Chapter XIX: The Constellations394 (1)

Curious to say, Al-Sufi rated the Pole Star as 3rd magnitude; for it is now only slightly less than the 2nd. At present it is about the same brightness as [Greek: b] of the same constellation (Ursa Minor) which Al-Sufi rated 2nd magnitude. It was, however, also rated 3rd magnitude by Ptolemy (or Hipparchus), and it may possibly have varied in brightness since ancient times. Admiral Smyth says that in his time (1830) it was "not even a very bright third size" (!)[395] Spectroscopic measures show that it is approaching the earth at the rate of 16 miles a second; but this would have no perceptible effect on its brightness in historical times. This may seem difficult to understand, and to some perhaps incredible; but the simple explanation is that its distance from the earth is so great that a journey of even 2000 years with the above velocity would make no _appreciable_ difference in its distance! This is undoubtedly true, as a simple calculation will show, and the fact will give some idea of the vast distance of the stars. The well-known 9th magnitude companion to the Pole Star was seen _by day_ in the Dorpat telescope by Struve and Wrangel; and "on one occasion by Encke and Argelander."[396]

The star [Greek: b] Ursæ Minoris was called by the Arabians _Kaukab al-shamáli_, the North Star, as it was--owing to the precession of the Equinoxes--nearer to the Pole in ancient times than our present Pole Star was _then_.

The "Plough" (or Great Bear) is supposed to represent a waggon and horses. "Charles' Wain" is a corruption of "churl's wain," or peasant's cart. The Arabians thought that the four stars in the quadrilateral represented a bier, and the three in the "tail" the children of the deceased following as mourners! In the Greek mythology, Ursa Major represented the nymph Callisto, a daughter of Lycaon, who was loved by Jupiter, and turned into a bear by the jealous Juno. Among the old Hindoos the seven stars represented the seven Rishis. It is the Otawa of the great Finnish epic, the "Kalevala." It was also called "David's Chariot," and in America it is known as "The Dipper."

Closely north of the star [Greek: th] in Ursa Major is a small star known as Flamsteed 26. This is not mentioned by Al-Sufi, but is now, I find from personal observation, very visible, and indeed conspicuous, to the naked eye. I find, however, that owing to the large "proper motion" of the bright star (1"·1 per annum) the two stars were much closer together in Al-Sufi's time than they are at present, and this probably accounts for Al-Sufi's omission. This is an interesting and curious fact, and shows the small changes which occur in the heavens during the course of ages.

Close to the star [Greek: z], the middle star of the "tail" of Ursa Major (or handle of the "Plough"), is a small star known as Alcor, which is easily visible to good eyesight without optical aid. It is mentioned by Al-Sufi, who says the Arabians called it _al-suha_, "the little unnoticed one." He says that "Ptolemy does not mention it, and it is a star which seems to test the powers of the eyesight." He adds, however, an Arabian proverb, "I show him _al-suha_, and he shows me the moon," which seems to suggest that to some eyes, at least, it was no test of sight at all. It has, however, been suspected of variation in light. It was rated 5th magnitude by Argelander, Heis, and Houzeau, but was measured 4·02 at Harvard Observatory. It has recently been found to be a spectroscopic binary.

The constellation of the Dragon (Draco) is probably referred to in Job (chap. xxvi. v. 13), where it is called "the crooked serpent." In the Greek mythology it is supposed to represent the dragon which guarded the golden apples in the Garden of the Hesperides. Some have suggested that it represented the serpent which tempted Eve. Dryden says, in his translation of Virgil--

"Around our Pole the spiry Dragon glides,
And like a wand'ring stream the Bears divides."

The fact that the constellation Boötis rises quickly and sets slowly, owing to its lying horizontally when rising and vertically when setting, was noted by Aratus, who says--

"The Bearward now, past seen,
But more obscured, near the horizon lies;
For with the four Signs the Ploughman, as he sinks,
The deep receives; and when tired of day
At even lingers more than half the night,
When with the sinking sun he likewise sets
These nights from his late setting bear their name."[397]

The cosmical setting of Boötis--that is, when he sets at sunset--is stated by Ovid to occur on March 5 of each year.

With reference to the constellation Hercules, Admiral Smyth says--

"The kneeling posture has given rise to momentous discussion; and
whether it represents Lycaon lamenting his daughter's transformation,
or Prometheus sentenced, or Ixion ditto, or Thamyrus mourning his
broken fiddle, remains still uncertain. But in process of time, this
figure became a lion, and Hyginus mentions both the lion's skin and
the club; while the right foot's being just over the head of the
Dragon, satisfied the mythologists that he was crushing the Lernæan
hydra.... Some have considered the emblem as typifying the serpent
which infested the vicinity of Cape Tænarus, whence a sub-genus of
Ophidians still derives its name. At all events a poet, indignant at
the heathen exaltation of Hevelius, has said--

"'To Cerberus, too, a place is given--
His home of old was far from heaven.'"[398]

Aratus speaks of Hercules as "the Phantom whose name none can tell."

There were several heroes of the name of Hercules, but the most famous was Hercules the Theban, son of Jupiter and Alcmene wife of Amphitryon, King of Thebes, who is said to have lived some years before the siege of Troy, and went on the voyage of the Argonauts about 1300 B.C. According to some ancient writers, another Hercules lived about 2400 B.C., and was a contemporary of Atlas and Theseus. But according to Pétau, Atlas lived about 1638 B.C., and Lalande thought that this chronology is the more probable.

The small constellation Lyra, which contains the bright star Vega, is called by Al-Sufi the Lyre, the Goose, the Persian harp, and the Tortoise. In his translation of Al-Sufi's work, Schjellerup suggests that the name "Goose" may perhaps mean a plucked goose, which somewhat resembles a Greek lyre, and also a tortoise. The name of the bright star Vega is a corruption of the Arabic _vâki_. Ptolemy and Al-Sufi included all the very brightest stars in the "first magnitude," making no distinction between them, but it is evident at a glance that several of them, such as Arcturus and Vega, are brighter than an average star of the first magnitude, like Aldebaran.

