Chapter II: Introduction: What Are Shells? (2)

The Cone-shaped Melampus, (_M. corniformis_,) also an Ear Shell, is found in the rivers of the Antilles Islands. It is a pretty shell; the formation is much the same as that of many of the most highly-prized varieties of Marine Shells; of these we shall have to speak presently. _Melampodium_ in Latin, signifies a poisonous plant called Black Helebore; in the Mythology, _Melampus_ was a great magician, who did all sorts of wonderful things; but we cannot tell what relation there exists between either the plant or the magician and this pretty cone shell. To give variety to this group, we will now throw in a land species called _Megaspira Ruschenbergiana_, about the origin of whose name we cannot even hazard a guess; the termination of the generic name, you will see is _spira_, and a glance at the shell will at once suggest a reason for this; its long tapering spire consists of twenty-three closely-set gradually increasing whorls. This is a rare shell, whose inhabitant has not yet been described by naturalists; several of the marine species closely resemble it in shape. Much more might be said about the Land and Fresh-water Shells, but we must here leave them, having a wide field before us, namely, the Sea or Marine _Testacea_, one of the most common of which is

THE WHELK,

A univalve shell inhabited by a gasteropod mollusk, or, we should rather say, naturally so tenanted, for very frequently it is taken possession of by the Soldier or Hermit Crab, which having no hard covering to protect their soft plump bodies, are obliged to take lodgings where they can get them, and generally prefer the Whelk shell, of which we here give a figure.

This is one of the commonest of our Marine Mollusks; it is called by naturalists _Buccinum undatum_; the first, or generic term, being the Latin for a trumpet, and the second, or specific name, meaning waved, or, as we often say, undulated. So we call this the Waved Whelk; fishermen term it the Conch, or the Buckie, and tell strange stories of its ravenous appetite and murderous propensities; how, with its spiny tongue, situated at the end of a long flexible proboscis or trunk, it drills a hole in the shell of the Oyster, or other testacean, and sucks out the contents; empty shells, so drilled, are frequently found on the shore, and often, when the dredge is let down into an oyster bed, it comes up time after time filled with Whelks, of which such numbers are sometimes taken, that they are sold to the farmers to be used as manure for the soil. This mollusk is a favourite article of food with the poorer classes of our land, but it is hard and indigestible. The shell may frequently be found in large numbers among the beach stones; it is strong and firm, from three to four inches long, of a dirty yellowish white. There are two other Whelks common upon our coasts—the Stone or Dog Whelk, (_B. lapillus_,) from the Latin _lapis_—a stone, and _B. reticulatum_, so called because the shell is _reticulated_, or marked with many lines crossing each other, like net-work; it comes from the Latin _reticulum_—a net; hence also we have _reticule_—a small work bag, at one time very much carried by ladies.

ROCK SHELLS,

Are so called on account of their rough and wrinkled forms; they are nearly allied to the Whelks, to which they bear a close resemblance. Several species are found on our shores, the most common being the Humble Murex, (_M. despectus_,) from the Latin _despecto_—to despise; this is often used by the fishermen for bait. Some of the foreign Rock Shells are very curious and beautiful; three of them will be found on Plate II.—Figs. 1, 2, and 3. The Common Thorny Woodcock, (_M. tribulus_,) from the French for trouble, whence we have also tribulation, which is sometimes said to be a thorny path. This curious shell is also called Venus’ Comb. It is found in the Indian Ocean, from whence it is also brought. Fig. 2, the Woodcock’s Head, (_M. haustellum_,) from the Latin _haustus_—a draught; the bill of the Woodcock being adapted for sucking. This term is also applied to insects that live by suction. The shell, it will be seen, is destitute of spines, but it is ribbed and beautifully marked. Fig. 3 is worthy of its name—the Royal Murex, (_M. regius_,) from _regno_—to reign. It is a splendid species, of the rich colouring of which, art can give but a faint impression. It is brought from the western coast of Central and South America, where, as well as in the islands of the South Pacific, many new shells of the genus _Murex_ have been discovered.

