Chapter XII (1)

Aviation Engine Types--Division in Classes--Anzani Engines--
Canton and Unne Engine--Construction of Gnome Engines--
"Monosoupape" Gnome--German "Gnome" Type--Le Rhone Engine--
Renault Air-Cooled Engine--Simplex Model "A" Hispano-Suiza--
Curtiss Aviation Motors--Thomas-Morse Model 88 Engine--
Duesenberg Engine--Aeromarine Six-Cylinder--Wisconsin Aviation
Engines--Hall-Scott Engines--Mercedes Motor--Benz Motor--
Austro-Daimler--Sunbeam-Coatalen.

AVIATION ENGINE TYPES

Inasmuch as numerous forms of airplane engines have been devised, it would require a volume of considerable size to describe even the most important developments of recent years. As considerable explanatory matter has been given in preceding chapters and the principles involved in internal combustion engine operation considered in detail, a relatively brief review of the features of some of the most successful airplane motors should suffice to give the reader a complete enough understanding of the art so all types of engines can be readily recognized and the advantages and disadvantages of each type understood, as well as defining the constructional features enough so the methods of locating and repairing the common engine and auxiliary system troubles will be fully grasped.

Aviation engines can be divided into three main classes. One of the earliest attempts to devise distinctive power plant designs for aircraft involved the construction of engines utilizing a radial arrangement of the cylinders or a star-wise disposition. Among the engines of this class may be mentioned the Anzani, R. E. P. and the Salmson or Canton and Unne forms. The two former are air-cooled, the latter design is water-cooled. Engines of this type have been built in cylinder numbers ranging from three to twenty. While the simple forms were popular in the early days of aviation engine development, they have been succeeded by the more conventional arrangements which now form the largest class. The reason for the adoption of a star-wise arrangement of cylinders has been previously considered. Smoothness of running can only be obtained by using a considerable number of cylinders. The fundamental reason for the adoption of the star-wise disposition is that a better distribution of stress is obtained by having all of the pistons acting on the same crank-pin so that the crank-throw and pin are continuously under maximum stress. Some difficulty has been experienced in lubricating the lower cylinders in some forms of six cylinder, rotary crank, radial engines but these have been largely overcome so they are not as serious in practice as a theoretical consideration would indicate.

Another class of engines developed to meet aviation requirements is a complete departure from the preceding class, though when the engines are at rest, it is difficult to differentiate between them. This class includes engines having a star-wise disposition of the cylinders but the cylinders themselves and the crank-case rotate and the crank-shaft remains stationary. The important rotary engines are the Gnome, the Le Rhone and the Clerget. By far the most important classification is that including engines which retain the approved design of the types of power plants that have been so widely utilized in automobiles and which have but slight modifications to increase reliability and mechanical strength and produce a reduction in weight. This class includes the vertical engines such as the Duesenberg and Hall-Scott four-cylinder; the Wisconsin, Aeromarine, Mercedes, Benz, and Hall-Scott six-cylinder vertical engines and the numerous eight- and twelve-cylinder Vee designs such as the Curtiss, Renault, Thomas-Morse, Sturtevant, Sunbeam, and others.

ANZANI ENGINES

The attention of the mechanical world was first directed to the great possibilities of mechanical flight when Bleriot crossed the English Channel in July, 1909, in a monoplane of his own design and construction, having the power furnished by a small three-cylinder air-cooled engine rated at about 24 horse-power and having cylinders 4.13 inches bore and 5.12 inches stroke, stated to develop the power at about 1600 R.P.M. and weighing 145 pounds. The arrangement of this early Anzani engine is shown at Fig. 190, and it will be apparent that in the main, the lines worked out in motorcycle practice were followed to a large extent. The crank-case was of the usual vertically divided pattern, the cylinders and heads being cast in one piece and held to the crank-case by stud bolts passing through substantial flanges at the cylinder base. In order to utilize but a single crank-pin for the three cylinders it was necessary to use two forked rods and one rod of the conventional type. The arrangement shown at Fig. 190, called for the use of counter-balanced flywheels which were built up in connection with shafts and a crank-pin to form what corresponds to the usual crank-shaft assembly.

The inlet valves were of the automatic type so that a very simple valve mechanism consisting only of the exhaust valve push rods was provided. One of the difficulties of this arrangement of cylinders was that the impulses are not evenly spaced. For instance, in the forms where the cylinders were placed 60 degrees apart the space between the firing of the first cylinder and that next in order was 120 degrees crank-shaft rotation, after which there was an interval of 300 degrees before the last cylinder to fire delivered its power stroke. In order to increase the power given by the simple three-cylinder air-cooled engine a six-cylinder water-cooled type, as shown at Figs. 191 and 192, was devised. This was practically the same in action as the three-cylinder except that a double throw crank-shaft was used and while the explosions were not evenly spaced the number of explosions obtained resulted in fairly uniform application of power.

