Chapter X: Preface (10)

Future lighting of interiors doubtless will provide an adequacy of lighting effects which will meet the respective requirements of various occasions. A decorative scheme in which light and medium grays are employed produces an interior which is very sensitive to lighting effects. To these light-and-shade effects colored light may add its charming effectiveness. Not only are colored lighting effects able to add much to the beauty of the setting but they possess certain other powers. Blue tints produce a "cold" effect and the yellow and orange tints a "warm" effect. For example, a room will appear cooler in the summer when illuminated by means of bluish light and a practical application of this effect is in the theater which must attract audiences in the summer. How tinted illuminants fit the spirit of an occasion or the mood of a room may be fully appreciated only through experiments, but these are so effective that the future of lighting will witness the application of the idea of "painting with light" to its fullest extent. Color is demanded in other fields, and, considering its effectiveness and superiority in lighting, it will certainly be demanded in lighting when its potentiality becomes appreciated and readily utilized.

The expressiveness of light is always evident in a landscape. On a sunny day the mood of a scene varies throughout the day and it grows more enticing and agreeable as the shadows lengthen toward evening. The artist in painting a desert scene employs short harsh shadows if he desires to suggest the excessive heat. These shadows suggest the relentless noonday sun. The overcast sky is universally depressing and it has been found that on a sunny day most persons experience a slight depression when a cloud obscures the sun. Nature's lighting varies from moment to moment, from day to day, and from season to season. It presents the extremes of variation in distributions of light from overcast to sunny days and in the latter cases the shadows are continually shifting with the sun's altitude. They are harshest at noon and gradually fade as they lengthen, until at sunset they disappear. The colors of sunlit surfaces and of shadows vary from sunrise to sunset. These are the fundamental variations in the lighting, but in the various scenes the lighting effects are further modified by clouds and by local conditions or environment. The vast outdoors provides a fruitful field for the study of the expressiveness of light.

Having become convinced of this power of light, the lighting expert may turn to artificial light, which is so easily controlled in direction, distribution, and color, and draw upon its potentiality. Not only is it easy to provide a lighting suitable to the mood or to the function of an interior but it is possible to obtain some variety in effect so that the lighting may always suit the occasion. A study of nature's lighting reveals one great principle, namely, variety. Mankind demands variety in most of his activities. Work is varied and alternated with recreation. Meals are not always the same. Clothing, decorations, and furnishings are relieved of monotony. One of the most potent features of artificial light is the ease with which variety may be obtained. In obtaining relief from the monotony of decorations and furnishings, considerable expense and inconvenience are inevitably encountered. With an adequate supply of outlets, circuits, and controls a wide variety of lighting effects may be obtained with perhaps an insignificant increase in the initial investment. Variety is the spice of lighting as well as of life.

These various principles of lighting are readily exemplified in the lighting of the home, which is discussed in another chapter. The church is even a better example of the expressive possibilities of lighting. The architectural features are generally of a certain period and first of all it is essential to harmonize the lighting effect with that of the architectural and decorative scheme. Obviously, the dark-stained ceiling of a certain type of church would not be flooded with light. The fact that it is made dark by staining precludes such a procedure in lighting. The characteristics of creeds are distinctly different and these are to some extent exemplified by the lines of the architecture of their churches. In the same way the lighting effect may be harmonized with the creed and the spirit of the interior. The lighting may always be dignified, impressive, and congruous. Few churches are properly lighted with a high intensity of illumination; moderate lighting is more appropriate, for it is conducive to the spirit of worship. In some creeds a dominant note is extreme penitence and severity. The architecture may possess harsh outlines, and this severity or extreme solemnity may be expressed in lighting by harsher contrasts, although this does not mean that the lighting must be glaring. On the other hand, in a certain modern creed the dominant note appears to be cheerfulness. The spacious interiors of the churches of this creed are lacking in severe lines and the walls and ceilings are highly reflecting. Adequate illumination by means of diffused light without the production of severe contrasts expresses the creed, modernity, and enlightenment. On the altar of certain churches the expressiveness of light is utilized in the ceremonial uses which vary with the creed. Even the symbolism of color may be appropriately woven into the lighting of the church.

The expressiveness of light and color originated through the contact of primitive man with nature. Sunlight meant warmth and a bountiful vegetation, but darkness restricted his activities and harbored manifold dangers. Many associations thus originated and they were extended through ignorance and superstition. Yellow is naturally emblematical of the sun and it became the symbol of warmth. Brown as the predominant color of the autumn foliage became tinctured with sadness because the decay of the vegetation presaged the death of the year and the cold dreary months of winter. The first signs of green vegetation in the spring were welcomed as an end of winter and a beginning of another bountiful summer; hence green symbolized youth and hope. It became associated with the springtime of life and thus signified inexperience, but as the color of vegetation it also meant life itself and became a symbol of immortality. Blue acquired certain divine attributes because, as the color of the sky, it was associated with the abode of the gods or heaven. Also a blue sky is the acme of serenity and this color acquired certain appropriate attributes.