One shell found on our own coast, often mistaken for a Whelk, is the Pelican’s-foot Strombus, called in scientific language, _Strombus pes-pelicanus_, which is but a Latinized form of the English name. This shell varies greatly in shape in different stages of its growth, and by an inexperienced conchologist, the young, middle-aged, and old Strombus, might be taken for distinct species. In the _Strombidæ_ family, so called we know not why, the same word in Latin meaning a kind of shell-fish, are some species which have produced pearls. One member of the family which we sometimes see in collections, is a large and very beautiful shell; this is the Broad-winged Strombus, (_S. latissimus_,) probably from _latesco_—to wax or grow broad, or large; _issimus_ being in the superlative degree, would indicate that this shell was very much so, as we find it is, sometimes measuring as much as twelve inches across. In Plate II, is a representation of this handsome shell, greatly reduced in size, of course: see Fig. 4. We here give a figure, as more curious than beautiful, of the Scorpion Pteroceras, (_P. scorpius_,) which also belongs to the _Strombidæ_ family; as does the curious Chinese Spindle, (_Rostellaria rectirostris_.) The generic name of the first of these species, comes from the Greek _Ptero_, pronounced _tero_, meaning a wing, and _cerus_—waxen. Both the generic and specific names of the second refer to the peculiar conformation of the shell, being derived from the Latin, and meaning a straight line or beak.

On Plate III, will be found the Imbricated Purpurea, (_P. imbricata_,) Fig. 1, which claims a close alliance with the Whelks. The generic name has reference to the dye yielded by this, as well as all the shells of the genus; the specific name comes from the Latin _imbrex_—the gutter-tile; thus _imbricated_, a term often used in Natural History, means ridged, like the roof of a house, where the tiles are placed to overlap each other, so that the rain will run off. The Persian Purpura, or, as it is called in Latin, _Purpura Persica_, Fig. 2, is another handsome shell of this family group; its name indicates the place where it is found. The other species described comes from South America, and the _P. lapillus_, (the meaning of the specific name has already been explained,) is common on our shores, being found in great abundance on the rocks at low waiter. We read in scripture, of Tyrian purple, and there is every reason to suppose that the rich colour was obtained from these and other shell-fish.

PERIWINKLE.

This is the commonest representative which we have of the family _Turbinidæ_, which comprehends, according to Cuvier, all the species which have the shell completely and regularly _turbinated_, that is, if we translate the Latin word into English, twisted. The little Periwinkle, (here he is,) is by no means a handsome mollusk, but some of his relatives are very beautiful as we shall presently show. He is called by naturalists _T. littoreus_, from _littoralis_—belonging to the shore, and often eaten by boys and girls with great relish; but he is not very digestible, and sometimes occasions dangerous disorders. The Swedish peasants believe that when the Periwinkle crawls high upon the rocks, a storm is brewing from the south; but Linnæus quotes a Norwegian author to shew that according to popular belief, it foretells the approach of a land wind with a calm on shore. Man may learn much of elemental changes from an observation of the movements and habits of all living creatures, which are instructed by God to provide for their safety and wants, and often perceive, long before man himself does, the indications of calm and tempest, rain and drought, etc. But our little _Turbo_, what of him? will you boil him, and pick out his curled-up form with a pin? or let him go crawling about the rocks, feeding upon the delicate earlier growth of marine vegetation? In the former case, you will have to reject the little kind of horny scale attached to his foot, which forms, when he retires into his habitation, a closely-fitting door to make all snug.

Several species of this genus are found on our shores; one of those is the _Turbo rudis_, or Red Turbo, which has a very thick periwinkle-like shell, about three-quarters of an inch long; the colour is dull red, fawn, or drab.

Of the foreign _Turbinæ_, sometimes called Turban Shells, we will now introduce two or three species, which will be found on Plate III. Fig. 3 is the Marbled Turbo, (_T. marmoratus_,) from the Latin _marmor_—marble; a large handsome shell well known to conchologists, and a native of the Indian seas. Fig. 4 is the Twisted Turbo, (_T. torquatus_;) this shell, when deprived of its outer coat or layer, is beautifully _nacreous_, or if we may so speak, mother-of-pearly. The specimens which have reached England were brought from King George’s Sound. Fig. 5 is called Cook’s Turbo, (_T. Cookii_:) this is a handsome South Sea shell, oftentimes of large size. It has been found in great numbers on the coast of New Zealand.