The constellation Perseus, which lies south-east of "Cassiopeia's Chair," may be recognized by the festoon formed by some of its stars, the bright star [Greek: a] Persei being among them. It is called by Al-Sufi "_barschânsch_, [Greek: Perseus], Perseus, who is _hamil râs al-gul_, the Bearer of the head of _al-gul_." According to Kazimirski, "_Gul_ was a kind of demon or ogre who bewilders travellers and devours them, beginning at the feet. In general any mischievous demon capable of taking all sorts of forms." In the Greek mythology Perseus was supposed to be the son of Jupiter and Danæ. He is said to have been cast into the sea with his mother and saved by King Polydectus. He afterwards cut off the head of Medusa, one of the Gorgons, while she slept, and armed with this he delivered Andromeda from the sea-monster.

The constellation Auriga lies east of Perseus and contains the bright star Capella, one of the three brightest stars in the northern hemisphere (the others being Arcturus and Vega). Theon, in his commentary on Aratus, says that Bellerophon invented the chariot, and that it is represented in the heavens by Auriga, the celestial coachman. According to Dupuis, Auriga represents Phæton, who tried to drive the chariot of the sun, and losing his head fell into the river Eridanus. The setting of Eridanus precedes by a few minutes that of Auriga, which was called by some of the ancient writers Amnis Phaï-tontis.[399] Auriga is called by Al-Sufi _numsick al-ainna_--He who holds the reins, the Coachman; also _al-inâz_, the She-goat. M. Dorn found in Ptolemy's work, the Greek name [Greek: Hêniochoi], Auriga, written in Arabic characters. Al-Sufi says, "This constellation is represented by the figure of a standing man behind 'He who holds the head of _al-gûl_' [Perseus], and between the Pleiades and the Great Bear."

Capella is, Al-Sufi says, "the bright and great star of the first magnitude which is on the left shoulder [of the ancient figure] on the eastern edge of the Milky Way. It is that which is marked on the astrolabe as _al-aijûk_." The real meaning of this name is unknown. Schjellerup thought, contrary to what Ideler says, that the name is identical with the Greek word [Greek: Aix] (a goat). Capella was observed at Babylon about 2000 B.C., and was then known as Dilgan. The Assyrian name was _Icu_, and the Persian name _colca_. It was also called Capra Hircus, Cabrilla, Amalthea, and Olenia. In ancient times the rising of Capella was supposed to presage the approach of storms. Ovid says, "Olenia sidus pluviale Capellæ."

The constellation Aquila is called by Al-Sufi _al-ukab_, the Eagle, or _al-nasr al-tâïr_, the flying vulture. According to the ancient poets the eagle carried nectar to Jupiter when he was hidden in a cave in Crete. This eagle also assisted Jupiter in his victory over the Giants and contributed to his other pleasures. For these reasons the eagle was consecrated to Jupiter, and was placed in the sky. Al-Sufi says, "There are in this figure three famous stars [[Greek: g], [Greek: a], and [Greek: b] Aquilæ], which are called _al-nasr al-tâïr_." Hence is derived the modern name Altair for the bright star [Greek: a] Aquilæ. Al-Sufi says that the "common people" call "the three famous stars" _al-mîzân_, the Balance, on account of the equality of the stars." This probably refers to the approximately equal distances between [Greek: g] and [Greek: a], and [Greek: a] and [Greek: b], and not to their relative brightness. He says "Between the bright one of the tail [[Greek: x] Aquilæ] and the star in the beak of the Hen [[Greek: b] Cygni] in the thinnest part of the Milky Way, we see the figure of a little earthen jar, of which the stars begin at the bright one in the tail, and extend towards the north-west. [This seems to refer to [Greek: e] Aquilæ and the small stars near it.] They then turn towards the east in the base of the jar, and then towards the south-east to a little cloud [4, 5, etc. Vulpeculæ, a well-known group of small stars] which is found to the north of the two stars in the shaft of the Arrow [[Greek: a] and [Greek: b] Sagittæ]. The cloud is on the eastern edge of the jar, and the bright one on the tail on the western edge; the orifice is turned towards the flying Vulture [Aquila], and the base towards the north. Among these are distinguished some of the fourth, fifth, and sixth magnitudes [including, probably, 110, 111, 112, 113 Hercules, and 1 Vulpeculæ] and Ptolemy says nothing of this figure, except the bright star in the tail of the Eagle" (see figure). The above is a good example of the minute accuracy of detail in Al-Sufi's description.

The southern portion of Aquila was formerly called Antinous, who was said to have been a young man of great beauty born at Claudiopolis in Bithynia, and drowned in the Nile. Others say that he sacrificed his life to save that of the Emperor Hadrian, who afterwards raised altars in his honour and placed his image on coins.[400]

The constellation Pegasus, Al-Sufi says, "is represented by the figure of a horse, which has the head, legs, and forepart of the body to the end of the back, but it has neither hind quarters nor hind legs." According to Brown, Pegasus was the horse of Poseidon, the sea god. Half of it was supposed to be hidden in the sea, into which the river Eridanus flowed.[401] In the Greek mythology it was supposed to represent the winged horse produced by the blood which fell from the head of Medusa when she was killed by Perseus! Some think that it represents Bellerophon's horse, and others the horse of Nimrod. It was also called Sagmaria and Ephippiatus, and was sometimes represented with a saddle instead of wings.

In describing the constellation Andromeda, Al-Sufi speaks of two series of stars which start from the great nebula in Andromeda; one series going through 32 Andromedæ, [Greek: p, d], and [Greek: e] to [Greek: z] and [Greek: ê]; and the other through [Greek: n, m, b] Andromedæ into the constellation Pisces. He says they enclose a fish-shaped figure called by the Arabians _al-hût_, the Fish, _par excellence_. He speaks of two other series of stars which begin at [Greek: t] and [Greek: u], and diverging meet again at [Greek: ch] Persei, forming another "fish-like figure." The eastern stream starts from [Greek: t] and passes through 55, [Greek: g], 60, 62, 64, and 65 Andromedæ; and the western stream from [Greek: u] through [Greek: ch] 51, 54, and _g_ Persei up to [Greek: ch] Persei. The head of the first "fish," _al-hût_, is turned towards the north, and that of the second towards the south (see figure).