The latest design of three-cylinder Anzani engine, which is used to some extent for school machines, is shown at Fig. 193. In this, the three-cylinders are symmetrically arranged about the crank-case or 120 degrees apart. The balance is greatly improved by this arrangement and the power strokes occur at equal intervals of 240 degrees of crank-shaft rotation. This method of construction is known as the Y design. By grouping two of these engines together, as outlined at Fig. 194, which gives an internal view, and at Fig. 195, which shows the sectional view, and using the ordinary form of double throw crank-shaft with crank-pins separated by 180 degrees, a six-cylinder radial engine is produced which runs very quietly and furnishes a steady output of power. The peculiarity of the construction of this engine is in the method of grouping the connecting rod about the common crank-pin without using forked rods or the "Mother rod" system employed in the Gnome engines. In the Anzani the method followed is to provide each connecting rod big end with a shoe which consists of a portion of a hollow cylinder held against the crank-pin by split clamping rings. The dimensions of these shoes are so proportioned that the two adjacent connecting rods of a group of three will not come into contact even when the connecting rods are at the minimum relative angle. The three shoes of each group rest upon a bronze sleeve which is in halves and which surrounds the crank-pin and rotates relatively to it once in each crank-shaft revolution. The collars, which are of tough bronze, resist the inertia forces while the direct pressure of the explosions is transmitted directly to the crank-pin bushing by the shoes at the big end of the connecting rod. The same method of construction, modified to some extent, is used in the Le Rhone rotary cylinder engine.

Both cylinders and pistons of the Anzani engines are of cast iron, the cylinders being provided with a liberal number of cooling flanges which are cast integrally. A series of auxiliary exhaust ports is drilled near the base of each cylinder so that a portion of the exhaust gases will flow out of the cylinder when the piston reaches the end of its power stroke. This reduces the temperature of the gases passing around the exhaust valves and prevents warping of these members. Another distinctive feature of this engine design is the method of attaching the Zenith carburetor to an annular chamber surrounding the rear portion of the crank-case from which the intake pipes leading to the intake valves radiate. The magneto is the usual six-cylinder form having the armature geared to revolve at one and one-half times crank-shaft speed.

The Anzani aviation engines are also made in ten- and twenty-cylinder forms as shown at Fig. 196. It will be apparent that in the ten-cylinder form explosions will occur every 72 degrees of crank-shaft rotation, while in the twenty-cylinder, 200 horse-power engine at any instant five of the cylinders are always working and explosions are occurring every 36 degrees of crank-shaft rotation. On the twenty-cylinder engine, two carburetors are used and two magnetos, which are driven at two and one-half times crank-shaft speed. The general cylinder and valve construction is practically the same, as in the simpler engines.

CANTON AND UNNE ENGINE

This engine, which has been devised specially for aviation service, is generally known as the "Salmson" and is manufactured in both France and Great Britain. It is a nine-cylinder water-cooled radial engine, the nine cylinders being symmetrically disposed around the crank-shaft while the nine connecting rods all operate on a common crank-pin in somewhat the same manner as the rods in the Gnome motor. The crank-shaft of the Salmson engine is not a fixed one and inasmuch as the cylinders do not rotate about the crank-shaft it is necessary for that member to revolve as in the conventional engine. The stout hollow steel crank-shaft is in two pieces and has a single throw. The crank-shaft is built up somewhat the same as that of the Gnome engine. Ball bearings are used throughout this engine as will be evident by inspecting the sectional view given at Fig. 199. The nine steel connecting rods are machined all over and are fitted at each end with bronze bushings, the distance between the bearing centers being about 3.25 times crank length. The method of connecting up the rods to the crank-pin is one of the characteristic features of this design. No "mother" rod as supplied in the Gnome engine is used in this type inasmuch as the steel cage or connecting rod carrier is fitted with symmetrically disposed big end retaining pins. Inasmuch as the carrier is mounted on ball bearings some means must be provided of regulating the motion of the carrier as if no means were provided the resulting motion of the pistons would be irregular.

The method by which the piston strokes are made to occur at precise intervals involves a somewhat lengthy and detailed technical explanation. It is sufficient to say that an epicyclic train of gears, one of which is rigidly attached to the crank-case so it cannot rotate is used, while other gears make a connection between the fixed gear and with another gear which is exactly the same size as the fixed gear attached to the crank-case and which is formed integrally with the connecting rod carrier. The action of the gearing is such that the cage carrying the big end retaining pins does not rotate independently of the crank-shaft, though, of course, the crank-shaft or rather crank-pin bearings must turn inside of the big end carrier cage.

Cylinders of this engine are of nickel steel machined all over and carry water-jackets of spun copper which are attached to the cylinders by brazing. The water jackets are corrugated to permit the cylinder to expand freely. The ignition is similar to that of the fixed crank rotating cylinder engine. An ordinary magneto of the two spark type driven at 1-3/4 times crank-shaft speed is sufficient to ignite the seven-cylinder form, while in the nine-cylinder engines the ignition magneto is of the "shield" type giving four sparks per revolution. The magneto is driven at 1-1/9 times crank-shaft speed. Nickel steel valves are used and are carried in castings or cages which screw into bosses in the cylinder head. Each valve is cam operated through a tappet, push rod and rocker arm, seven cams being used on a seven-cylinder engine and nine cams on the nine-cylinder. One cam serves to open both valves as in its rotation it lifts the tappets in succession and so operates the exhaust and inlet valves respectively. This method of operation involves the same period of intake and exhaust. In normal engine practice the inlet valve opens 12 degrees late and closes 20 degrees late. The exhaust opens 45 degrees early and closes 6 degrees late. This means about 188 degrees in the case of inlet valve and 231 degrees crank-shaft travel for exhaust valves. In the Salmson engine, the exhaust closes and the inlet opens at the outer dead center and the exhaust opens and the inlet closes at about the inner dead center. This engine is also made in a fourteen-cylinder 200 B. H. P. design which is composed of two groups of seven-cylinders, and it has been made in an eighteen-cylinder design of 600 horse-power. The nine-cylinder 130 horse-power has a cylinder bore of 4.73 inches and a stroke of 5.52 inches. Its normal speed of rotation is 1250 R. P. M. Owing to the radial arrangement of the cylinders, the weight is but 4-1/4 pounds per B. H. P.