On Plate IV, we have placed two very curiously formed and marked shells, called Wentletraps, also belonging to the family _Turbinidæ_. The scientific name is _Scalaria_, from the Latin _scala_—a ladder, which the ribbed shells are supposed to resemble. Of this genus there are about eighty distinct species known; they are mostly deep-sea shells found in warm latitudes, although several inhabit the European seas, and one, the Common False Wentletrap, (_S. communis_,) Fig. 1, may often be picked up on our own shores. Fig. 2, the Royal Staircase Wentletrap, is a rare and valuable shell, generally brought from India and China; the scientific name is _S. pretiosa_, given to it by the French Naturalist Lamarck, on account of the high price which it fetched, _pretiose_, in Latin, meaning costly, valuable. As much as £100 have been given for a single specimen of this shell; and a fine one, especially if it exceed two inches in length, yet commands a considerable sum, although not nearly so much as that. A good deal like the False Wentletrap in general outline, is the Awl-shaped Turritella, found in the African and Indian Seas. This is the _T. terebra_ of naturalists; the first name referring to the turret shape common to the genus, and the last being the Latin word for an auger, or piercer. The Roseate Turritella, (_T. rosea_,) is also sometimes seen in collections; the beautiful rosy tint of the live shell changes to a dull red or brown, on the death of the mollusk.

TROCHUS, OR TOP-SHELL.

“Of the shelled Mollusca which the dredge ever and anon brings up,” says Mr. Gosse, in his delightful volume on the _Aquarium_, or _Aqua-vivarium_, as the glass tank in which living marine animals and vegetables are kept, is called, from the Latin _aqua_—water, and _vivo_—to live, “the _Trochi_ are among the most conspicuous for beauty. The chief glory of this genus is the richly-painted internal surface of their shells, in which they are not excelled by any even of the true margaritiferous or pearly bivalves.”

Of this _Trochidæ_ family, a few of the members must be introduced to our readers; it is rather a numerous one, consisting of more than one hundred species, which are scattered nearly all over the world, few seas being without some of them. They are found at various depths, from near the surface to forty-five fathoms down, creeping on rocks, sand, masses of sea-weed, etc. We will first speak of those found on our own shores, the two commonest, as well as the smallest of which, are the Grey and the Spotted Trochi, scientifically named _T. cinerarius_ and _T. maculata_, the translation of the first Latin specific name being ashy or ash-coloured, and that of the second, spotted. _Trochus_, in the same language signifies a top, and has reference to the shape of most of these shells, which are something like a boy’s whip-top.

Children on the coast sometimes call the last-named of the above species Pepper-and-salt Shells, because in colour they resemble the cloth so named. The Muddy-red Trochus, (_T. ziziphinus_,) so called, perhaps, because in colour it resembles the ziziphia, or fruit of the jujube tree, is also common with us. This shell is about an inch long, of a grey tint dashed with dark spots, these follow the line of the spiral turnings, which are very regular, proceeding from the opening below to the apex or point. Seen on shore, its colours are dull and faint, but beneath the water, inhabited by a living mollusk, it looks as though made of pearl, and studded with rubies; the animal, too, is richly coloured, being yellow with black stripes.—See Plate IV, Fig. 3.

Not so common as the last is another British mollusk of this genus, called the Granulated Trochus, (_T. granulatus_.) It is the larger, and, as many think, the more elegant shell of the two, being in colour, a faint flesh tint or yellowish white, shaded here and there with purple; the spiral lines which encircle it are composed of small round knobs which stand out like beads.

There is a singular shell of this genus, called the Carrier Trochus, (_T. phorus_;) it is generally found loaded with foreign objects, such as shells, small stones, bits of coral, etc., which it attaches to itself, and so goes about like a collector of natural curiosities, with his cabinet on his back.

The Imperial Trochus, (_T. imperialis_,) Fig. 4, whose scientific name explains itself, is one of the handsomest shells of the genus; it is very rare, and has hitherto been found only at New Zealand. Let us give our young readers a specimen of the way in which scientific writers describe shells; thus, this foreign Trochus, they tell us is “orbicularly conical, the apex obtuse, the whorls turgidly convex, squamoso radiate at the margin.” This is quite a simple affair to some descriptions, and simple in fact it is to one, who, by attentive study, has become familiarized with the meaning of the terms. To one also who is acquainted with the Greek and Latin tongues, they will be sufficiently plain, although he has never seen them applied before, for they are all derived from those dead languages, as they are called, and so convey their own meaning to every educated naturalist, no matter of what nation he may be; and hence their chief value. It is not necessary for our readers to trouble themselves about the meaning of such terms at present; by and by it will be necessary for them to do so, if they wish to prosecute the study of any natural science.