Al-Sufi says that the stars [Greek: a] Persei, [Greek: g, b, d], and [Greek: a] Andromedæ, and [Greek: b] Pegasi form a curved line. This is quite correct, and this fine curve of bright stars may be seen at a glance on a clear night in September, when all the stars are high in the sky.

The first constellation of the Zodiac, Aries, the Ram, was called, according to Aratus and Eratosthenes, [Greek: krios]. It is mentioned by Ovid under the name of Hellas. It was also called by the ancients the Ram with the golden horns. Manilius (fourth century B.C.) called it "The Prince." It is supposed to have represented the god Bel. Among the Accadians the sign meant "He who dwells on the altar of uprightness." It first appears on the Egyptian Zodiac; and it was sacred to Jupiter Ammon. In the Greek mythology it was supposed to represent the ram, the loss of whose fleece led to the voyage of the Argonauts. In the time of Hipparchus, about 2000 years ago, it was the first sign of the Zodiac, or that in which the sun is situated at the Vernal Equinox (about March 21 in each year). But owing to the precession of the equinoxes, this point has now moved back into Pisces.

The brightest star of Aries ([Greek: a]) is sometimes called Hamal, derived from the Arabic _al-hamal_, a name given to the constellation itself by Al-Sufi. In the Accadian language it was called _Dilkur_, "the dawn proclaimer." Ali-Sufi says that close to [Greek: a], "as if it were attached to it," is a small star of the 6th magnitude, not mentioned by Ptolemy. This is clearly [Greek: k] Arietis. The fact of Al-Sufi having seen and noticed this small star, which modern measures show to be below the 5th magnitude, is good evidence of his keen eyesight and accuracy of observation.

According to Al-Sufi, the stars [Greek: b] and [Greek: g] Arietis were called by the Arabians _al-scharatain_, "the two marks." They marked the "first mansion of the moon," and [Greek: e, d], and [Greek: r] the second mansion. With reference to these so-called "mansions of the moon," Admiral Smyth says--

"The famous _Manazil al-kamar_, i.e. Lunar mansions, constituted a
supposed broad circle in Oriental astronomy divided into twenty-eight
unequal parts, corresponding with the moon's course, and therefore
called the abodes of the moon. This was not a bad arrangement for a
certain class of gazers, since the luminary was observed to be in or
near one or other of these parts, or constellations every night.
Though tampered with by astrologers, these Lunar mansions are probably
the earliest step in ancient astronomy."[402]

Taurus, the second constellation of the Zodiac, was in ancient times represented by the figure of a bull, the hinder part of which is turned towards the south-west, and the fore part towards the east. It had no hind legs, and the head was turned to one side, with the horns extended towards the east. Its most ancient name was _Te_, possibly a corruption of the Accadian _dimmena_, "a foundation-stone." The Greek name is [Greek: athôr] ([Greek: thôôr], Eusebius). In the old Egyptian mythology Taurus represented the god Apis. According to Dupuis it also represented the 10th "labour of Hercules," namely, his victory over the cows of Geryon, King of Spain.[403] It was also supposed to represent the bull under the form of which Jupiter carried off Europa, daughter of Agenor, King of the Phoenicians. It may also refer to Io or Isis, who is supposed to have taught the ancient Egyptians the art of agriculture.

Aldebaran is the well-known bright red star in the Hyades. It was called by Ptolemy _Fulgur succularum_. Ali-Sufi says it was marked on the old astrolabes as _al-dabaran_, "the Follower" (because it follows the Hyades in the diurnal motion), and also _ain al-tsaur_, the eye of the bull. It may be considered as a standard star of the 1st magnitude. Modern observations show that it has a parallax of 0"·107. It is receding from the earth, according to Vogel, at the rate of about 30 miles a second; but even with this high velocity it will take thousands of years before its brightness is perceptibly diminished. It has a faint companion of about the 10th magnitude at the distance of 118", which forms a good "light test" for telescopes of 3 or 4 inches aperture. I saw it well with a 4-inch Wray in the Punjab sky. The Hyades were called _Succulæ_ by the Romans, and in the Greek mythology were said to be children of Atlas.

The star [Greek: b] Tauri, sometimes called Nath, from the Arabic _al-nátih_, the butting, is a bright star between Capella and [Greek: g] Orionis (Bellatrix). It is on the tip of the horn in the ancient figure of Taurus, and "therefore" (says Admiral Smyth) "at the greatest distance from the hoof; can this have given rise to the otherwise pointless sarcasm of not knowing B from a bull's foot?"[404] Al-Sufi says that an imaginary line drawn from the star now known as A Tauri to [Greek: t] Tauri would pass between [Greek: u] and [Greek: k] Tauri, which is quite correct, another proof of the accuracy of his observations. He also says that the star [Greek: ô] Tauri is exactly midway between A and [Greek: e], which is again correct. He points out that Ptolemy's position of [Greek: ô] is incorrect. This is often the case with Ptolemy's positions, and tends to show that Ptolemy adopted the position given by Hipparchus without attempting to verify their position in the sky. Al-Sufi himself adopts the longitudes and latitudes of the stars as given by Ptolemy in the _Almagest_, but corrects the positions in his _descriptions_, when he found Ptolemy's places erroneous.

The famous group of the Pleiades is well known; but there is great difficulty in understanding Al-Sufi's description of the cluster. He says, "The 29th star (of Taurus) is the more northern of the anterior side of the Pleiades themselves, and the 30th is the southern of the same side; the 31st is the following vertex of the Pleiades, and is in the more narrow part. The 32nd is situated outside the northern side. Among these stars, the 32nd is of the 4th magnitude, the others of the 5th." Now, it is very difficult or impossible to identify these stars with the stars in the Pleiades as they are at present. The brightest of all, Alcyone ([Greek: ê] Tauri), now about 3rd magnitude, does not seem to be mentioned at all by Al-Sufi! as he says distinctly that "the brightest star" (No 32 of Taurus) is "outside" the Pleiades "on the northern side." It seems impossible to suppose that Al-Sufi could have overlooked Alcyone had it the same brightness it has now. The 32nd star seems to have disappeared, or at least diminished greatly in brightness, since the days of Al-Sufi. More than four stars were, however, seen by Al-Sufi, for he adds, "It is true that the stars of the Pleiades must exceed the four mentioned above, but I limit myself to these four because they are very near each other and the largest [that is, the brightest]; this is why I have mentioned them, neglecting the others." A full examination of the whole question is given by Flammarion in his interesting work _Les Étoiles_ (pp. 289-307), and I must refer my readers to this investigation for further details.