CONSTRUCTION OF EARLY GNOME MOTOR

It cannot be denied that for a time one of the most widely used of aeroplane motors was the seven-cylinder revolving air-cooled Gnome, made in France. For a total weight of 167 pounds this motor developed 45 to 47 horse-power at 1,000 revolutions, being equal to 3.35 pounds per horse-power, and has proved its reliability by securing many long-distance and endurance records. The same engineers have produced a nine-cylinder and by combining two single engines a fourteen-cylinder revolving Gnome, having a nominal rating of 100 horse-power, with which world's speed records were broken. A still more powerful engine has been made with eighteen-cylinders. The nine-cylinder "monosoupape" delivers 100 horse-power at 1200 R. P. M., the engine of double that number of cylinders is rated at about 180 horse-power.

Except in the number of cylinders and a few mechanical details the fourteen-cylinder motor is identical with the seven-cylinder one; fully three-quarters of the parts used by the assemblers would do just as well for one motor as for the other. Owing to the greater power demands of the modern airplane the smaller sizes of Gnome engines are not used as much as they were except for school machines. There is very little in this motor that is common to the standard type of vertical motorcar engine. The cylinders are mounted radially round a circular crank-case; the crank-shaft is fixed, and the entire mass of cylinders and crank-case revolves around it as outlined at Fig. 200. The explosive mixture and the lubricating oil are admitted through the fixed hollow crank-shaft, passed into the explosion chamber through an automatic intake valve in the piston head in the early pattern, and the spent gases exhausted through a mechanically operated valve in the cylinder head. The course of the gases is practically a radial one. A peculiarity of the construction of the motor is that nickel steel is used throughout. Aluminum is employed for the two oil pump housings; the single compression ring known as the "obdurator" for each piston is made of brass; there are three or four brass bushes; gun metal is employed for certain pins--the rest is machined out of chrome nickel steel. The crank-case is practically a steel hoop, the depth depending on whether it has to receive seven-or fourteen-cylinders; it has seven or fourteen holes bored as illustrated on its circumference. When fourteen or eighteen cylinders are used the holes are bored in two distinct planes, and offset in relation one to the other.

The cylinders of the small engine which have a bore of 4-3/10 inches and a stroke of 4-7/10 inches, are machined out of the solid bar of steel until the thickness of the walls is only 1.5 millimeters--.05905 inch, or practically 1/16 inch. Each one has twenty-two fins which gradually taper down as the region of greatest pressure is departed from. In addition to carrying away heat, the fins assist in strengthening the walls of the cylinder. The barrel of the cylinder is slipped into the hole bored for it on the circumference of the crank-case and secured by a locking member in the nature of a stout compression ring, sprung onto a groove on the base of the cylinder within the crank chamber. On each lateral face of the crank chamber are seven holes, drilled right through the chamber parallel with the crank-shaft. Each one of these holes receives a stout locking-pin of such a diameter that it presses against the split rings of two adjacent cylinders; in addition each cylinder is fitted with a key-way. This construction is not always followed, some of the early Gnome engines using the same system of cylinder retention as used on the latest "monosoupape" pattern.

The exhaust valve is mounted in the cylinder head, Fig. 201, its seating being screwed in by means of a special box spanner. On the fourteen-cylinder model the valve is operated directly by an overhead rocker arm with a gun metal rocker at its extremity coming in contact with the extremity of the valve stem. As in standard motor car practice, the valve is opened under the lift of the vertical push rod, actuated by the cam. The distinctive feature is the use of a four-blade leaf spring with a forked end encircling the valve stems and pressing against a collar on its extremity. On the seven-cylinder model the movement is reversed, the valve being opened on the downward pull of the push rod, this lifting the outer extremity of the main rocker arm, which tips a secondary and smaller rocker arm in direct contact with the extremity of the valve stem. The springs are the same in each case. The two types are compared at A and B, Fig. 202.

The pistons, like the cylinders, are machined out of the solid bar of nickel steel, and have a portion of their wall cut away, so that the two adjacent ones will not come together at the extremity of their stroke. The head of the piston is slightly reduced in diameter and is provided with a groove into which is fitted a very light L-section brass split ring; back of this ring and carried within the groove is sprung a light steel compression ring, serving to keep the brass ring in expansion. As already mentioned, the intake valves are automatic, and are mounted in the head of the piston as outlined at Fig. 202, C. The valve seating is in halves, the lower portion being made to receive the wrist-pin and connecting rod, and the upper portion, carrying the valve, being screwed into it. The spring is composed of four flat blades, with the hollowed stem of the automatic valve passing through their center and their two extremities attached to small levers calculated to give balance against centrifugal force. The springs are naturally within the piston, and are lubricated by splash from the crank chamber. They are of a delicate construction, for it is necessary that they shall be accurately balanced so as to have no tendency to fly open under the action of centrifugal force. The intake valve is withdrawn by the use of special tools through the cylinder head, the exhaust valve being first dismounted.