But about the Imperial Trochus, with its “orbicularly conical” shell—that term we may explain as round and cone-like; a reference to Fig. 4, Plate IV, will shew what is meant by this more clearly than words can, and likewise exhibit the beautiful markings of this species, with its ground tint of rich violet brown. This beauty is often obscured by calcarious incrustations, and marine plants, shewing that the mollusk is sluggish in its habits—a slothful creature. So it is with human beings, sloth covers and hides the good qualities and virtues with an overgrowth at all times difficult to remove, and oftentimes destructive of all that is fair and good in the character.—Children, be not slothful! The Obelisk Trochus, (_T. obeliscus_,) is a rare white and green shell, sometimes seen in collections; it is of a conico-pyramidal form, not remarkable for beauty, and is a native of the Indian seas.

Mr. Gosse speaks of the Tops and Winkles as among the most useful inhabitants of the Aquarium; they mow down with their rasping tongues the thick growth of _Confervæ_ which would otherwise spread like a green curtain over the glass walls of the tank, and obstruct the view of its inhabitants. Here is this author’s description of the beautiful piece of mechanism by which this work is effected:—“The appearance and position of the organ would surprise any one who searched for it for the first time, and as it is easily found, and as Periwinkles are no rarities, let me commend it to your examination. The easiest mode of extracting it, supposing you are looking for _it_ alone, is to slit the thick muzzle between the two tentacles, when the point of a needle will catch and draw out what looks like a slender white thread, two inches or more in length, one end of which is attached to the throat, and the other, which is free, you will see coiled in a beautiful spiral manner, within the cavity of the stomach.

By allowing this tiny thread to stretch itself on a plate of glass, which is easily done by putting a drop of water on it first, which may then be drained off and dried, you will find that it is in reality an excessively delicate ribbon, of transparent cartilaginous substance or membrane, on which are set spinous teeth of glassy texture and brilliancy. They are perfectly regular, and arranged in three rows, of which the middle ones are three-pointed, while on each of the outer rows a three-pointed tooth alternates with a larger curved one, somewhat boat-like in form. All the teeth project from the surface of the tongue on hooked curves, and all point in the same direction.”

And with this curious piece of mechanism the little Winkle works away and cuts down swathe after swathe of the minute vegetation, just as a mower does the meadow grass; only the mollusk eats as he goes, and so gets payment for his labour; the man has it in another and to him more useful form. We might tell a very long story about these Tops and Winkles, which are nearly related to each other, but must now pass on to describe the rest of the shells on Plate IV, which are the Perspective Solarium, (_S. perspectivum_,) Fig. 5, the generic name comes from _sol_—the sun, and viewed perspectively, that is, in such a position that the whole top of the shell is at once presented to the view, looking like a flat surface, it presents a circular appearance, marked with rings and rays like representations of the sun sometimes do.

The Variegated Solarium, (_S. variegatum_,) Fig. 6, is a small but very pretty shell, somewhat rare. The mollusk is remarkable on account of the singular shape of its operculum, which differs from that of all other species; it is of a cone-shape, and covered from top to bottom with what are called membranous lamellæ, that appear to stand out like little shelves winding up spirally. This singular form of operculum has been long known to naturalists, but it is not until lately that they have discovered to what species of testacean it belonged. Let us here explain that _operculus_ is the Latin for a cover or lid.

CONES, VOLUTES, MITRES, AND OLIVES.

These are names given by collectors to certain classes of univalve shells distinguished by peculiarities of formation, more or less distinct. We shall describe two or three of each, that our readers may have some idea of the meaning of the terms which are often used by those who speak or write on conchology.

The family of Cones, called _Conidæ_, is an extensive one, considerably above two hundred species having been discovered. Many of them are very beautiful both in shape and colour, so that they are highly valued by collectors; they are principally found in the southern and tropical seas, upon sandy bottoms, at depths varying from a few feet to seventeen fathoms. The shells are generally thick and solid, rolled up, as it were, into a conical form; the most familiar illustration that can be given of this form is a sugar-loaf, which all these shells more or less resemble in general outline, as thus—

Cones are either plain or coronated, that is, crowned, having rows of projections round the top of the shell, like the second of the above figures; and this forms a mark of division into two classes, although these classes often run, as it were, one into the other; some plain cones having slight irregularities of surface, and some crowned ones being very nearly plain.