Associations of this character became woven into mythology and thus became firmly established. Poets have felt these influences of light and color in nature and have given expression to them in words. They also have entwined much of the mythology of past civilizations and these repetitions have helped to establish the expressiveness of light and color. Early ecclesiasts employed these symbolisms in religious ceremonies and dictated the garbs of saints and other religious personages in the paintings which decorated their edifices. Thus there were many influences at work during the early centuries when intellects were particularly susceptible through superstition and lack of knowledge. The result has been an extensive symbolism of light, color, and darkness.

At the present time it is difficult to separate the innate appeal of light, color, and darkness from those attributes which have been acquired through associations. Possibly light and color have no innate powers but merely appear to have because the acquired attributes have been so thoroughly established through usage and common consent. Space does not permit a discussion of this point, but the chief aim is consummated if the existence of an expressiveness and impressiveness of light is established. There are many other symbolisms of color and light which have arisen in various ways but it is far beyond the scope of this book to discuss them.

Psychological investigations reveal many interesting facts pertaining to the influence of light and color upon mankind. When choosing color for color's sake alone, that is, divorced from any associations of usage, mankind prefers the pure colors to the tints and shades. It is interesting to note that this is in accord with the preference exhibited by uncivilized beings in their use of colors for decorating themselves and their surroundings. Civilized mankind chooses tints and shades predominantly to live with, that is, for the decoration of his surroundings. However, civilized man and the savage appear to have the same fundamental preference for pure colors and apparently culture and refinement are responsible for their difference in choice of colors to live with. This is an interesting discovery and it has its applications in lighting, especially in spectacular and stage-lighting.

It appears to be further established that when civilized man chooses color for color's sake alone he not only prefers the pure colors but among these he prefers those near the ends of the spectrum, such as red and blue. Red is favored by women, with blue a close second, but the reverse is true for men. It is also thoroughly established that red, orange, and yellow exert an exciting influence; yellow-green, green, and blue-green, a tranquilizing influence, and blue and violet a subduing influence upon mankind. All these results were obtained with colors divorced from surroundings and actual usage. In the use of light and color the laws of harmony and esthetics must be obeyed, but the sensibility of the lighting artist is a satisfactory guide. Harmonies are of many varieties, but they may be generally grouped into two classes, those of analogy and those of contrast. The former includes colors closely associated in hue and the latter includes complementary colors. No rules in simplified form can be presented for the production of harmonies in light and color. These simplifications are made only by those who have not looked deeply enough into the subject through observation and experiment to see its complexity.

The expressiveness of light finds applications throughout the vast field of lighting, but the stage offers great opportunities which have been barely drawn upon. When one has awakened to the vast possibilities of light, shade, and color as a means of expression it is difficult to suppress a critical attitude toward the crudity of lighting effects on the present stage, the lack of knowledge pertaining to the latent possibilities of light, and the superficial use of this potential medium. The crude realism and the almost total absence of deep insight into the attributes of light and color are the chief defects of stage-lighting to-day. One turns hopefully toward the gallant though small band of stage artists who are striving to realize a harmony of lighting, setting, and drama in the so-called modern theater. Unappreciated by a public which flocks to the melodramatic movie, whose scenarios produced upon the legitimate stage would be jeered by the same public, the modern stage artist is striving to utilize the potentiality of light. But even among these there are impostors who have never achieved anything worth while and have not the perseverance to learn to extract some of the power of light and to apply it effectively. Lighting suffers in the hands of the artist owing to the absence of scientific knowledge and it is misused by the engineer who does not possess an esthetic sensibility. Science and art must be linked in lighting.

The worthy efforts of stage artists in some of the modern theaters lack the support of the producers, who cater to the taste of the public which pays the admission fees. Apparently the modern theater must first pass through a period in which financial support must be obtained from those who are able to give it, just as the symphony orchestra has been supported for the sake of art. Certainly the time is at hand for philanthropy to come to the aid of worthy and capable stage artists who hope to rescue theatrical production from the mire of commercialism.

Those who have not viewed stage-lighting from behind the scenes would often be surprised at the crudity of the equipment, and especially at the superficial intellects which are responsible for some of the realistic effects obtained. But these are the result usually of experiment, not of directed knowledge. Furthermore, little thought is given to the emotional value of light, shade, and color. The flood of light and the spot of light are varied with gaudy color-effects, but how seldom is it possible to distinguish a deep relation between the lighting and the dramatic incidents!

Jeweled portal welcoming returned soldiers

ARTIFICIAL LIGHT HONORING THOSE WHO FELL AND THOSE WHO RETURNED]

In much of the foregoing discussion the present predominating theatrical productions are not considered, for the lighting effects are good enough for them. Many ingenious tricks and devices are resorted to in these productions, and as a whole lighting is serving effectively enough. But in considering the expressiveness of light the deeper play is the medium necessary for utilizing the potentiality of light. These are rare and unfortunately the stage artist appreciative of the significations and emotional value of light and color is still rarer.