The fourteen-cylinder motor shown at Fig. 203, has a two-throw crank-shaft with the throws placed at 180 degrees, each one receiving seven connecting rods. The parts are the same as for the seven-cylinder motor, the larger one consisting of two groups placed side by side. For each group of seven-cylinders there is one main connecting rod, together with six auxiliary rods. The main connecting rod, which, like the others, is of H section, has machined with it two L-section rings bored with six holes--51-1/2 degrees apart to take the six other connecting rods. The cage of the main connecting rod carries two ball races, one on either side, fitting onto the crank-pin and receiving the thrust of the seven connecting rods. The auxiliary connecting rods are secured in position in each case by a hollow steel pin passing through the two rings. It is evident that there is a slightly greater angularity for the six shorter rods, known as auxiliary connecting rods, than for the longer main rods; this does not appear to have any influence on the running of the motor.

Coming to the manner in which the earliest design exhaust valves are operated on the old style motor, this at first sight appears to be one of the most complicated parts of the motor, probably because it is one in which standard practice is most widely departed from. Within the cylindrical casing bolted to the rear face of the crank-case are seven, thin flat-faced steel rings, forming female cams. Across a diameter of each ring is a pair of projecting rods fitting in brass guides and having their extremities terminating in a knuckle eye receiving the adjustable push rods operating the overhead rocker arms of the exhaust valve. The guides are not all in the same plane, the difference being equal to the thickness of the steel rings, the total thickness being practically 2 inches. Within the female cams is a group of seven male cams of the same total thickness as the former and rotating within them. As the boss of the male cam comes into contact with the flattened portion of the ring forming the female cam, the arm is pushed outward and the exhaust valve opened through the medium of the push-rod and overhead rocker. This construction was afterwards changed to seven male cams and simple valve operating plunger and roller cam followers as shown at Fig. 204.

On the face of the crank-case of the fourteen-cylinder motor opposite to the valve mechanism is a bolted-on end plate, carrying a pinion for driving the two magnetos and the two oil pumps, and having bolted to it the distributor for the high-tension current. Each group of seven-cylinders has its own magneto and lubricating pump. The two magnetos and the two pumps are mounted on the fixed platform carrying the stationary crank-shaft, being driven by the pinion on the revolving crank chamber. The magnetos are geared up in the proportion of 4 to 7. Mounted on the end plate back of the driving pinion are the two high-tension distributor plates, each one with seven brass segments let into it and connection made to the plugs by means of plain brass wire. The wire passes through a hole in the plug and is then wrapped round itself, giving a loose connection.

A good many people doubtless wonder why rotary engines are usually provided with an odd number of cylinders in preference to an even number. It is a matter of even torque, as can easily be understood from the accompanying diagram. Fig. 205, A, represents a six-cylinder rotary engine, the radial lines indicating the cylinders. It is possible to fire the charges in two ways, firstly, in rotation, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, thus having six impulses in one revolution and none in the next; or alternately, 1, 3, 5, 2, 4, 6, in which case the engine will have turned through an equal number of degrees between impulses 1 and 3, and 3 and 5, but a greater number between 5 and 2, even again between 2 and 4, 4 and 6, and a less number between 6 and 1, as will be clearly seen on reference to the diagram. Turning to Fig. 205, B, which represents a seven-cylinder engine. If the cylinders fire alternately it is obvious that the engine turns through an equal number of degrees between each impulse, thus, 1, 3, 5, 7, 2, 4, 6, 1, 3, etc. Thus supposing the engine to be revolving, the explosion takes place as each alternate cylinder passes, for instance, the point 1 on the diagram, and the ignition is actually operated in this way by a single contact.

The crank-shaft of the Gnome, as already explained, is fixed and hollow. For the seven- and nine-cylinder motors it has a single throw, and for the fourteen- and eighteen-cylinder models has two throws at 180 degrees. It is of the built-up type, this being necessary on account of the distinctive mounting of the connecting rods. The carburetor shown at Fig. 206 is mounted at one end of the stationary crank-shaft, and the mixture is drawn in through a valve in the piston as already explained. There is neither float chamber nor jet. In many of the tests made at the factory it is said the motor will run with the extremity of the gasoline pipe pushed into the hollow crank-shaft, speed being regulated entirely by increasing or decreasing the flow through the shut-off valve in the base of the tank. Even under these conditions the motor has been throttled down to run at 350 revolutions without misfiring. Its normal speed is 1,000 to 1,200 revolutions a minute. Castor oil is used for lubricating the engine, the oil being injected into the hollow crank-shaft through slight-feed fittings by a mechanically operated pump which is clearly shown in sectional diagrams at Fig. 207.

The Gnome is a considerable consumer of lubricant, the makers' estimate being 7 pints an hour for the 100 horse-power motor; but in practice this is largely exceeded. The gasoline consumption is given as 300 to 350 grammes per horse-power. The total weight of the fourteen-cylinder motor is 220 pounds without fuel or lubricating oil. Its full power is developed at 1,200 revolutions, and at this speed about 9 horse-power is lost in overcoming air resistance to cylinder rotation.

While the Gnome engine has many advantages, on the other hand, the head resistance offered by a motor of this type is considerable; there is a large waste of lubricating oil due to the centrifugal force which tends to throw the oil away from the cylinders; the gyroscopic effect of the rotary motor is detrimental to the best working of the aeroplane, and moreover it requires about seven per cent. of the total power developed by the motor to drive the revolving cylinders around the shaft. Of necessity, the compression of this type of motor is rather low, and an additional disadvantage manifests itself in the fact that there is as yet no satisfactory way of muffling the rotary type of motor.