The Common, or Ordinary Cone, (_Conus generalis_,) Plate V. Fig. 1, is an elegantly-shaped and beautifully-marked shell, having much the appearance of being carved out of some rare kind of marble. The Lettered Cone, (_Conus littoralis_,) Fig. 2, appears to be scribbled over with Hebrew, Greek, or Arabic characters, and almost every species has something peculiar in its markings; clouds and veins, and dots, and stripes, and bands, of every conceivable shape and mode of arrangement, may be met with in these shells, whose surface, when the epidermis, or outer skin is removed, bears a beautiful polish. Curious names have been given to some of them, such, for instance, as the High Admiral, Vice Admiral, and Guinea Admiral, which indicate the rank they hold in the estimation of collectors. From five to twenty guineas is the price at which good and rare ones have been valued, and one, the _Conus cedo nulli_, which may be translated, the Cone second to none, has fetched the enormous sum of three hundred guineas. It must not be supposed that these shells exhibit all their beauties when, inhabited by a carnivorous, or flesh-eating mollusk, they move slowly about, or lie for a time motionless among the rocks and sand-beds of the ocean. The before-mentioned epidermis, which is the Latin for the outer skin of the human body, covers them like a cloak or mantle, which is the name it bears among naturalists. Much careful labour is required to bring them to a fit state for cabinet shells.

VOLUTES form an extensive family of shells under the name _Volutinæ_. The greater part are natives of tropical seas, and dwell far down so that they are seldom found on the coast, except after storms. There are a few European species, but these are not remarkable for beauty, as most of the others are. The generic name signifies twisted, or rather wreathed, as flowers or leaves might be, about some central object. In these shells the spire is generally short, as it is in many cones, sometimes scarcely apparent; the form is usually elegant, and the markings often striking and handsome. On Plate V, will be found three examples—Fig. 3 is the Undulated Volute, (_V. undulata_,) the Latin for a little wave is _undula_, and these marks are like the lines caused by the flowing of the waves on a sandy shore: this shell is found chiefly in the South Pacific; the animal which inhabits it is prettily-marked with zebra-like stripes. Fig. 4 is called the Pacific Volute, (_V. Pacificus_;) the shape, it will be seen, is somewhat different, being more angular, and it is without the waved lines. Fig. 5, the Bat Volute, (_V. vespertilio_,) is more decidedly knobbed or spiked, approaching nearly to the shape of some of the coronated ones. This species is found in the Indian seas; the specific name is the Latin for a bat.

MITRES; these are usually considered as a genus, or branch of the Volute family; the scientific name is _mitra_, the form is generally long, slender, and pointed—something like the bishop’s mitre, hence the common name of the genus. In the Episcopal Mitre, (_M. episcopalis_,) Plate VI, Fig. 1, we see this form in its greatest perfection; this is a handsome shell found in the Indian seas, and on the coasts of the South Sea Islands. The mollusk is remarkable for a long proboscis, double the length of the shell, the extremity of which swells into a club form, and has an oval orifice or opening: the specific name _episcopalis_, comes from the Latin, and means of, or like a bishop. The Tanned Mitre, (_M. adusta_,) from the Latin _adustus_—burned or parched, is, what is called fusiform and turretted, that is, shaped like a spindle, and having a spire or turret-like termination. The streaks of colour are transverse, that is, running the length of the shell, or in other words, they are longitudinal; this, too, comes from the South Sea Islands. Fig. 2 is the Wrinkled Mitre, (_M. corrugata_,) from the Latin _corrugo_—to wrinkle; it is very different both in shape and markings, from the last species; the whorls, it will be seen, are angulated or pointed above, and the lower part of the shell is much larger than the spiral or upper portion. It is a true mitre nevertheless, although not just such a one as a bishop would like to wear. It inhabits the Indian Ocean, the coast of New Guinea, etc.

OLIVES; these, for richness of colour and brilliancy of effect, will bear comparison with any genus of shells. Naturalists speak of them collectively as _Olivinæ_; they belong to the Volute family, and are said to number about eighty species. Most of those which have reached this country, have come from the Mauritius, where they catch them with lines baited with portions of Cuttle-fish. We have here depicted two of them, namely, the Figured Olive, Fig. 3, (_Oliva textilina_,) from the Latin _textilus_, which is woven or plaited; and the Ruddy Olive, Fig. 4, (_O. sanguinolenta_,) from _sanguis_—blood.

We must now bring our notice of the Univalves to a conclusion; there are several genera, and many very curious and beautiful species which we have been unable to notice at all, and of those which we have, a short account only could be given; sufficient however, as we trust, to interest our readers in the subject, and induce them to continue the study of it into larger works. Before leaving this division of shells, we would call their attention to one of its greatest ornaments, that is the Ventricose Harp Shell, (_Harpa ventricosa_,) from the Latin _ventriculus_—the stomach, applied to this shell on account of its swelled or inflated shape. Nothing, however, can be more elegant than the whole form, nor more beautiful than the markings of this lovely species, (see Plate VI, Fig. 5,) which belongs properly to the Whelk family.