The equipment of the present stage consists of footlights, side-lights, border-lights, flood-lights, spot-lights, and much special apparatus. One of the severest criticisms of stage-lighting from an artistic point of view may be directed against the use of footlights for obtaining the dominant light. This is directed upward and the effect is an unnatural and even a grotesque modeling of the actors' features. The shadows produced are incongruous, for they are opposed to the other real and painted effects of light and shade. The only excuse for such lighting is that it is easily done and that proper lighting is difficult to obtain, owing to the fact that it involves a change in construction. By no means should the footlights be abandoned, for they would still be invaluable in obtaining diffused light even when the dominant light is directed from above the horizontal. In the present stage-lighting, in which the footlights generally predominate, the expressiveness of light is not satisfactory. Perhaps they are a necessary compromise, but inasmuch as their effect is unnatural they should not be accepted until it is thoroughly proved that ingenuity cannot eliminate the present defects.

The stage as a whole is a mobile picture in light, shade, and color with the addition of words and music. Excepting the latter, it is an expression of light worthy of the same care and consideration that the painting, which is also an expression of light, receives from the artist. The scenery and costumes should be considered in terms of the lighting effects because they are affected by changes in the color of the light. In fact, the author showed a number of years ago that by carefully relating the colors of the light with the colors used in painting the scenery, a complete change of scene can be obtained by merely changing the color of the light. Rather wonderful dissolving effects can be produced in this manner without shifting scenery. For example, a warm summer scene with trees in full foliage under a yellow light may be changed under a bluish light to a winter scene with ground covered with snow and trees barren of leaves. But before such accomplishments can be realized upon the stage, scientific knowledge must be available behind the scenes.

The art museum affords a multitude of opportunities for utilizing the expressiveness of light. This is more generally true of sculptured objects than of paintings because the latter may be treated as a whole. The artist almost invariably paints a picture by daylight and unless it is illuminated by daylight it is altered in appearance, that is, it becomes another picture. The great difference in the appearance of a painting under daylight and ordinary artificial light is quite startling, when demonstrated by means of apparatus in which the two effects may be rapidly alternated. Art museums are supposed to exhibit the works of artists and, therefore, no changes in these works should be tolerated if they can be avoided. The modern artificial-daylight lamps make it possible to illuminate galleries with light at night which approximates daylight. A further advantage of artificial light is that it may be easily controlled and a more satisfactory lighting may be obtained than with natural light. Considering the cost of daylight in museums and its disadvantages it appears possible that artificial daylight with its advantages may replace it eventually in the large galleries. If the works of artists are really prized for their appearance, the lighting of them is very important.

Sculpture is modeled by light and although it is impossible to ascertain the lighting under which the sculptor viewed his completed work with pride and satisfaction, it is possible to give the best consideration to its lighting in its final place of exhibition. The appearance of a sculpture depends upon the dominant direction of the light, the solid-angle subtended by the light-source (skylight, area of sky, etc.) and the amount of scattered light. The direction of dominant light determines the general direction of the shadows; the solid-angle of the light-source affects the character of the edges of the shadows; and the scattered light accounts for the brightness of the shadows. It should be obvious that variations of these factors affect the appearance or expression of three-dimensional objects. Therefore the position of a sculptured object with respect to the window or other skylight and the amount of light reflected from the surroundings are important. Visits to art museums with these factors in mind reveal a gross neglect in the lighting of objects of art which are supposed to appeal by virtue of their appearances, for they can arouse the emotions only through the doorway of vision.

A century ago mankind gave no thought to utilizing the expressive and impressive powers of light except in religious ceremonies. It was not practicable to utilize light from the feeble flames of those days in the elaborate manner necessary to draw upon these powers. Man was concerned with the more pressing needs. He wanted enough light to make the winter evenings endurable and the streets reasonably safe. The artists of those days saw the wonderful expressions of light exhibited by Nature, but they dared not dream of rivaling these with artificial light. To-day Nature surpasses man in the production of lighting effects only in magnitude. Man surpasses her artistically. In fact, the artist becomes a master only when he can improve upon her settings; when he is able by rare judgment in choosing and in eliminating and by skill and ingenuity to substitute a complete harmony for her incomplete and unsatisfactory reality. But everywhere Nature is the great teacher, for her world is full of an everchanging infinitude of expressions of light. Mankind needs only to study these with an attuned sensibility to be able eventually to play the music of light for those who are blessed with an esthetic sense.

XXIV

LIGHTING THE HOME

In the home artificial light exerts its influence upon every one. Without artificial lighting the family circle may not have become the important civilizing influence that it is to-day. Certainly civilized man now shudders at the thought of spending his evenings in the light of the fire upon the hearth or of a burning splinter.

The importance of artificial light is emphatically impressed upon the householder when he is forced temporarily to depend upon the primitive candle through the failure of the modern system of lighting. He flees from his home to that of his more fortunate neighbor, or he retires in his helplessness to awaken in the morning with a blessing for daylight. He cannot conceive of happiness and recreation in the homes of a century or two ago, when a few candles or an oil-lamp or two were the sole sources of light. But when the electric or gas service is again restored he relapses shortly into his former placid indifference toward the wonderfully efficient and adequate artificial light of the present age.