GNOME "MONOSOUPAPE" TYPE

The latest type of Gnome engine is known as the "monosoupape" type because but one valve is used in the cylinder head, the inlet valve in the piston being dispensed with on account of the trouble caused by that member on earlier engines. The construction of this latest type follows the lines established in the earlier designs to some extent and it differs only in the method of charging. The very rich mixture of gas and air is forced into the crank-case through the jet inside the crank-shaft, and enters the cylinder when the piston is at its lowest position, through the half-round openings in the guiding flange and the small holes or ports machined in the cylinder and clearly shown at Fig. 210. The returning piston covers the port, and the gas is compressed and fired in the usual way. The exhaust is through a large single valve in the cylinder head, which gives rise to the name "monosoupape," or single-valve motor, and this valve also remains open a portion of the intake stroke to admit air into the cylinder and dilute the rich gas forced in from the crank-case interior. Aviators who have used the early form of Gnome say that the inlet valve in the piston type was prone to catch on fire if any valve defect materialized, but the "monosoupape" pattern is said to be nearly free of this danger. The bore of the 100 horse-power nine-cylinder engine is 110 mm., the piston stroke 150 mm. Extremely careful machine work and fitting is necessary. In many parts, tolerances of less than .0004" (four ten thousandths of an inch) are all that are allowed. This is about one-sixth the thickness of the average human hair, and in other parts the size must be absolutely standard, no appreciable variation being allowable. The manufacture of this engine establishes new mechanical standards of engine production in this country. Much machine work is needed in producing the finished components from the bar and forging.

The cylinders, for example, are machined from 6 inch solid steel bars, which are sawed into blanks 11 inches in length and weighing about 97 pounds. The first operation is to drill a 2-1/16 inch hole through the center of the block. A heavy-duty drilling machine performs this work, then the block goes to the lathe for further operations. Fig. 211 shows six stages of the progress of a cylinder, a few of the intermediate steps being omitted. These give, however, a good idea of the work done. The turning of the gills, or cooling flanges, is a difficult proposition, owing to the depth of the cut and the thin metal that forms the gills. This operation requires the utmost care of tools and the use of a good lubricant to prevent the metal from tearing as the tools approach their full depth. These gills are only 0.6 mm., or 0.0237 in., thick at the top, tapering to a thickness of 1.4 mm. (0.0553 in.) at the base, and are 16 mm. (0.632 in.) deep. When the machine work is completed the cylinder weighs but 5-1/2 pounds.

GNOME FUEL SYSTEM, IGNITION AND LUBRICATION

The following description of the fuel supply, ignition and oiling of the "monosoupape," or single valve Gnome, is taken from "The Automobile."

Gasoline is fed to the engine by means of air pressure at 5 pounds per sq. in., which is produced by the air pump on the engine clearly shown at Fig. 210. A pressure gauge convenient to the operator indicates this pressure, and a valve enables the operator to control it. No carburetor is used. The gasoline flows from the tank through a shut-off valve near the operator and through a tube leading through the hollow crank-shaft to a spray nozzle located in the crank-case. There is no throttle valve, and as each cylinder always receives the same amount of air as long as the atmospheric pressure is the same, the output cannot be varied by reducing the fuel supply, except within narrow limits. A fuel capacity of 65 gallons is provided. The fuel consumption is at the rate of 12 U. S. gallons per hour.

The high-tension magnetos, with double cam or two break per revolution interrupter, is located on the thrust plate in an inverted position, and is driven at such a speed as to produce nine sparks for every two revolutions; that is, at 2-1/4 times engine speed. A Splitdorf magneto is fitted. There is no distributor on the magneto. The high-tension collector brush of the magneto is connected to a distributor brush holder carried in the bearer plate of the engine. The brush in this brush holder is pressed against a distributor ring of insulating material molded in position in the web of a gear wheel keyed to the thrust plate, which gear serves also for starting the engine by hand. Molded in this ring of insulating material are nine brass contact sectors, connecting with contact screws at the back side of the gear, from which bare wires connect to the spark-plugs. The distributor revolves at engine speed, instead of at half engine speed as on ordinary engines, and the distributor brush is brought into electrical connection with each spark-plug every time the piston in the cylinder in which this spark-plug is located approaches the outer dead center. However, on the exhaust stroke no spark is being generated in the magneto, hence none is produced at the spark-plug.

Ordinarily the engine is started by turning on the propeller, but for emergency purposes as in seaplanes or for a quick "get away" if landing inadvertently in enemy territory, a hand starting crank is provided. This is supported in bearings secured to the pressed steel carriers of the engine and is provided with a universal joint between the two supports so as to prevent binding of the crank in the bearings due to possible distortion of the supports. The gear on this starting crank and the one on the thrust plate with which it meshes are cut with helical teeth of such hand that the starting pinion is thrown out of mesh as soon as the engine picks up its cycle. A coiled spring surrounds part of the shaft of the starting crank and holds it out of gear when not in use.

Lubricating oil is carried in a tank of 25 gallon capacity, and if this tank has to be placed in a low position it is connected with the air-pressure line, so that the suction of the oil pump is not depended upon to get the oil to the pump. From the bottom of the oil tank a pipe leads to the pump inlet. There are two outlets from the pump, each entering the hollow crank-shaft, and there is a branch from each outlet pipe to a circulation indicator convenient to the operator. One of the oil leads feeds to the housing in the thrust plate containing the two rear ball bearings, and the other lead feeds through the crank-pin to the cams, as already explained.