COWRIES.

Of Cowries we have already spoken in our chapter on the Uses of Shells, they are among the commonest of our testaceous ornaments, and are remarkable, especially the foreign kinds, for richness and diversity of colour, and the high polish which they bear. The native species are small plain shells, commonly called Pigs, from some real or fancied resemblance which they bear to the swine; they are pretty little white-ribbed shells, and are tolerably plentiful on various parts of the British coasts. There are three kinds, namely, the Louse Pig, or Nun Cowry, the Flesh-coloured, and European Pig Cowries. The first of these is of a pale reddish colour, with six square black spots on the back; the second is a beautiful rose tint; and the third is ash-coloured or pinkish, with three black dots, and a white streak down the back. The Money Cowry, (_Cypræa moneta_,) used as current coin in many parts of India, as well as on the coast of Guinea, is a yellow and white shell, with a single band of the former colour; it is small of size, and is sometimes called the Trussed Chicken, for the same reason as the term Pigs is applied to its British relatives. These Cowries are obtained principally about the Phillippine Islands, the Maldive Islands, and the coast of Congo, where, after high tides, the women collect them in baskets mixed with sand, from which they are afterwards separated and cleaned, when they are ready for the market.

They are only useful as coin so long as they remain unbroken. The value of a single shell is very small, as the following table will shew:—Four Cowries make one gunder; twenty Gunders one punn; four Punns one anna; four Annas one cahaun; and four Cahauns one rupee. The value of the latter coin is equal to two shillings and threepence, English money, and this would be exchangeable for five thousand one hundred and twenty Cowries; so that it would never do to pay large sums in this kind of coin: a waggon would be required to convey a few pounds with. In this country the Money Cowries are frequently used as markers or counters in social games; they are generally white, in shape rather broad and flat, being much spread out round the edges, which are slightly puckered, like frills. Here are two figures of the shell, exhibiting the back and front view.

On Plate VII, will be found a group of other Foreign Cowries, most of which will be recognized as familiar ornaments of the mantel and side-board. Fig. 1 is the Spotted or Leopard Cowry, sometimes also called the Tiger Cowry, (_C. tigris_,) which, in the earlier stages of its growth, is simply marked with broad bands of lighter colour across the shell. Fig. 2, the Map Cowry, (_C. mappa_,) curiously marked and shaded, so as to resemble a coloured map; there are several varieties of this beautiful shell, such as the rosy and dark variety from the Pearl Islands, in the Indian Ocean; the Citron and Dwarf Rich-mouthed variety, from the Mauritius. Fig. 3, the Mole Cowry, (_C. talpa_,) the last word being the Latin for a mole, is of a more slender form than most other species of the _Cypræidæ_ family, so called on account of their beauty, _Cyprea_ being a name of Venus, the goddess of beauty. Any one who has seen a mole, must be struck with the resemblance of its general outline to this shell, of which there is a darker-coloured variety of somewhat stouter form, called _exustus_—burned or scorched. Of the Poached-egg Cowries there are several species, the most common is called by naturalists _Ovulum ovum_, Fig. 4, from _ovum_—an egg; the back of this shell is much elevated and rounded; it is smooth and white; the inside is orange brown. Some of the Poached-egg group are of a more slender and angular shape, as, for instance, that called the Gibbous, (_O. Gibbosa_;) the moon when more than half-full, is called gibbous, that is rounded unequally, as this shell.

Few shells undergo greater changes, both of shape and colour, during the process of growth, than the Cowries, which are called in France Porcelaines, on account of their high polish and brilliant hues; a single species in different stages of development, might well be, and often is, taken for distinct shells. Much might be said about the Mollusks which inhabit them, but our present subject has rather to do with their outer covering than their internal structure. The most rare and valuable, if not the most beautiful of these Cowries, is the _C. aurora_, or _aurantium_, Morning-dawn, or Orange Cowry, a perfect specimen of which has been sold for fifty guineas. There is a very curious shell called the Common Weaver’s Shuttle, (_Oculum volva_,) generally included in the _Cyprea_ family; of this a representation will be found on Plate VII, Fig. 5. This is brought from China.

BIVALVES.