Until recently artificial light was costly and the householder in common with other users of light did not concern himself with the question of adequate and artistic lighting. His chief aim was to utilize as little as possible, for cost was always foremost in his mind. The development of the science of light-production has been so rapid during the past generation that adequate, efficient, and cheap artificial light finds mankind unconsciously viewing lighting with the same attitude as he displays toward his food and fuel bills. Another consequence of this rapid development is that mankind does not know how to extract the joy from modern artificial light. This is readily demonstrated by analyzing the lighting of middle-class homes.

The cost of light has been discussed in another chapter and it has been shown that it has decreased enormously in a century. It is now the most potential agency in the home when viewed from the standpoint of cost. The average householder pays less than twenty dollars per year for ever-ready light throughout his home. For about five cents per day the average family enjoys all the blessings of modern lighting, which is sufficient proof that cost is an insignificant item.

In order to simplify the discussion of lighting the home the terminology of electric-lighting will be used. The principles expounded apply as well to gas as to electricity, and owing to the ingenuity of the gas-lighting experts, the possibilities of gas-lighting are extensive despite its handicaps. There are some places in the home, such as the kitchen and basement, where lighting is purely utilitarian in the narrow sense, but in most of the rooms the esthetic or, more broadly, the psychological aspects of lighting should dominate. Pure utility is always a by-product of artistic lighting and furthermore, the lighting effects will be without glare when they satisfy all the demands of esthetics.

In dealing with lighting in the home the householder should concentrate his attention upon lighting effects. Unfortunately, he is not taught to do so, for everywhere he turns for help he finds the discussion directed toward fixtures and lamps instead of toward lighting effects. However, these are merely links in the chain from the meter to the eye. Lamps are of interest from the standpoint of quantity and quality of light, and fixtures are of importance chiefly as distributers of light. These details are merely means to an end and the end is the lighting effect. Of course, the fixtures are more important as objects than the wires because they are visible and should harmonize with the general decorative and architectural scheme.

The home is the theater of life full of various moods and occasions; hence the lighting of a home should be flexible. A degree of variety should be possible. Controls, wiring, outlets, and fixtures should conspire to provide this variety. At the present time the average householder does not give much attention to lighting until he purchases fixtures. It is probable that he thought of it when he laid out or approved the wiring, but usually he does not consider it seriously until he visits the fixture-dealer to purchase fixtures. And then unfortunately the fixture-dealer does not light his home; he does not sell the householder lighting-effects designed to meet the requirements of the particular home; he sells merely fixtures.

Unfortunately there are few fixtures available which have definite aims in lighting as demanded by the home. Of the great variety of fixtures available there are many artistic objects, but it is obvious that little attention is given to their design from the standpoint of lighting. That the fixture-dealer usually thinks of fixtures as objects and gives little or no thought to lighting effects is apparent from his conversation and from his display. He exhibits fixtures usually en masse and seldom attempts to illustrate the lighting effects produced in the room.

The foregoing criticisms are presented to emphasize the fact that throughout the field of lighting the great possibilities which have been opened by modern light-sources are not fully appreciated. The point at which to begin to design the lighting for a home is the wiring. Unfortunately this is too often done by a contractor who has given no special thought to the possibilities of lighting and to the requirements in wiring and switches necessary in order to realize them. At this point the householder should attempt to form an opinion as to the relative values. Is artificial lighting important enough to warrant an expenditure of two per cent. of the total investment in the home and its furnishings? The answer will depend upon the extent to which artificial light is appreciated. It appears that four or five per cent. is not too much if it is admitted that the artificial lighting system ranks next to the heating plant in importance and that these two are the most important features of an interior of a residence. A switch or a baseboard outlet costs an insignificant sum but either may pay for itself many times in the course of a few years through its utility or convenience.

It appears best to take up this subject room by room because the requirements vary considerably, but in order to be specific in the discussions, a middle-class home will be chosen. The more important rooms will be treated first and various simple details will be touched upon because, after all, the proper lighting of a home is realized by attention to small details.

The living-room is the scene of many functions. It serves at times for the quiet gathering of the family, each member devoted to reading. At another time it may contain a happy company engaged at cards or in conversation. The lighting requirements vary from a spot or two of light to a flood of light. Excepting in the small living-rooms there does not appear to be a single good reason for a ceiling fixture. It is nearly always in the field of vision when occupants are engaged in conversation, and for reading purposes the portable lamp of satisfactory design has no rival. Wall brackets cannot supply general lighting without being too bright for comfort. If they are heavily shaded they may still emit plenty of light upward, but the adjacent spots on the walls or ceiling will generally be too bright. Wall brackets may be beautiful ornaments and decorative spots of light and have a right to exist as such, but they cannot be safely depended upon for adequate general lighting on those occasions which demand such lighting.

