, p. 266.

[62] Schoolcraft: History of the Indian Tribes, Vol. III, p. 79,
Plate 25.

[63] Schoolcraft: Notes on the Iroquois, p. 233.

[64] Beverly: History of Virginia, p. 145, Plate VI.

[65] Haldeman, in Surveys West of the 100th Meridian, Vol. VII, p. 263.

[66] Atwater: Western Antiquities, p. 86. In the early days of mound
exploration shell was usually mistaken for bone or ivory.

[67] Kip: Jesuit Missions, p. 25.

[68] Collections of the Massachusetts Historical Society, 1794,
Vol. III, pp. 231, 232.

[69] Worsley: A View of the American Indians, p. 65.

[70] Collections of the New York Historical Society, 1841; vol. I, 2nd
Series, p. 194.

[71] Thought to be raccoon skins.

[72] Smith: True Relation of Virginia, pp. 33, 34.

[73] Wood: New England Prospect, p. 74.

[74] Du Pratz: History of Louisiana, p. 364.

[75] Lewis and Clark: Expedition up the Missouri, &c., p. 537.

[76] Harmon's Journal, p. 287.

[77] Swan: The Northwest Coast, p. 158.

[78] Powers: Contributions to North American Ethnology, Vol. III, p.
263.

[79] Drake: Book of Indians, p. 27.

[80] Morgan, in Fifth Annual Report on the New York State Cabinet of
Natural History, pp. 71, 73.

[81] Loskiel: Mission of the United Brethren, Latrobe trans., p. 34.

[82] Hutchinson: History of Mass., Vol. I, p. 406.

[83] Thomas Morton, in Historical Tracts, Vol. II, p. 29.

[84] Williams: A Key into the Language of America, p. 144.

[85] Penna: Historical Society, Vol. III, p. 131.

[86] Beverly: History of Virginia, p. 195.

[87] Lawson: History of North Carolina; Raleigh reprint, 1860, p. 315.

[88] On this point, however, the author quoted is apparently at fault,
as there is abundance of proof that the whites often engaged
successfully in the manufacture of this shell money.

[89] Adair: History of the American Indians, p. 170.

[90] Kalm's Travels, London, 1772, Vol. II, p. 100.

[91] _Ibid._, Vol. I, pp. 190, 191.

[92] Ruttenber: Indian Tribes of the Hudson River, p. 26.

[93] Lewis and Clark: Expedition up the Missouri, p. 73.

[94] Ruttenber: Indian Tribes of the Hudson River, page 43.

[95] Morgan, in Fifth Annual Report on the condition of the New York
State Cabinet of Natural History, page 73.

[96] Brice: History of Fort Wayne, 1868, page 28.

[97] Events in Indian History, Lancaster, Pa., 1841, page 143.

[98] History and description of New France, Vol. II, page 256.

[99] Penn, in Memoirs Hist. Soc. Penn'a, Vol. VI, p. 222.

[100] In order to make the authors meaning quite clear, a free
translation has been given of such words as _porcelaine_,
_branches_, _colliers_, etc., as his use of them is somewhat
confusing.

[101] Lafitau: Moeurs des Sauvages Ameriquains, 1724, tom. II,
pp. 502-'3 and 506-'7.

[102] Loskiel: Missions of the United Brethren. Trans. by La Trobe,
Book I, p. 26.

[103] Brice: History of Fort Wayne, p. 118.

[104] Gilpin, in Memoirs of the Hist. Soc. of Penna. Vol. VI, p. 248.

[105] Heckewelder: Indian Nations, 1876, p. 110.

[106] Parkman: Jesuits in North America, p. xxxiii.

[107] Events in Indian History, Lancaster, Pa., 1841, p. 143.

[108] Hunter: Indian Manners and Customs, p. 192.

[109] Gumilla: Histoire de Orinoque, Vol. III, p. 91.

[110] Molina: History of Chili, Vol. I, p. 119.

[111] From an original sketch by Mr. Beauchamp.

[112] Pike: Travels through the Western Territories of N. A., 1805-'7,
p. 103.

[113] Morgan, in Fifth Annual Report on the Condition of the New York
State Cabinet of Natural History, 1852, p. 72.

[114] Morgan: League of the Iroquois, p. 387.

[115] Heckewelder: Indian Nations, 1876, pp. 108-'9-'10.

[116] Beatty: Journal of Two Months Tour, 1768, p. 67.