Owing to the effect of centrifugal force and the fact that the oil is not used over again, the oil consumption of a revolving cylinder engine is considerably higher than that of a stationary cylinder engine. Fuel consumption is also somewhat higher, and for this reason the revolving cylinder engine is not so well suited for types of airplanes designed for long trips, as the increased weight of supplies required for such trips, as compared with stationary cylinder type motors, more than offsets the high weight efficiency of the engine itself. But for short trips, and especially where high speed is required, as in single seated scout and battle planes or "avions de chasse," as the French say, the revolving cylinder engine has the advantage. The oil consumption of the Gnome engine is as high as 2.4 gallon per hour. Castor oil is used for lubrication because it is not cut by the gasoline mist present in the engine interior as an oil of mineral derivation would be.

GERMAN "GNOME" TYPE ENGINE

A German adaptation of the Gnome design is shown at Fig. 214. This is known as the Bayerischen Motoren Gesellschaft engine and the type shown is an early design rated at 50 horse-power. The bore is 110 mm., the stroke is 120 mm., and it is designed to run at a speed of 1,200 R. P. M. It is somewhat similar in design to the early Gnome "valve-in-piston" design except that two valves are carried in the piston top instead of one. The valve operating arrangement is different also, as a single four point cam is used to operate the seven exhaust valves. It is driven by epicyclic gearing, the cam being driven by an internal gear machined integrally with it, the cam being turned at 7/8 times the engine speed. Another feature is the method of holding the cylinders on the crank-case. The cylinder is provided with a flange that registers with a corresponding member of the same diameter on the crank-case. A U section, split clamping ring is bolted in place as shown, this holding both flanges firmly together and keeping the cylinder firmly seated against the crank-case flange. The "monosoupape" type has also been copied and has received some application in Germany, but the most successful German airplanes are powered with six-cylinder vertical engines such as the Benz and Mercedes.

THE LE RHONE MOTOR

The Le Rhone motor is a radial revolving cylinder engine that has many of the principles which are incorporated in the Gnome but which are considered to be an improvement by many foreign aviators. Instead of having but one valve in the cylinder head, as the latest type "monosoupape" Gnome has, the Le Rhone has two valves, one for intake and one for exhaust in each cylinder. By an ingenious rocker arm and tappet rod arrangement it is possible to operate both valves with a single push rod. Inlet pipes communicate with the crank-case at one end and direct the fresh gas to the inlet valve cage at the other. Another peculiarity in the design is the method of holding the cylinders in place. Instead of having a vertically divided crank-case as the Gnome engine has and clamping both halves of the case around the cylinders, the crank-case of the Le Rhone engine is in the form of a cylinder having nine bosses provided with threaded openings into which the cylinders are screwed. A thread is provided at the base of each cylinder and when the cylinder has been screwed down the proper amount it is prevented from further rotation about its own axis by a substantial lock nut which screws down against the threaded boss on the crank-case. The external appearance of the Le Rhone type motor is clearly shown at Fig. 215, while the general features of construction are clearly outlined in the sectional views given at Figs. 216 and 217.

The two main peculiarities of this motor are the method of valve actuation by two large cams and the distinctive crank-shaft and connecting rod big end construction. The connecting rods are provided with "feet" or shoes on the end which fit into grooves lined with bearing metal which are machined into crank discs revolving on ball bearings and which are held together so that the connecting rod big ends are sandwiched between them by clamping screws. This construction is a modification of that used on the Anzani six-cylinder radial engine. There are three grooves machined in each crank disc and three connecting rod big ends run in each pair of grooves. The details of this construction can be readily ascertained by reference to explanatory diagrams at Figs. 218 and 219, A. Three of the rods which work in the groove nearest the crank-pin are provided with short shoes as shown at Fig. 219, B. The short shoes are used on the rods employed in cylinders number 1, 4, and 7. The set of connecting rods that work in the central grooves are provided with medium-length shoes and actuate the pistons in cylinders numbers 3, 6, and 9. The three rods that work in the outside grooves have still longer shoes and are employed in cylinders numbers 2, 5, and 8. The peculiar profile of the inlet and exhaust cam plates are shown at C, Fig. 219, while the construction of the wrist-pin, wrist-pin bushing and piston are clearly outlined at the sectional view at E. The method of valve actuation is clearly outlined at Fig. 220, which shows an end section through the cam case and also a partial side elevation showing one of the valve operating levers which is fulcrumed at a central point and which has a roller at one end bearing on one cam while the roller or cam follower at the other end bears on the other cam. The valve rocker arm actuating rod is, of course, operated by this simple lever and is attached to it in such a way that it can be pulled down to depress the inlet valve and pushed up to open the exhaust valve.

A carburetor of peculiar construction is employed in the Le Rhone engine, this being a very simple type as outlined at Fig. 221. It is attached to the threaded end of the hollow crank-shaft by a right and left coupling. The fuel is pumped to the spray nozzle, the opening in which is controlled by a fuel regulating needle having a long taper which is lifted out of the jet opening when the air-regulating slide is moved. The amount of fuel supplied the carburetor is controlled by a special needle valve fitting which combines a filter screen and which is shown at B. In regulating the speed of the Le Rhone engine, there are two possible means of controlling the mixture, one by altering the position of the air-regulating slide, which also works the metering needle in the jet, and the other by controlling the amount of fuel supplied to the spray nozzle through the special fitting provided for that purpose.