As a general principle, it is well to visualize the furniture in the room when looking at the architect's drawings and it is advantageous even to cut out pieces of paper representing the furniture in scale. By placing these on the drawings the furnished room is readily visualized and the locations of baseboard outlets become evident. It appears that the best method of lighting a living-room is by means of decorative portable lamps. Such lamps are really lighting-furniture, for they aid in decorating and in furnishing the room at all times. A number of these lamps in the living-room insures great flexibility in the lighting, and the light may be kept localized if desired so that the room is restful. A room whose ceiling and walls are brilliantly illuminated is not so comfortable for long periods as one in which these areas are dimly lighted. Furthermore, the latter is more conducive to reading and to other efforts at concentration. The furniture may be readily shifted as desired and the portable lamps may be rearranged.

Such lighting serves all the purposes of the living-room excepting those requiring a flood of light, but it is easy to conceal elaborate lighting mechanisms underneath the shades of portable lamps. Several types of portable lamps are available which supply an indirect component as well as direct light. The former illuminates the ceiling with a flood of light without any discomforting glare. Such a lighting-unit is one of the most satisfactory for the home, for two distinct effects and a combination of these introduce a desirable element of variety into the lighting. Not less than four and preferably six baseboard outlets should be provided in a living-room of moderate size. One outlet on the mantel is also to be desired for connecting decorative candlesticks, and brackets above the fireplace are of ornamental value. Although the absence of ceiling fixtures improves the appearance of the room, wiring may be provided for ceiling outlets in new houses as a matter of insurance against the possible needs of the future. When ceiling fixtures are not used, switches may be provided for the mantel brackets or certain baseboard outlets in order that light may be had upon entering the room.

The merits of a portable lamp may be ascertained before purchasing by actual demonstration. Some of them are not satisfactory for reading-lamps, owing to the shape of the shade or to the position of the lamps. The utility of a table lamp may be determined by placing it upon a table and noting the spread of light while seated in a chair beside it. A floor lamp may also be tested very easily. A miniature floor lamp about four feet in height with an appropriate shade provides an excellent lamp for reading purposes because it may be placed by the side of a chair or moved about independent of other furniture. A tall floor lamp often serves for lighting the piano, but small piano lamps may be found which are decorative as well as serviceable in illuminating the music without glare.

The dining-room presents an entirely different problem for the setting is very definite. The dining-table is the most important area in the room and it should be the most brilliantly illuminated area in the room. A demonstration of this point is thoroughly convincing. The decorator who designs wall brackets for the dining-room is interested in beautiful objects of art and not in a proper lighting effect. The fixture-dealer, having fixtures to sell and not recognizing that he could fill a crying need as a lighting specialist, is as likely to sell a semi-indirect or an indirect lighting fixture as he is to provide a properly balanced lighting effect with the table brightly illuminated. The indirect and semi-indirect units illuminate the ceiling predominantly with the result that this bright area distracts attention from the table. A brightly illuminated table holds the attention of the diners. Light attracts and a semi-darkness over the remainder of the room crowds in with a result that is far more satisfactory than that of a dining-room flooded with light.

The old-fashioned dome which hung over the dining-table has served well, for it illuminated the table and left the remainder of the room dimly lighted. But its wide aperture made it necessary to suspend it rather low in order that the lamps within should not be visible. It is an obtrusive fixture and despite its excellent lighting effect, it went out of style. But satisfactory lighting principles never become antiquated, and as taste in fixtures changes the principles may be retained in new fixtures. Modern domes are available which are excellent for the dining-room if the lamps are well concealed. The so-called showers are satisfactory if the shades are dense and of such shape as to conceal the lamps from the eyes. Various modifications readily suggest themselves to the alert fixture-designer. Even the housewife can do much with silk shades when the principle of lighting the dining-table is understood. The so-called candelabra have been sold extensively for dining-rooms and they are fairly satisfactory if equipped with shades which reflect much of the light downward. Semi-indirect and indirect fixtures have many applications in lighting, but they do not provide the proper effect for a dining-room.

It is easy to make a special fixture which will send a component of light downward to the table and will permit a small amount of diffused light to the ceiling and walls. If a daylight lamp is used for the direct component, the table will appear very beautiful. Under this light the linen and china are white, flowers and decorations on the china appear in their full colors, the silver is attractive, and the various color-harmonies such as butter, paprika, and baked potato are enticing. This is an excellent place for a daylight lamp if diffused light illuminating the remainder of the room and the faces of the diners is of a warm tone obtained by warm yellow lamps or by filtering these components of the light through orange shades. The ceiling fixture should be provided with two circuits and switches. In some cases it is easy to provide a dangling plug for connecting such electric equipment as a toaster, percolator, or candlesticks. Two candlesticks are effective on the buffet, but usually the smallest normal-voltage lamps available give too much light. Miniature lamps may be used with a small transformer, or two regular lamps may be connected in series. At least two baseboard outlets are convenient.

The foregoing deals with the more or less essential lighting of a dining-room, but there are various practicable additional lighting effects which add much charm to certain occasions. Colored light of low intensity obtained from a cove or from "flower-boxes" fastened upon the wall is very pleasing. If a cove is provided around the room, two circuits containing orange and blue lamps respectively will supply two colors widely differing in effect. By mixing the two a beautiful rose tint may be obtained. This equipment has been installed with much satisfaction. A simpler method of obtaining a similar effect is to use imitation flower-boxes plugged into wall outlets. Artificial foliage adds to the charm of these boxes. The colored light is merely to add another effect on special occasions and its intensity should never be high. In the dining-room such unusual effects are not out of place and they need not be garish.