[117] Loskiel: Missions of the United Brethren. Trans, by La Trobe,
1794. Book I, p. 26.

[118] Lafitau: Moeurs des Sauvages Ameriquains, Tome II, p. 314.

[119] Mr. Beauchamp has published many interesting facts in regard to
these belts in the American Antiquarian, Vol. II, No. 3.

[120] Present chief of the Onondagas.

[121] The proceedings attending the presentation are fully recorded in
the Memoirs of the Historical Society of Pennsylvania, volume iii,
page 207. A full size lithographic illustration of the belt
printed in color is also given.

[122] Clavigero: History of Mexico, Trans. by Cullen, vol. I, p. 437.

[123] Davis: Spanish Conquest of New Mexico, p. 121.

[124] Beverly: History of Virginia, p. 196.

[125] Lafitau: Moeurs des Sauvages Ameriquains, p. 61.

[126] Wood: New England Prospect, p. 74.

[127] Kalm: Travels in North America, 1772, vol. ii, p. 320.

[128] _Vide_ Kingsborough, Waldeck, Bancroft, &c.

[129] Schoolcraft, in Trans. Am. Eth. Soc., Vol. II, Plate 1.

[130] Tomlinson, in The American Pioneer, Vol. II, p. 200.

[131] Matson, in Ohio Centennial Report, p. 131.

[132] Schoolcraft: History of the Indian Tribes, &c., part I, plate XIX.

[133] The ossuaries here mentioned are in the township of Beverly,
twenty miles from Dundas, at the head of Lake Ontario. They are
situated in a primitive forest, and were discovered upwards of
thirty years ago through the uprooting of a tree. Large numbers
of skeletons had been deposited longitudinally in trenches, with
many implements, utensils, and ornaments. Two brass kettles were
found in one of the graves. (Schoolcraft: Red Races of America,
p. 326.)

[134] Rau: Archæological Collection of the National Museum, p. 33.

[135] The handsome illustrations presented in the accompanying plates
were mostly drawn by Miss Kate C. Osgood, who has no superior in
this class of work.

[136] Jones: Aboriginal Remains of Tennessee, pp. 42-3.

[137] Jones: Antiquities of the Southern Indians, pp. 373-5.

[138] Anderson, in the Cincinnati Quarterly Journal of Science, October,
1875, p. 378.

[139] Abbott: Primitive Industry, pp. 70, 72, and 73.

[140] _Ibid._, p. 207.

[141] Since this paragraph has been in type I have seen the specimen,
and find that the looped figure is clearly defined.

[142] Kingsborough: vol. II, Plate 20.

[143] Let any one who thinks lightly of such a work undertake, without
machinery or well-adapted appliances, to cut a groove or notch
even, in a moderately compact specimen of _Busycon_, and he will
probably increase his good opinion of the skill and patience of
the ancient workman if he does nothing else.

[144] E. G. Squier: Serpent Symbol, page 69, quoting MSS. of J. H.
Payne.

[145] I am very much indebted to Prof. F. F. Hilder, of Saint Louis, for
photographs of three of these specimens as well as for much
information in regard to their history.

[146] Croswell, in Transactions Academy of Science of Saint Louis,
vol. III, p. 537.

[147] Jones: Antiquities of the Southern Indian, plate XXX.

[148] Archæological Collection of the National Museum, p. 69.

[149] Squier: Peru, p. 186.

[150] Bancroft: Native Races of the Pacific States, vol. IV., p. 37.

[151] Carr, in Tenth Annual Report Peabody Museum, p. 87.

[152] Jones: Antiquities of the Southern Indians, p. 430.

[153] Schoolcraft: Notes on the Iroquois, p. 235.

[154] Kingsborough, Vol. III, pl. 22.

INDEX.