In considering the action of this engine one can refer to Fig. 222. The crank O. M. is fixed, while the cylinders can turn about the crank-shaft center O and the piston turns around the crank-pin M, because of the eccentricity of the centers of rotation the piston will reciprocate in the cylinders. This distance is at its maximum when the cylinder is above O and at a minimum when it is above M, and the difference between these two positions is equal to the stroke, which is twice the distance of the crank-throw O, M. The explosion pressure resolves itself into the force F exerted along the line of the connecting rod A, M, and also into a force N, which tends to make the cylinders rotate around point O in the direction of the arrow. An odd number of cylinders acting on one crank-pin is desirable to secure equally spaced explosions, as the basic action is the same as the Gnome engine.

The magneto is driven by a gear having 36 teeth attached to crank-case which meshes with 16-tooth pinion on armature. The magneto turns at 2.25 times crank-case speed. Two cams, one for inlet, one for exhaust, are mounted on a carrying member and act on nine rocker arms which are capable of giving a push-and-pull motion to the valve-actuating rocker-operating rods. A gear driven by the crank-case meshes with a larger member having internal teeth carried by the cam carrier. Each cam has five profiles and is mounted in staggered relation to the other. These give the nine fulcrumed levers the proper motion to open the inlet and exhaust valves at the proper time. The cams are driven at 45/50 or 9/10 of the motor speed. The cylinder dimensions and timing follows; the weight can be approximated by figuring 3 pounds per horse-power.

80 H.P. 105 M/M bore 4.20" bore.
140 M/M stroke 5.60" stroke.

110 H.P. 112 M/M bore 4.48" bore.
170 M/M stroke 6.80" stroke.

Timing--Intake valve opening, lag 18 deg.} 18 deg.}
Intake valve closing, lag 35 deg.} 35 deg.}
Exhaust valve opening, lead 55 deg.} 110 H.P. 45 deg.} 80 H.P.
Exhaust valve closing, lag 5 deg.} 5 deg.}
Ignition time advance 26 deg.} 26 deg.}

THE RENAULT AIR-COOLED VEE ENGINE

Air-cooled stationary engines are rarely used in airplanes, but the Renault Freres of France have for several years manufactured a complete series of such engines of the general design shown at Fig. 225, ranging from a low-powered one developed eight or nine years ago and rated at 40 and 50 horse-power, to later eight-cylinder models rated at 70 horse-power and a twelve-cylinder, or twin six, rated at 90 horse-power. The cylinders are of cast iron and are furnished with numerous cooling ribs which are cast integrally. The cylinder heads are separate castings and are attached to the cylinder as in early motorcycle engine practice, and serve to hold the cylinder in place on the aluminum alloy crank-case by a cruciform yoke and four long hold-down bolts (Fig. 226). The pistons are of cast steel and utilize piston rings of cast iron. The valves are situated on the inner side of the cylinder head, the arrangement being unconventional in that the exhaust valves are placed above the inlet. The inlet valves seat in an extension of the combustion head and are actuated by direct push rod and cam in the usual manner while an overhead gear in which rockers are operated by push rods is needed to actuate the exhaust valves. The valve action is clearly shown in Figs. 226 and 227. The air stream by which the cylinders are cooled is produced by a centrifugal or blower type fan of relatively large diameter which is mounted on the end of a crank-shaft and the air blast is delivered from this blower into an enclosed space between the cylinder from which it escapes only after passing over the cooling fins. In spite of the fact that considerable prejudice exists against air-cooling fixed cylinder engines, the Renault has given very good service in both England and France.

As will be seen by the sectional view at Fig. 227, the steel crank-shaft is carried in a combination of plain bearings inside the crank-case and by ball bearings at the ends. Owing to air cooling, special precautions are taken with the lubrication system, though the lubrication is not forced or under high pressure. An oil pump of the gear-wheel type delivers oil from the sump at the bottom of the crank-case to a chamber above, from which the oil flows by gravity along suitable channels to the various main bearings. It flows from the bearings into hollow rings fastened to the crank-webs, and the oil thrown from the whirling connecting rod big ends bathes the internal parts in an oil mist. In the eight-cylinder designs ignition is effected by a magneto giving four sparks per revolution and is accordingly driven at engine speed. In the twelve-cylinder machine two magnetos of the ordinary revolving armature or two-spark type, each supplying six cylinders, are fitted as outlined at Fig. 228. The carburetor is a float feed form. Warm air is supplied for Winter and damp weather by air pipes surrounding the exhaust pipes. The normal speed of the Renault engine is 1,800 R. P. M., but as the propeller is mounted upon an extension of the cam-shaft the normal propeller speed is but half that of the engine, which makes it possible to use a propeller of large diameter and high efficiency. Owing to the air cooling, but low compression may be used, this being about 60 pounds per square inch, which, of course, lowers the mean effective pressure and makes the engine less efficient than water-cooled forms where it is possible to use compression pressure of 100 or more pounds per square inch. The 70 horse-power engine has cylinders with a bore of 3.78 inches and a stroke of 5.52 inches. Its weight is given as 396 pounds, when in running order, which figures 5.7 pounds per horse-power. The same cylinder size is used on the twelve-cylinder 100 horse-power and the stroke is the same. This engine in running order weighs 638 pounds, which figures approximately 6.4 pounds per B. H. P.