According to Brown, Simonides of Keos (B.C. 556-467) says, "Atlas was the sire of seven daughters with violet locks, who are called the heavenly _Peleiades_."[405] The name is by some supposed to be derived from the Greek [Greek: pleiôn], full. The Old Testament word _Kimah_ (Job ix. 9 and xxviii. 31) and Amos (v. 8) is derived from the Assyrian _Kimta_, a "family." Aratus describes the Pleiades in the following lines:--

"Near his[406] left thigh together sweep along
The flock of Clusterers. Not a mighty span
Holds all, and they themselves are dim to see,
And seven paths aloft men say they take,
Yet six alone are viewed by mortal eye.
These seven are called by name Alkyonî
Kelainî, Meropî and Steropî
Taygetî, Elecktrî, Maia queen.
They thus together small and faint roll on
Yet notable at morn and eve through Zeus."[407]

The Pleiades are mentioned by Ovid. According to the ancient poets they were supposed to represent the children of Atlas and Hesperus, and on this account they were called Atlantids or Hesperides. From the resemblance in sound to the word [Greek: pleias], a pigeon, they were sometimes called "the doves," and for the same reason the word [Greek: plein], to navigate, led to their being called the "shipping stars." The word [Greek: pleias] was also applied to the priestesses of the god Zeus (Jupiter) at Dordona, in the groves of which temple there were a number of pigeons. This is, perhaps, what Aratus refers to in the last line of the extract quoted above. According to Neapolitan legends, the name of Virgil's mother was Maia. The mother of Buddha, the Hindoo _avatar_, was also named Maia. In Italy the Pleiades were called _Gallinata_, and in France _poussinière_, both of which mean the hen and chickens, a term also given to them by Al-Sufi. The old Blackfoot Indians called them "The Seven Perfect Ones." The Crees and Ojibway Indians called them the "Fisher Stars." The Adipones of Brazil and some other nations claimed that they sprang from the Pleiades! The Wyandot Indians called them "The Singing Maidens."

Photographs show that the brighter stars of the Pleiades are involved in nebulosity. That surrounding Maia seems to be of a spiral form. Now, there is a Sanscrit myth which represents Maia as "weaving the palpable universe," for which reason she was "typified as a spider." This seems very appropriate, considering the web of nebulous light which surrounds the stars of the group. Maia was also considered as a type of the universe, which again seems appropriate, as probably most of the stars were evolved from spiral nebulæ.

The name Hyades is supposed to be derived from the Greek word [Greek: hyein], to rain, because in ancient times they rose at the rainy season.

In ancient Egypt, Aldebaran was called _ary_; and the Pleiades _chooa_, a word which means "thousands." The name Aldebaran seems to have been originally applied to the whole of the Hyades group. Aldebaran was also called by the Arabians _al-fanik_, the great Camel, and the Hyades _al-kilas_, the young Camels. The two close stars [Greek: u] and [Greek: k] Tauri were called _al-kalbaïn_, the dogs of Aldebaran. La Condamine states that the Indians of the Amazon saw in the Hyades the head of a bull.

Gemini, the Twins, is the third constellation of the Zodiac. It was also called Gemelli, etc. According to Dupuis it represents the 11th "labour of Hercules"--his triumph over the dog Cerberus.[408] But some of Dupuis' ideas seem very fanciful. The Twins are usually called Castor and Pollux, but they were also called by the ancient writers Apollo and Hercules; Jason and Triptolemus; Amphion and Zethus; and Theseus and Peritheus. In Egypt they represented the deities Horus and Hippocrates. Brown thinks that the "Great Twins" were originally the sun and moon, "who live alternately. As one is born the other dies; as one rises the other sets."[409] This applies to the full moon, but does not seem applicable to the other lunar phases.

Gemini was the constellation to which Dante supposed himself transported when he visited the stellar heavens.[410] He says he was born under the influence of this "sign."

Cancer, the Crab, is the next sign of the Zodiac. In the Greek mythology it was supposed to have been placed in the sky by Juno to commemorate the crab which pinched the toes of Hercules in the Lernæan marsh. The Greek name was [Greek: tybi]. According to Dupuis it represents the 12th "labour of Hercules"--his capture of the golden apples in the Garden of the Hesperides, which were guarded by a Dragon. This Dragon is Draco, which was also called Custos Hesperidum.[411] But the connection between a crab and the myth of the golden apples is not obvious--unless some reference to "crab apples" is intended! Among the Romans, Cancer was consecrated to Mercury, and by the ancient Egyptians to their god Anubis.

The well-known cluster in Cancer called the Præsape, Al-Sufi says, is "a little spot which resembles a cloud, and is surrounded by four stars, two to the west [[Greek: ê] and [Greek: th] Cancri] and two to the east" [[Greek: g] and [Greek: d]]. This cluster is mentioned by Aratus, who calls it the "Manger." The word Præsape is often translated "Beehive," but there can be no doubt that it really means "Manger," referring to the stars [Greek: g] and [Greek: d] Cancri, which the ancients called Aselli, the ass's colts. These were supposed to represent the asses which in the war of Jupiter against the Giants helped his victory by their braying!

Admiral Smyth says in his _Bedford Catalogue_ (p. 202) that he found [Greek: g] and [Greek: d] Cancri both of 4th magnitude; but the photometric measures show that [Greek: d] is now distinctly brighter than [Greek: g]. An occultation of [Greek: d] Cancri by the moon is recorded as having occurred on September 3, B.C. 240.