Abbott, C. C., describes bird totems 284
Adair, James, describes shell tweezers 212
, on use of shell money 237
Agricultural implements. (_See_ Implements.)
Amiantis shells, Manufacture of beads from 226
Art, Antiquity of shell works of 187
, Burial of shell works of 187
, Evolution of 185, 192, 202, 210, 213, 225
, Inception of 186
, Materials employed in 185, 188
, Preservation of shell works of 186
Asphaltum used by California Indians 191, 209, 218
Atwater, Caleb, describes shell necklace 231
vessel 197

Beads of other materials 219, 232, 235
shell 219
, Classification of 219
discoidal in form 221
, Kinds of, used in belts 247
, Manner of stringing 234, 236, 244, 248
, Manufacture of 236
, by whites 238
massive in form 223
, Mnemonic use of 240, 254
or "Runtees" 228
, Perforated 219
tubular in form 226
used as money 219, 233
ornaments 219, 230, 234
Beatty, Charles, describes wampum belts 250
Beauchamp, W. M., Beads sketched by 228
, on belts of wampum 252
strings of wampum 248
Belts, wampum, Character of the patterns woven into 240, 246, 248
, Dimensions of 250, 253
, Keeper of the Iroquois 241, 244
made by Indian women 249
, Manufacture of 248
, Method of handling, in councils 241, 246
, Number of beads in 233, 251
, Profuse use of 242
, Rarity of, in collections 249
; the Penn belt 253
, Use of, as mnemonic records 240, 254
, W. A. Brice on use and repudiation of 242, 246
Beverly, R., describes shell beads 229
money 237
pendants 256
spoon 201
, mentions shell knives 202
tweezers 212
Bird; carving of eagle's head 285
, Embodiment of the, in art 280
engraved on bone 284
stone 284
shell gorgets 280
, Examples of the, engraved on shell gorgets 281
, Gold ornament representing head of 285
, Myths of the 280
, Significant character of the, in engraved designs 281, 284
, Species of, represented 282, 284
, Superstitions in regard to the 280
, The Dakotas' thunder 281
, Totemic use of the 284
Bourke, Lieut. John G., on Moqui shell vessels 193
Bowers, Stephen, Shell objects collected by 209, 226
Brakebill mound 215, 275, 292, 296
Brice, W. A., on repudiation of wampum 246
use of wampum belts 242
Brinton, D. G., on the origin of the cross 270
Busycon shells, Columellæ of, used as pendants 209, 258
pins 213
, Gorgets derived from 273, 276, 282, 290, 292, 294, 296
, Pendants derived from 209, 259
, Perforated plates derived from 265
used as beads 220, 224
celts 204
vessels 194, 197
weapons 211
in the arts 191

Cabeça de Vaca on trade in shells 194
Cabrillo, João, visits Island of Santa Rosa 260
Calendars, Pictographic symbols of the Sioux 279
, Probable use of shell disks as 268, 273, 278
used by ancient Mexicans 279
modern tribes 279
Carr, Lucien, describes shell gorget 295
Cassis shells used as vessels 191, 194, 196
Catlin, George, describes shell adze 205
Celts, Examples of 203
, Manufacture of 203
of shell 203, 205
Clam shells used as implements 190, 205, 207
utensils 190
in manufacture of ornaments 263
wampum 190, 226, 238, 257
Clark, J. S., Photographs made by 252
Clavigero, F. X., on use of shell ornaments 256
vessels in Mexico 193
Cleveland, F., describes shell vessels 197
Columellæ, Manner of extracting, from shell 214
used in manufacture of heads 219, 223
pins 213, 218
Conant, A. J., describes shell gorgets 300
, mentions shell gorgets 287
Cross design associated with others 270
combined with spider design 288
in Aztec paintings 285
engraved on shell gorgets 268
, Evolution or derivation of the 270
, Examples of the, combined with birds 282, 283
, Examples of the, from mounds 271, 273
, Introduction of the Christian 269
, Occurrence of the, in ancient Mexican art 270
Yucatan 270
, Origin of the, among mound builders 269
, Prehistoric use of the, in America 268, 270
, Symbolic character of the 269
Croswell, C., describes shell gorgets 286
Curtis, Dr., Shell gorgets collected by 283
Cyprea shells used as beads 219
ornaments 263

Dall, W. H., use of pins 217
, Shells identified by 190
Davis, W. H. H., mentions shell pendants 256
Dentalium shells used for money 191, 220, 227, 239
ornament 191, 218, 220, 227
in bushing 218, 227
Disks, Scalloped, probably time symbols 273
, Relation of, to human remains 276
shell, from mounds 275, 278
, Shell gorgets in the shape of 268, 273, 279
stone 277
with engravings of knotted serpents 278
, Table of 280
, The sun suggested by 273
, Type example of 273
; use of sun symbols of similar shape 273
Drake, Daniel, describes shell vessel 197
Dunning, E. O., Shell ornaments collected by 272
pins collected by 215

Ely mound in Virginia 295
Engraved gorgets. (_See_ Gorgets.)