SIMPLEX MODEL "A" HISPANO-SUIZA

The Model A is of the water-cooled four-cycle Vee type, with eight cylinders, 4.7245 inch bore by 5.1182 inch stroke, piston displacement 718 cubic inches. At sea-level it develops 150 horse-power at 1,450 R. P. M. It can be run successfully at much higher speeds, depending on propeller design and gearing, developing proportionately increased power. The weight, including carburetor, two magnetos, propeller hub, starting magneto and crank, but without radiator, water or oil or exhaust pipes, is 445 pounds. Average fuel consumption is .5 pound per horse-power hour and the oil consumption at 1,450 R. P. M. is three quarts per hour. The external appearance is shown at Fig. 230.

Four cylinders are contained in each block, which is of built-up construction; the water jackets and valve ports are cast aluminum and the individual cylinders heat-treated steel forgings threaded into the bored holes of the aluminum castings. Each block after assembly is given a number of protective coats of enamel, both inside and out, baked on. Coats on the inside are applied under pressure. The pistons are aluminum castings, ribbed. Connecting rods are tubular, of the forked type. One rod bears directly on the crank-pin; the other rod has a bearing on the outside of the one first mentioned.

The crank-shaft is of the five-bearing type, very short, stiff in design, bored for lightness and for the oiling system. The crank-shaft extension is tapered for the French standard propeller hub, which is keyed and locked to the shaft. This makes possible instant change of propellers. The case is in two halves divided on the center line of the crank-shaft, the bearings being fitted between the upper and lower sections. The lower half is deep, providing a large oil reservoir and stiffening the engine. The upper half is simple and provides magneto supports on extension ledges of the two main faces. The valves are of large diameter with hollow stems, working in cast iron bushings. They are directly operated by a single hollow cam-shaft located over the valves. The cam-shafts are driven from the crank-shaft by vertical shafts and bevel gears. The cam-shafts, cams and heads of the valve stems are all enclosed in oil-tight removable housings of cast aluminum.

Oiling is by a positive pressure system. The oil is taken through a filter and steel tubes cast in the case to main bearings, through crank-shaft to crank-pins. The fourth main bearing is also provided with an oil lead from the system and through tubes running up the end of each cylinder block, oil is provided for the cam-shafts, cams and bearings. The surplus oil escapes through the end of the cam-shaft where the driving gears are mounted, and with the oil that has gathered in the top casing, descends through the drive shaft and gears to the sump.

Ignition is by two eight-cylinder magnetos firing two spark-plugs per cylinder. The magnetos are driven from each of the two vertical shafts by small bevel pinions meshing in bevel gears. The carburetor is mounted between the two cylinder blocks and feeds the two blocks through aluminum manifolds which are partly water-jacketed. The engine can be equipped with a geared hand crank-starting device.

STURTEVANT MODEL 5A 140 HORSE-POWER ENGINE

These motors are of the eight-cylinder "V" type, four-stroke cycle, water-cooled, having a bore of 4 inches and a stroke of 5-1/2 inches, equivalent to 102 mm. x 140 mm. The normal operating speed of the crank-shaft is 2,000 R. P. M. The propeller shaft is driven through reducing gears which can be furnished in different gear ratios. The standard ratio is 5:3, allowing a propeller speed of 1,200 R. P. M.

The construction of the motor is such as to permit of the application of a direct drive. The change from the direct drive to gear drive, or vice versa, can be accomplished in approximately one hour.

The cylinders are cast in pairs from an aluminum alloy and are provided with steel sleeves, carefully fitted into each cylinder. A perfect contact is secured between cylinder and sleeve; at the same time a sleeve can be replaced without injury to the cylinder proper. No difficulties due to expansion occur on account of the rapid transmission of heat and the fact that the sleeve is always at higher temperature than the cylinder. A moulded copper asbestos gasket is placed between the cylinder and the head, permitting the cooling water to circulate freely and at the same time insuring a tight joint. The cylinder heads are cast in pairs from an aluminum alloy and contain ample water passages for circulation of cooling water over the entire head. Trouble due to hot valves is thereby eliminated, a most important consideration in the operation of an aeroplane motor. The water jacket of the head corresponds to the water jacket of the cylinders and large openings in both allow the unobstructed circulation of the cooling water. The cylinder heads and cylinders are both held to the base by six long bolts. The valves are located in the cylinder heads and are mechanically operated. The valves and valve springs are especially accessible and of such size as to permit high volumetric efficiency. The valves are constructed of hardened tungsten steel, the heads and stems being made from one piece. The valve rocker arms located on the top of the cylinder are provided with adjusting screws. A check nut enables the adjusting screw to be securely locked in position, once the correct clearance has been determined. The rocker arm bearings are adequately lubricated by a compression grease cup. Cam-rollers are interposed between the cams and the push rods in order to reduce the side thrust on the push rods.

A system of double springs is employed which greatly reduces the stress on each spring and insures utmost reliability. A spring of extremely large diameter returns the valve; a second spring located at the cylinder base handles the push rod linkage. These springs, which operate under low stress, are made from the best of steel and are given a special double heat treatment. The pistons are made from a special aluminum alloy; are deeply ribbed in the head for cooling and strength and provided with two piston rings. These pistons are exceedingly light weight in order to minimize vibration and prevent wear on the bearings. The piston pin is made of chrome nickel steel, bored hollow and hardened. It is allowed to turn, both in piston and connecting rod. The piston rings are of special design, developed after years of experimenting in aeronautical engines.