The fine constellation Leo, the Lion, is the next "sign" of the Zodiac, and is marked by the well-known "Sickle." According to Dupuis, it represents the first "labour of Hercules"--the killing of the Nemælian lion. Manilius called it Nemæus. It was also called Janonus sidus, Bacchi sidus, etc. The Greek name was [Greek: mechir], [Greek: mecheir], or [Greek: mechos]. In ancient Egypt, Leo was sacred to Osiris, and many of the Egyptian monuments are ornamented with lions' heads. It is stated in the Horapolla that its appearance was supposed to announce the annual rising of the Nile.

Regulus ([Greek: a] Leonis) is the brightest and most southern of the stars in the "Sickle." Al-Sufi says "it is situated in the heart and is of the 1st magnitude. It is that which is called _al-maliki_, the royal star. It is marked on the astrolabe as _kalb al-asad_, the Heart of the Lion" (whence the name Cor Leonis). Modern photometric measures make it about 1·3 magnitude. It has an 8-1/2 magnitude companion at about 177" distance (Burnham) which is moving through space with the bright star, and is therefore at probably the same distance from the earth as its brilliant primary. This companion is double (8·5, 12·5: 3"·05, Burnham). The spectroscope shows that Regulus is approaching the earth at the rate of 5-1/2 miles a second. Its parallax is very small--about 0"·022, according to Dr. Elkin--which indicates that it is at a vast distance from the earth; and its brightness shows that it must be a sun of enormous size. Ptolemy called it [Greek: basiliskos], whence its Latin name Regulus, first used by Copernicus as the diminutive of _rex_.[412]

The next constellation of the Zodiac is Virgo, the Virgin. It was also called by the ancients Ceres, Isis, Erigone, Fortuna, Concorda, Astræa, and Themis. The Greek name was [Greek: phamenôth]. Ceres was the goddess of the harvest. Brown thinks that it probably represents the ancient goddess Istar, and also Ashtoreth. According to Prof. Sayce it is the same as the Accadian sign of "the errand of Istar, a name due to the belief that it was in August that the goddess Astarte descended into Hades in search of her betrothed, the sun god Tammuz, or Adonis, who had been slain by the boar's tusk."[413] The ear of corn (Spica) is found on the ancient Egyptian monuments, and is supposed to represent the fertility caused by the annual rising of the Nile. According to Aratus, the Virgin lived on earth during the golden age under the name of Justice, but that in the bronze age she left the earth and took up her abode in the heavens.

"Justice, loathing that race of men,
Winged her flight to heaven."

The Sphinx near the Great Pyramid has the head of a virgin on the body of a lion, representing the goddess Isis (Virgo) and her husband Osiris (Leo).

Al-Sufi's 5th star of Virgo is Flamsteed 63 Virginis. Al-Sufi says it is a double star of the 5th magnitude. In Al-Sufi's time it formed a "naked-eye double" with 61 Virginis, but owing to large proper motion, 61 has now moved about 26 minutes of arc towards the south, and no longer forms a double with 63. This interesting fact was first pointed out by Flammarion in his work _Les Étoiles_ (p. 373).

Libra, the Balance, is one of the "signs" of the Zodiac, but originally formed the claws of the Scorpion. It was called Juguna by Cicero, and Mochos by Ampelius. The Greek name was [Greek: pharmouthe]. Virgil suggests that it represented the justice of the emperor Augustus, honoured by the name of a constellation; but probably this refers to the birth of Augustus under the sign of Libra, as Scaliger has pointed out. According to Brown, "the daily seizing of the dying western sun by the claws of the Scorpion of darkness is reduplicated annually at the Autumnal Equinox, when the feeble waning sun of shortening days falls ever earlier into his enemy's grasp;"[414] and he says, "The Balance or Scales (Libra), which it will be observed is in itself neither diurnal nor nocturnal, is the only one of the zodiacal signs not Euphratean in origin, having been imported from Egypt and representing originally the balance of the sun at the horizon between the upper and under worlds; and secondarily the equality of the days and nights at the equinox."[415]

According to Houzeau, Libra was formed at the beginning of the second century B.C., and it does not appear in any writings before those of Geminus and Varron.[416]

Milton says in _Paradise Lost_:--

"The Eternal to prevent such horrid fray,
Hung forth in heaven his golden scales, yet seen
Betwixt Astræa and the Scorpion's sign."

(Here Astræa is Virgo.)

It is worth noticing that both Ptolemy and Al-Sufi rated the star [Greek: k] Libræ as two magnitudes brighter than [Greek: l] Libræ. The two stars are now practically of equal brightness (5th magnitude), and it seems impossible to believe that this could have been the case in Al-Sufi's time. Surely a careful observer like Al-Sufi, who estimated the relative brightness of stars to a third of a magnitude, could not possibly have made an error of two magnitudes in the brightness of two stars near each other! It should be stated, however, that [Greek: k] Libræ was rated 5th magnitude by Argelander and Heis, and [Greek: l], 6th magnitude by the same excellent observers.

The next "sign" of the Zodiac, Scorpion, was consecrated by the Romans to Mars, and by the Egyptians to Typhon.[417] It was called _Nepa_ by Cicero, _Martis sidus_ by Manilius, and _Fera magna_ by Aratus. The Greek name was [Greek: pachôn].

Mr. E. B. Knobel has called attention to a curious remark of Ptolemy with reference to the bright star Antares ([Greek: a] Scorpii), "Media earum quæ _tendit ad rapinam_ quæ dicitur Cor Scorpionis"; and he made a similar remark with reference to Betelgeuse ([Greek: a] Orionis) and others. But Mr. Robert Brown[418] explains the remark by the fact that in ancient times these stars rose in the morning at a time when caravans were exposed to dangers from robbers. Thus the term had nothing to do with the aspect or colour of these stars, but was merely a reference to their supposed astrological influence on human affairs.

In the Egyptian _Book of the Dead_, Silkit was a goddess who assumed the form of a scorpion in the sky. She was supposed to be the daughter of _Ra_.