The sun-room partakes of the characteristics of the living-room to some extent, but, it being smaller, a semi-indirect fixture may be satisfactory for general illumination. However, a portable lamp which supplies an indirect component of light besides the direct light serves admirably for reading as well as for flooding the room with light when necessary. Two or three baseboard outlets are desirable for attaching decorative or even purely utilitarian lamps. The sun-room is an excellent place for utilizing "flower-box" fixtures decorated with artificial foliage. In fact, a central fixture may assume the appearance of a "hanging basket" of foliage. The library and den offer no problems differing from those already discussed in the living-room. A careful consideration of the disposition of the furniture will reveal the best positions for the outlets. In a small library wall brackets may serve as decorative spots of light and if the shades are pendent they may serve as lamps for reading purposes. In both these rooms an excellent reading-lamp is desired, but it may be decorative as well. Wall outlets may be desired for decorative portable lamps upon the bookcases.

The sleeping-room, which commonly is also a dressing-room, often exhibits the errors of a lack of foresight in lighting. In most rooms of this character there is one best arrangement of furniture and if this is determined it is easy to ascertain where the windows and outlets should be located. The windows may usually be arranged for twin beds as well as for a single one with obvious advantages of flexibility in arrangement. With the position of the bureau determined it is easy to locate outlets for two wall brackets, one on each side, about sixty-six inches above the floor and about five feet apart. When the brackets are equipped with dense upright shades, the figure before the mirror is well illuminated without glare and sufficient light reaches the ceiling to illuminate the whole room.

A baseboard outlet should be available for small portable lamps which may be used upon the bureau or for electric heating devices. The same is true for the dressing-table; indeed, two small decorative lamps on the table serve better than high wall brackets owing to the fact that the user is seated. A baseboard outlet near the head of the bed or between the beds is convenient for a reading-lamp and for other purposes. An outlet in the center of the ceiling controlled by a convenient switch may be installed on building, as insurance against future needs or desires. But a single lighting-unit in the center of the ceiling does not serve adequately the needs at the bureau and dressing-table. In fact, two wall brackets properly located with respect to the bureau afford a lighting much superior for all purposes in the bedroom to that produced by a ceiling fixture.

In the bath-room the principal problem is to illuminate the person, especially the face, before the mirror. Many mistakes are made at this point, despite the simplicity of the solution. In order to see the image of an object in a mirror, the object must be illuminated. It is best to do this in a straightforward manner by means of a small lighting-unit on each side of the mirror at a height of five feet. Both sides of the face will be well illuminated and the light-sources are low enough to eliminate objectionable shadows. The units may be merely pull-chain sockets containing frosted or opal lamps. A center bracket or a single unit suspended from the ceiling is not as satisfactory as the two brackets. These afford enough light for the entire bath-room. A baseboard or wall outlet is convenient for connecting a heater, curling-iron, and other electrically heated devices.

The sewing-room, which in the middle-class home is usually a small room, is sometimes used as a bedroom. A ceiling fixture will supply adequate general lighting, but a baseboard outlet should be available for a short floor lamp or a table lamp for sewing purposes. An intense local light is necessary for this occupation, which severely taxes the eyes. A so-called daylight lamp serves very well in this case.

Towering shafts of light defy the darkness and thousands of lighted windows symbolize man's successful struggle against nature]

In the kitchen the wall brackets are easily located after the positions of the range, work-table, sink, etc., are determined. A bracket for each is advisable unless they are so located that one will serve two purposes. It is customary to have a combination fixture for gas and electricity. This is often suspended from the center of the ceiling, but inasmuch as the gas-light cannot be close to the ceiling, the fixture extends so far downward as to become a nuisance. Furthermore, a light-source hung low from the center of the ceiling is in such a position that the worker in the kitchen usually works in his shadow. If a ceiling outlet is used it should be an electrical socket at the ceiling. The combination fixture is best placed on the wall as a bracket. The so-called daylight lamps are valuable in the kitchen.

In the basement a generous supply of ceiling outlets adds much to the satisfaction of a basement. One in each locker, one before the furnace, and a large daylight lamp above but to one side of the laundry trays are worth many times their cost. Furthermore, a wall socket for the electric iron and washing-machine is a convenience very much appreciated.

In the stairways convenient three-way switches for each of the ceiling fixtures represents the best practice. A baseboard outlet in the upper hall affords a connection for a decorative lamp and pays for itself many times as a place to attach the vacuum-cleaner from which all the rooms on that floor may be served. In vestibules and on porches ceiling fixtures controlled by means of convenient switches are satisfactory. The entrance hall may be made to express hospitality by means of lighting which should be adequate and artistic.