Acephalous Mollusks, with Bivalve Shells, is the name given by modern naturalists to the class of animals of which we have now to speak; the only one of these terms which will require explanation is the first; it comes from the Greek, and means headless, so an Acephalan is a molluscous animal without a head, as

THE OYSTER,

Which may be considered as the King of Bivalves; his palace, to be sure, is somewhat rough and rugged outside, but within, its walls are smooth and polished, lustrous and iridescent, and altogether beautiful; of a nacrous or pearly appearance, now flushing into a rose tint, now fading into pure white, and adorned sometimes with goodly pearls of price; truly this monarch of the _Conchifers_ has a habitation worthy of a prince, wherein he lives in right royal state. Our readers may smile perhaps at the idea of the solitary Oyster doing this, down there on his mud bank or rocky anchorage ground, shut up in his dirty-looking shells, and holding, as it seems, commune with no one, not even his fellow mollusks; how can he be said to live in royal state, or indeed any state at all, except in a most weary, stale, flat, and unprofitable one? And this only shews how erroneously those often judge who do so hastily, and from first appearances.

If we take a peep through a microscope, under the direction of a naturalist named Rymer Jones, we shall see that “the shell of an Oyster is a world occupied by an innumerable quantity of animals, compared to which the Oyster itself is a colossus. The liquid enclosed between the shell of the Oyster contains a multitude of embryos, covered with transparent scales, which swim with ease; a hundred and twenty of these embryos, placed side by side, would make an inch in breadth. This liquid contains besides, a great variety of animalculæ, five hundred times less in size, which give out a phosphoric light. Yet these are not the only inhabitants of this dwelling—there are also three distinct species of worms.”

Let us see if there are any hard names here that want explaining before we go any further. The first we stumble upon is _Colossus_, which comes from the Latin, and means a great image or statue, like that which ancient historians tell us once bestrode the entrance to the harbour of Rhodes. _Embryo_ comes from the Greek, and means something small and unfinished, that is to expand or grow into a more perfect form, as the seed into a plant. _Animalculæ_, are minute or very small animals, such as cannot be distinguished without the help of a microscope, hence they are sometimes called microscopic animals; this word comes from the Latin _animalis_, which means having life. _Phosphoric_ signifies luminous, or giving out light. The Greek name of the morning star is _Phospha_. In Latin, _Phosphorus_ is a term applied to a substance which chemists extract from bones and other animal matter, and which, when exposed to air, burns with a pale blue light, like that emitted by the glow-worm. Many of the oceanic or sea animalculæ are exceedingly phosphorescent, so that by night, the waves appear like billows of flame. Of this luminosity of the ocean, as it is termed, we shall have to speak on another occasion. We will now return to the Oyster, who, it will be seen, is by no means so solitary in his bivalve palace as might be supposed. He has his torch-bearers, and other attendants, quite a host of them, no doubt magnificently dressed, if we could but see them to advantage, and well instructed in the several duties which they have to perform. Oh yes, certainly, as the Irish poet has said,

“Of all the Conchiferous shell-fish,
The Oyster _is_ surely the King;”

Shall we continue the quotation? and say

“Arrah Mick, call the people who sell fish,
And tell them a dozen to bring:
For it’s I that intend to demonstrate,
The creature’s phenomena strange,
Its functions to set every one straight,
And exhibit their structure and range.”

Scarcely will our limited space permit us to do this, but a few of the most remarkable particulars about this common Acephalan, we feel called upon to set before our readers.

First, then, it belongs to the class _Conchifera_; this is a word which we must stop to examine a little; it seems to come from the Latin _concha_, which means a shell-fish with two shells, in other words a bivalve mollusk. Second, our Oyster belongs to the class _Pectinidæ_. Now _pecten_ is the Latin for a comb, and this class includes those bivalve shells whose edges are toothed, or, as it is said, _pectinated_; in the scallop and the cockle shells this peculiarity is more observable than in those of other members of the class, and these form the typical, or so to speak, pattern genus, _pecten_. Thirdly, the Common Oyster is a _Monomyarian Conchifer_. Ah! that’s something like a name for the acephaloid monarch! Look at these two words, _mono-myarian_, _di-myarian_, you know of course that mony-syllable means one syllable, and dis-syllable means two. You sometimes hear of a person who leads a _monotonous_ life, and you think perhaps of the Oyster shut up in his shell all alone, _one_ by himself; this notion you now know to be a false one; although it is true that he has but one abductor muscle, and therefore belongs to the division of the _Pectinidæ_ family called _Monomyaria_, while the Pearl Oyster has two, and therefore belongs to that termed _Dimyaria_. If, as they say, there is reason in the roasting of eggs, surely there must be in the names given to the classes and divisions of shells. We hope to have succeeded in making the why and the wherefore in this case somewhat plain;—_one_—_two_—and away we go out of this maze of hard names. But what about the abductor muscle, above spoken of? well, this must be explained; _abduce_, coming from the Latin _abduco_, means to separate, to draw away, hence we have _abduction_. During the life of an Oyster, the usual and natural state of the shell is that of being kept open for a little distance, to allow the water necessary for its nourishment and respiration to flow in and out; but as a security against danger, it was necessary to furnish the animal with the means of rapidly closing the shell, and retaining the valves in a closed state. These actions being only occasional, yet requiring considerable force, are effected by means of a muscular power, for which purpose one or two, or sometimes more strong muscles are placed between the valves, their fibres passing directly across from the inner surface of one to that of the other, and firmly attached to both, and these are called the abductor muscles, because their office is to draw or pull; how strongly they do this those whose business it is to open Oysters can best tell; if the animal within were not alive, the process would not be a difficult one, as in that case the muscles would be relaxed, and the shell would come open of itself, so that actually people who eat Oysters directly they are opened, swallow them “all alive-O!”