With reference to stars "outside" the ancient figure of Scorpio, the first, Al-Sufi says, "is a star which immediately follows _al-schaulat_" [[Greek: l]] and [Greek: k], "it is of small 4th magnitude; Ptolemy calls it [Greek: nepheloeidês]" [nebulous]. Schjelerup, in his translation of Al-Sufi's work, does not identify this object; but it is very evidently [Greek: g] Telescopii, which lies exactly in the position described by Al-Sufi. Now, it is a very interesting and curious fact that Ptolemy called it nebulous, for in the same telescopic field with it is the nebula _h_ 3705 (= Dunlop 557). Dunlop describes it as a "small well-defined rather bright nebula, about 20" in diameter; a very small star precedes it, but is not involved; following [Greek: g] Telescopii." Sir John Herschel at the Cape found it fairly resolved into very faint stars, and adds, "The whole _ground_ of the heavens, for an immense extent is thickly sown with such stars. A beautiful object."[419] This perhaps accounts for the nebulous appearance of the star as seen by Ptolemy.

Several _novæ_ or temporary stars are recorded as having appeared in Scorpio. One in the year B.C. 134 is stated by Pliny to have induced Hipparchus to form his catalogue of stars. This star was also observed in China. Its exact position is unknown, but Flammarion thinks it may possibly have appeared about 4° north of the star [Greek: b] Scorpii. Another new star is said to have appeared in A.D. 393, somewhere in the Scorpion's tail. One in A.D. 1203 and another in 1584 are also mentioned, the latter near [Greek: p] Scorpii.

The constellation Scorpio seems to be referred to by Dante in his _Purgatorio_ (ix. 4-6) in the lines--

"De gemma la sua fronte era lucenta
Poste in figura del fredda animale
Che con la coda percota la genta,"

perhaps suggested by Ovid's remark--

"Scorpius exhibit caudaque menabitur unca."[420]

Next to Scorpio comes Sagittarius, the Archer. It is said to have been placed in the sky as a symbol of Hercules, a hero who was held in the greatest veneration by the ancient Egyptians. The horse, usually associated with this constellation, was a symbol of war. It was also called by the ancients Chiron, Arcitenens, Minotaurus, Croton, etc. The Greek name was [Greek: pauni], or [Greek: paôni]. Chiron was supposed to be the son of Saturn and Phillyra, and first taught men to ride on horses. The name is derived from the Greek [Greek: cheir], a hand. Some writers, however, think that Chiron is represented by the constellation of the Centaur, and others say that Sagittarius represents the Minotaur loved by Persephone. According to Dupuis, Sagittarius represents the 5th "labour of Hercules," which consisted in hunting the birds of the lake Stymphalus, which ravaged the neighbouring countries. These birds are perhaps represented by Cygnus, Altair, and the Vulture (Lyra). The Lyre probably represents the musical instrument which Hercules used to frighten the birds.[421]

According to Al-Sufi, the Arabians called the stars [Greek: g, d, e], and [Greek: ê] Sagittarii which form a quadrilateral figure, "the Ostrich which goes to the watering place," because they compared the Milky Way to a river. They compared the stars [Greek: s, ph, t], and [Greek: z] Sagittarii, which form another quadrilateral, to an ostrich which has drunk and returns from the "watering place." He says that the star [Greek: l] Sagittarii forms with these two "ostriches" a tent, and certainly the figure formed by [Greek: l, ph, z, e], and [Greek: d] is not unlike a tent. Al-Sufi says more about these "ostriches"; but the ideas of the old Arabians about the stars seem very fanciful.

A "temporary star" is recorded in the Chinese Annals of Ma-touan-lin as having appeared in May, B.C. 48, about 4° distant from [Greek: m] Sagittarii. Another in the year 1011 A.D. appeared near the quadrilateral figure formed by the stars [Greek: s, t, z], and [Greek: ph] Sagittarii. This may perhaps be identified with the object referred to by Hepidannus in the year 1012, which was of extraordinary brilliancy, and remained visible "in the southern part of the heavens during three months." Another is mentioned near the same place in A.D. 386 (April to July).[422] The number of "temporary stars" recorded in this part of the heavens is very remarkable.

According to Brown, Sagittarius is depicted on a stone, cir. B.C. 1100, found at Bâbilu, and now in the British Museum.[423]

* * * * *

The next of the "signs of the Zodiac" is Capricornus, the Goat. In the Arabo-Latin edition of Ptolemy's _Almagest_ it is called Alcaucurus. It is supposed to represent Amalthea, the goat which nursed Jupiter. According to Dupuis it represented the 6th "labour of Hercules," which was the cleaning out of the Augean stables.[424]

[Greek: a]_{2} Capricorni is the northern of two stars of the 4th magnitude ([Greek: a] and [Greek: b] Capricorni). It really consists of two stars visible to the naked eye. The second of these two stars ([Greek: a]_{1}) is not mentioned by Al-Sufi, but I find that, owing to proper motion, they were nearer together in his time (tenth century), and were evidently seen by him as one star. [Greek: b] Capricorni (about 3rd magnitude) is a very wide double star (3-1/2, 6; 205"), which may be seen with any small telescope. The fainter star was found to be a close double by Burnham. At present [Greek: b] is brighter than [Greek: a], although rated of the same brightness by Al-Sufi.

Aquarius is the next "sign of the Zodiac." It is supposed to represent a man pouring water out of an urn or bucket. Other names given to this constellation were Aristæus, Ganymede, Cecrops, Amphora, Urna, and Aqua tyrannus. According to Dupuis it represents the 7th "labour of Hercules," which was his victory over the famous bull which ravaged Crete.[425] But the connection between a bull and a bucket is not obvious. Aquarius is represented in several places on the Egyptian monuments. Some of the ancient poets supposed that it represented Deucalion (the Noah of the Greek story of the Deluge); others thought that it represented Cecrops, who came to Greece from Egypt, built Athens, and was also called Bifornis. Others say that he was Ganymede, the cup-bearer of the gods.