An adequate supply of outlets and wall switches is not costly and they pay generous dividends. With a scanty supply of these, the possibilities of lighting are very much curtailed. There is nothing intricate about locating switches and outlets, so the householder may do this himself, or he may view critically the plans as submitted. The chief difficulties are to throw aside his indifference and to readjust his ideas and values. It may be confidently stated that the possibilities of lighting far outrank most of the features which contribute to the cost of a house and of its furnishings.

After considering the requirements and decorative schemes of the various rooms the householder should be competent to judge the appropriateness of the lighting effects obtained from fixtures which the dealer displays, but he should insist upon a demonstration. If the dealer is not equipped with a room for this purpose, he should be asked to demonstrate in the rooms to be lighted. If the fixture-dealer does not realize that he should be selling lighting effects, the householder should make him understand that lighting effects are of primary importance and the fixtures themselves are of secondary interest in most cases. The unused outlets that have been installed for possible future needs may be sealed in plastering if the positions are marked so that they may be found when desired.

An advantage of portable lamps is that they may be taken away on moving. In fact, when lighting is eventually considered a powerful decorative medium, as it should be, it is probable that fixtures will be personal property attached to ceiling, wall, and floor outlets by means of plugs.

A variety of incandescent lamps are available. For the home, opal, frosted, or bowl-frosted lamps are usually more satisfactory than clear lamps. Bare filaments should not be visible, for they not only cause discomfort and eye-strain but they spoil what might otherwise be an artistic effect. Lamps with diffusing bulbs do much toward eliminating harsh shadows cast by the edges of the shades, by the chains of the fixtures, etc. These lamps are available in many shapes and sizes and the householder should make a record of voltage, wattage, and shape of the lamps which he finds satisfactory in the various fixtures. The Mazda daylight lamp has several places in the home and the Mazda white-glass and other high-efficiency lamps supply many needs better than the vacuum lamps. In brackets and other purely decorative lighting-units small frosted lamps are usually the most satisfactory. There is a general desire for the warm yellowish light of the candle-flame, and this may be obtained by a tinted shade but usually more satisfactorily by means of a tinted lamp.

The householder will find it interesting to become intimate with lighting, for it can serve him well. The housewife will often find much interest in making shades of textiles and of parchment. Charming glassware in appropriate tints and painted designs is available for all rooms. In the bedchamber and the nursery some of these painted designs are exceedingly effective. Fixtures should shield the lamps from the eyes, and the diffusing media whether glass or textile should be dense enough to prevent glare. No fixture can be beautiful and no lighting effect can be artistic if glare is present. If the architect and the householder will realize that light is a medium comparable with the decorator's media, better lighting will result. Light has the great advantage of being mobile and with adequate outlets and controls supplemented by fixtures from which different effects are available, the householder will find in lighting one of the most fruitful sources of interest and pleasure. It can do much toward expressing the taste of the householder or if neglected it can undo much of the effect of excellent decoration and furnishing. Artificial lighting, softly diffused and properly localized, is one of the most important factors in making a house a home.

XXV

LIGHTING--A FINE ART?

In the preceding chapters the progress of light has been sketched from its obscure infancy to its vigorous youth of the present time. It has been seen that progress was slow until the beginning of the nineteenth century, after which it began to gain momentum until the present century has witnessed tremendous advances. Until the latter part of the nineteenth century artificial light was considered an expensive utility, but as modern lamps appeared which supplied adequate light at reasonable cost attention began to be centered upon utilization, and the lighting engineer was born. Gradually it is being realized that artificial light is no longer a luxury, that it may be used in great quantity, and that it may be directed, diffused, and altered in color as desired. Although the potentiality of light has been barely drawn upon, the present usages surpass the most extravagant dreams of civilized beings a half-century ago. Mere light of that time was changed into more light as gas-lighting developed, and more light has increased to adequate light of the present time through the work of scientists.

It is apparent that a sudden enforced reversion to the primitive flames of fifty years ago would paralyze many activities. Much of interest and beauty would be blotted out of this brilliant, pulsating, productive age. It is startling to note that almost the entire progress in artificial lighting has taken place during the past hundred years and that most of it has been crowded into the latter part of this period. In fact, its development since it began in earnest has gone forward with ever-increasing momentum. On viewing the wonders of modern artificial lighting on every hand it is not difficult to muster the courage necessary to venture into its future.

The lighting engineer has been a natural evolution of the present age, for the economic aspects of lighting have demanded attention. He is increasing the safety, efficiency, and happiness of mankind and civilization is beginning to feel his influence economically. However, with the advent of adequate, efficient, and controllable light, the potentiality of light as an artistic medium may be drawn upon and the lighting artist with a deep insight into the possibilities of artificial light now has his opportunity. But the artist who believes that a new art may be evolved to perfection in a few years is doomed to disappointment, for it is necessary only to view retrospectively such arts as painting and music to be convinced that understanding and appreciation develop slowly through centuries of experiment and contact.