There is some difficulty about the identification of some of Al-Sufi's stars in Aquarius. His sixth star (Fl. 7) is nearly 10° south-west of [Greek: b] Aquarii, and is, Al-Sufi says, "the following of three stars in the left hand, and precedes the fourth [[Greek: b]] ... it is of the 6th magnitude. Ptolemy calls it third, but in reality it is very faint" [now about 6th magnitude]. The seventh [[Greek: m]] is the middle one of the three and about 4-1/2 magnitude, although Al-Sufi calls it "small fifth" [Ptolemy rated it 4]. The eighth star, [Greek: e], is the preceding of the three and about 3·8, agreeing closely with Al-Sufi's 4·3. Ptolemy rated it 3. This star is mentioned under the name _nou_ in the time of _Tcheou-Kong_ in the twelfth century B.C. Al-Sufi says, "These three stars are followed by a star of the 5th magnitude which Ptolemy has not mentioned. It is brighter than the sixth star" [Fl. 7]. This is evidently [Greek: n] Aquarii. If, however, we plot Ptolemy's positions as given by Al-Sufi, it seems probable that _Ptolemy's_ sixth star was really [Greek: n], and that either [Greek: m] or Fl. 7 was not seen by him. As Ptolemy called his seventh star 4th magnitude, and his sixth and eighth stars 3rd magnitude, some considerable change of brightness seems to have taken place in these stars; as [Greek: n] is now only 4-1/2 and Fl. 7 only a bright sixth. Variation was suspected in Fl. 7[426] by Gould. I found it very reddish with binocular in October, 1892. Burnham found it to be a close double star, the companion being about 12th magnitude at a distance of only 2". It is probably a binary.

According to Al-Sufi, the Arabians called the second and third stars of the figure ([Greek: a] and [Greek: o] Aquarii) _sad al-malik_ (_malk_ or _mulk_), "the Good Fortune of the king." They called the fourth and fifth stars ([Greek: b] and [Greek: x] Aquarii) with the twenty-eighth star of Capricornus (_c_) _sad al-sund_, "the Good Fortune of the Happy Events." "This is the 24th mansion of the moon." These stars rose at the time of year when the cold ends, and they set at the time the heat ends. Hence, Al-Sufi says, "when they rise the rains begin, and when they set the unhealthy winds cease, fertility abounds, and the dew falls." Hence probably the Arabic names. This, of course, applies to the climate of Persia and Arabia, and not to the British Isles. Al-Sufi says, "They call the 6th, 7th, and 8th stars _sad bula_, 'The Good Fortune which swallows up!' This is the 23rd mansion of the moon. They say that it is so called because that at the time of the Deluge it rose at the moment when God said, 'O earth! absorb the waters' (Koran, chap, xi., v. 46). They called the stars [Greek: g, p, z] and [Greek: ê] Aquarii _sad al-achbija_, 'the the Good Fortune of the tents'; this is the 25th mansion of the moon, and they give them this name because of these four stars, three form a triangle, the fourth [[Greek: z]] being in the middle." The three were considered to form a tent.

The Arabians called the bright star Fomalhaut "in the mouth of the southern fish _al-dhifda al-auval_, 'the first Frog,' as the bright one on the southern point of the tail of Kîtus [Cetus] is called _al-dhifda al-tsani_ [[Greek: b] Ceti], 'the second Frog.'" Fomalhaut was also called _al-zhalim_, "the male ostrich."

Al-Sufi says, "Some of the Arabians state that a ship is situated to the south of Aquarius." The stars in the Southern Fish (Piscis Australis) seem to be here referred to.

The constellation Pisces, the Fishes, is the last of the "signs of the Zodiac." The Fishes appear on an ancient Greek obelisk described by Pococke. Among the Greeks this sign was consecrated to Venus; and in Egypt to Nepthys, wife of Typhon and goddess of the sea. Pisces is said to end the Zodiac as the Mediterranean Sea terminated Egypt. This idea was suggested by Schmidt, who also conjectured that the Ram (Aries) was placed at the beginning of the Zodiac because Thebes, a town sacred to Jupiter Ammon, was at the beginning of Egypt in ancient times; and he thought that the constellation Triangulum, the Triangle, represented the Nile Delta, Eridanus being the Nile.[427] The constellation was represented in ancient times by two fishes connected by a cord tied to their tails. The southern of these "fishes" lies south of the "Square of Pegasus," and the northern between Andromeda and Aries. According to Manilius, the origin of these fishes is as follows: Venus, seeing Typhon on the banks of the river Euphrates, cast herself with her son into the river and they were transformed into fishes!

Some of the Arabians substituted a swallow for the northern of the two fishes--the one below Andromeda. The swallow was a symbol of Spring. According to Dupuis, Pisces represents the 8th "labour of Hercules," his triumph over the mares of Diomed which emitted fire from their nostrils.[428] But the connection between fishes and mares is not obvious, and some of Dupuis' ideas seem very fanciful. Here he seems to have found a "mare's nest."

The constellation Cetus, the Whale, represents, according to ancient writers, the sea monster sent by Neptune to devour Andromeda when she was chained to the rock. Aratus calls Cetus the "dusky monster," and Brown remarks that "the 'Dusky Star' would be peculiarly appropriate to Mira (the wondrous [Greek: o] Ceti)."[429] Cetus was also called Canis Tritonis, or Dog of the Sea, Bayer in his Atlas (1603) shows a dragon instead of a whale, finding it so represented on some ancient spheres. Al-Sufi calls it Kîtus or [Greek: kêtos], the whale. He says, "it is represented by the figure of a marine animal, of which the fore part is turned towards the east, to the south of the Ram, and the hinder part towards the west behind the three 'extern' stars of Aquarius."

Al-Sufi does not mention the variable star [Greek: o] Ceti, now called Mira, or the "wonderful," nor does he refer to any star in its immediate vicinity. We may, therefore, conclude that it was near a minimum of light at the time of his observation of the stars of Cetus.

The constellation of Orion, one of the finest in the heavens, was called by Al-Sufi _al-djabbar_, "the Giant," and also _al-djauza_, "the Spouse." The poet Longfellow says--

"Sirius was rising in the east
And, slow ascending one by one,
The kindling constellations shone
Begirt with many a blazing star
Stood the great giant Al-gebar
Orion, hunter of the beast!
His sword hung gleaming at his side
And on his arm, the lion's hide--
Scattered across the midnight air
The golden radiance of its hair."