Will lighting ever become a fine art? Will it ever be able alone to arouse emotional man as do the fine arts? Are the powers of light sufficiently great to enthrall mankind without the aid of form, music, action, or spoken words? It is safer to answer "yes" than "no" to these questions. Painting has reached a high place as an art and this art is the expressiveness of secondary or reflected light reinforced by imitation forms, which by a combination of light and drawing comprise the "subjects." A painting is a momentary expression of light, a cross-section of something mobile, such as nature, thought, or action. Light has the essential qualifications of painting with the advantages of a greater range of brightness, of greater purity of colors, and the great potentiality of mobility. If lighting becomes a fine art it will doubtless be related to painting somewhat in the same manner that architecture is akin to sculpture. With the introduction of mobility it will borrow something from the arts of succession and especially from music.

The art of lighting in its present infancy is leaning upon established arts, just as the infant learns to walk alone by first depending upon support. The use of color in painting developed slowly, being supported for centuries by the strength of drawing or subject. The landscapes of a century ago were dull, for color was employed hesitatingly and sparingly. The colors in the portraits of the past merely represented the gorgeous dress of bygone days. But the painter of the present shows that color is beginning to be used for itself and that the painter is no longer hesitant concerning its power to go hand in hand with drawing. Drafting and coloring are now in partnership, the former having given up guardianship when the latter reached maturity.

Lighting is now an accompaniment of the drama, of the dance, of architecture, of decoration, and of music. It has been a background or a part of the "atmosphere" excepting occasionally when some one with imagination and daring has given it the leading rôle. Even in its infancy it has on occasions performed admirably almost without any aid. The bursting rocket, the marvelous effects at the Panama-Pacific Exposition, and some of the exhibitions on the theatrical stage are glimpses of the potentiality of light. To fall back upon the terminology of music, these may be glimmerings of light-symphonies.

Harmony is simultaneity and a painting in this respect is a chord--a momentary expression fixed in material media. A melody of light requires succession just as the melody in music. The restless colors of the opal comprise a light melody like the songs of birds. The gorgeous splendor of the sunset compares in magnitude and in its various moods with the symphony orchestra and its powers. Throughout nature are to be found gentle chords, beautiful melodies and powerful symphonies of light and this music of light exhibits the complexity and structure analogous to music. There is no physical relation between music, poetry, and light, but it is easy to lean upon the established terminology for purposes of discussion. Those who would build color-music identical to sound music are making the mistake of starting with a physical foundation instead of basing the art of light-expression upon psychological effects of light. In other words, a relation between light and music can exist only in the psychological realm.

These melodies and symphonies of light in nature are admittedly pleasing or impressive as the case may be, but are they as appealing as music, poetry, painting, or sculpture? The consensus of opinion of a large group of average persons might indicate a negative reply, but the combined opinion of this group is not so valuable as the opinion of a colorist or of an artist who has sensed the wonders of light. The unprejudiced opinion of artists is that light is a powerfully expressive and impressive medium. The psychologist will likely state that the emotive value of light or color is not comparable to the appeal of an excellent dinner or of many other commonplace things. But he has experimented only with single colors or with simple patterns and his subjects are selected more or less at random from the multitude. What would be his conclusion if he examined painters and others who have developed their sensibilities to a deep appreciation of light and color? It is certain that the painter who picks up a purple petal fallen from a rose and places it upon a green leaf is as thrilled by the powerful vibrant color-chord as the musician who hears an exquisite harmony of sounds.

Music has been presented to civilized mankind in an organized manner for ages and the fundamental physical basis of modern music is a thousand years old. Would the primitive savage appreciate the modern symphony orchestra? Even the majority of civilized beings prefer the modern ragtime or jazz to the exquisite art of the symphony. An appreciation of the opera and the symphony is reached by educational methods extending over long periods. An appreciation of the expressiveness of light cannot be expected to be realized by any short-cut. Most persons to-day enjoy the melodramatic "movie" more than the drama and relatively few experience the deep appeal of the fine arts. Surely the symphony of light cannot be justly condemned because of a lack of appreciation and understanding of it, for it has not been introduced to the public. Furthermore, the expressiveness of music is still indefinite at best despite the many centuries of experimenting on the part of musicians.

If poetry is to be believed, the symphonies of light as rendered by nature in the sunsets, in the aurora borealis, and in other sky-effects of great magnitude have deeply impressed the poet. If his descriptions are to be accepted at their face-value, the melodies of light rendered in the precious stone, in the ice-crystal, and in the iridescence of bird-plumage please his finer sensibilities. If he is sincere, mobile light is a seductive agency.

The painter has contributed little of direct value in developing the music of light. He is concerned with an instantaneous expression. He waits for it patiently and, while waiting, learns to appreciate the fickleness of mood in nature, but when he fixes one of these moods he has contributed very little to the art of mobile light. Unfortunately the art schools teach the student little or nothing pertaining to color for color's sake. When the student is capable of drawing fairly well and is acquainted with a few stereotyped principles of color-harmony he is sent forth to follow in the footsteps of past masters. He may be seen at the art museum faithfully copying a famous painting or out in the fields stalking a tree with the hopes of an embryo Corot. The world moves and has only a position in the rank and file for imitators. Occasionally an artist goes to work with a vim and indulges in research, thereby demonstrating originality in two respects. Painting is just as much a field for research as light-production.