Al-Sufi says it "is represented by the figure of a standing man, to the south of the sun's path. This constellation very much resembles a human figure with a head and two shoulders. It is called _al-djabbar_, 'the Giant,' because it has two thrones, holds a club in his hand, and is girded with a sword." Orion is supposed to have been a son of Neptune; but there are many stories of the origin of the name. It is also said to be derived from the Greek word [Greek: ôra], because the constellation was used to mark the different times of the year. According to the ancient fable, Orion was killed by a scorpion, and was placed in the sky at the request of Diana. According to Houzeau, the name comes from _oriri_, to be born. Scorpio rises when Orion sets, and he thinks that the idea of the ancients was that the Scorpion in this way kills the giant Orion.

In ancient Egypt Orion was called _Sahu_. This name occurs on the monuments of the Ptolemies, and also on those of the Pharaohs. It is also mentioned in the _Book of the Dead_. It seems to have been considered of great importance in ancient Egypt, as its heliacal rising announced that of Sirius, which heralded the annual rising of the Nile.

The constellation Eridanus lies south of Taurus, east of Cetus, and west of Lepus. In ancient times it was supposed to represent the Nile or the Po. Ptolemy merely calls it [Greek: Potamou asterismos], or asterism of the river. It was called Eridanus by the Greeks, and Fluvius by the Romans. It appears to correspond with the Hebrew Shicor. Al-Sufi calls it _al-nahr_, "the River."

One of the most interesting points in Al-Sufi's most interesting work is the identity of the bright star known to the ancient astronomers as _achir al-nahr_, "the End of the River," and called by Ptolemy [Greek: Eschatos tou potamou], "the Last in the River." Some astronomers have identified this star with [Greek: a] Eridani (Achernar), a bright southern star of the 1st magnitude, south of Eridanus. But Al-Sufi's description shows clearly that the star he refers to is really [Greek: th] Eridani; and the reader will find it interesting to follow his description with a star map before him. Describing Ptolemy's 34th star of Eridanus (the star in question), he says, "the 34th star is found before [that is west of] these three stars [the 31st, 32nd, and 33rd, which are [Greek: u]{2}, Du, and [Greek: u]' in Proctor's Atlas], the distance between it and that of the three which is nearest being about 4 cubits [9° 20']. It is of the first magnitude; it is that which is marked on the southern astrolabe, and called _achir al-nahr_, 'the End of the River.' There are before this bright one two stars, one to the south, [[Greek: s] Eridani, not shown in Proctor's small Atlas], the other to the north [[Greek: i] Eridani]; Ptolemy does not mention these. One of these stars is of the 4th magnitude, the other of the 5th. There is behind the same [that is, east of it] a star of the 4th magnitude distant from it two cubits [[Greek: e] Eridani]. To the south of the three stars which follow the bright one there are some stars of the 4th and 5th magnitudes, which he [Ptolemy] has not mentioned."

Now, a glance at a star map of this region will show clearly that the bright star referred to by Al-Sufi is undoubtedly [Greek: th] Eridani, which is therefore the star known to the ancients as the "End of the River," or the "Last in the River."

The position given by Ptolemy agrees fairly well with Al-Sufi's description, although the place is slightly erroneous, as is also the case with Fomalhaut and [Greek: b] Centauri. It is impossible to suppose that either Ptolemy or Al-Sufi could have seen [Greek: a] Eridani, as it is too far south to be visible from their stations, and, owing to the precession of the equinoxes, the star was still further south in ancient times. Al-Sufi says distinctly that the distance between Ptolemy's 33rd star (which is undoubtedly _h_ Eridani, or Proctor's [Greek: u]') and the 34th star was "4 cubits," or 9° 20'. The actual distance is about 9° 11', so that Al-Sufi's estimate was practically correct. Halley, in his _Catalogus Stellarium Australium_, identifies Ptolemy's star with [Greek: th] Eridani, and Baily agreed with him.[430] Ulugh Beigh also identifies the "Last in the River" with [Greek: th] Eridani. The Arabic observer Mohammed Ali Achsasi, who observed in the seventeenth century, called [Greek: th] Eridani _Achr al-nahr_, and rated it first magnitude.[431] To argue, as Bode and Flammarion have done, that Ptolemy and Al-Sufi may have heard of [Greek: a] Eridani from travellers in the southern hemisphere, is to beg the whole question at issue. This is especially true with reference to Al-Sufi, who says, in the preface to his work, that he has described the stars "as seen with my own eyes." [Greek: a] Eridani is over 11 "cubits" from _h_ Eridani instead of "4 cubits" as Al-Sufi says. This shows conclusively that the star seen by Al-Sufi was certainly _not_ [Greek: a] Eridani. The interest of the identification is that Al-Sufi rated [Greek: th] Eridani of the _first_ magnitude, whereas it is now only 3rd magnitude! It was measured 3·06 at Harvard and estimated 3·4 by Stanley Williams, so that it has evidently diminished greatly in brightness since Al-Sufi's time. There is an interesting paper on this subject by Dr. Anderson (the discoverer of Nova Aurigæ and Nova Persei) in _Knowledge_ for July, 1893, in which he states that the "Last in the River," according to the statements of Hipparchus and Ptolemy, _did_ rise above their horizon at a certain time of the year, which [Greek: a] Eridani could not possibly have done. This seems sufficient to settle the question in favour of [Greek: th] Eridani. Dr. Anderson says, "It is much to be regretted that Professor Schjellerup, the able and industrious translator of Sufi, has allowed this to escape his notice, and helped in the preface and note to his work to propagate the delusion that [Greek: a] Eridani is Ptolemy's 'Last in the River'"; and in this opinion I fully concur. Al-Sufi's clear account places it beyond a doubt that the star known to Hipparchus, Ptolemy, Al-Sufi, and Ulugh Beigh as the "Last in the River" was [Greek: th] Eridani. [Greek: th] must have diminished greatly in brightness since Al-Sufi's time, for in ranking it as 1st magnitude he placed it in a very select list. He only rated thirteen stars in the whole heavens as being of the 1st magnitude. These are: Arcturus, Vega, Capella, Aldebaran, Regulus, [Greek: b] Leonis, Fomalhaut, Rigel, [Greek: th] Eridani, Sirius, Procyon, Canopus, and [Greek: a] Centauri. _All_ these stars were actually _seen_ by Al-Sufi, _and described from his own observations_. He does not mention [Greek: a] Eridani, as it was not visible from his station in Persia.