If a pair of the shells from which the delicious morsel has been extracted, be taken in the hand, it may be noticed that one is much thinner, smoother, and flatter than the other; this is the side most exposed to the action of the water; the rougher and rounder side is that which is attached to the rock, or other substance to which the animal forms an attachment, that is usually life-long. The two portions of the shell are joined together by a hinge of curious workmanship, which is formed of the inner layer of the shell, and strengthened by a ligament which is wonderfully elastic; when the shell is drawn together by the abductor muscles, the ligament is at full stretch, and as soon as they relax at all, it contracts, and causes the shell to gape. This process is repeated as often as may be necessary for the safety and sustenance of the animal within, whose mouth is situated at the narrowest part of its habitation, namely, near the joint of the hinge, which connects its upper and under shell. The anatomical structure of the Oyster is more perfect than would be supposed, from its apparently low state of organization; it has a heart, liver, and intestinal canal, and a bag near the mouth, which answers the purpose of a stomach. Its breathing organs are gills, closely resembling those of most other fish; it has little vessels which convey the bile from the stomach to the liver, and may perhaps be subject to bilious attacks, as well as those who swallow this curious piece of organization at a mouthful, without thinking at all of the goodly structure they are demolishing. There is the tiny heart with its series of blood-vessels, just as perfect as in the larger animals. There are the nerves in the shape of minute feelers, which appear to be acutely sensible not only of actual contact with foreign bodies, but also of sounds and movements from without. A very nice sense of feeling appears to reside in what is called the beard, in scientific language _bissus_; this is a kind of double fringe to the two lobes of the mantle, or sac, as it is called, which envelopes the body of the animal, and floats free from the shell, except just at the part nearer the valve where it is attached.

We have just spoken of the beard of the Oyster, and this reminds us of a conundrum which may serve to amuse our readers, and enliven these dry details a little. Why is an Oyster the most anomalous, that is strange, contradictory, creature in existence? Do you give it up? Well then it is because

“It wears a beard without any chin,
And leaves its bed to be tucked in.”

Again, by this allusion to the “tucking in” of Oysters, a phrase more expressive than polite, we have recalled to memory the saying of a quaint old author, that they are “ungodly, uncharitable, and unprofitable meat; ungodly, because they are eaten without grace; uncharitable, because they leave nothing but shells, and unprofitable because they must swim in wine.” Not, generally, however, are they eaten in this luxurious manner, a little pepper and vinegar is all they commonly get in the way of sauce, and those who swallow them thus accompanied, seem to do so with infinite relish. A very long chapter, if not a whole book, might be written about the historical associations of Oysters, for which our country has been famous, as far back as the time of the first Roman invasion; much, too, might be said about the Oyster beds and fisheries, which give employment to thousands of our industrious population, but all this has so little to do with natural history, that we can find no excuse for dwelling upon it here. It is quite within the range of our subject, however, to state that the “spat” or “spawn” of the Oyster is cast about the beginning of May: at first it resembles a drop of greenish tallow, but by the aid of the microscope it may be seen to consist of a great number of minute particles, each of which is an egg, and will by-and-by become a perfect fish; these increase in size very rapidly, and after floating about for a while, sink to the bottom, and become attached to rock or some other substance, in which position, if not violently detached or removed, they complete their growth, and live out the term of their natural life. Their food is minute animalculæ, and microscopic vegetation, on the nature of which their flavour greatly depends.

They have many enemies besides man; the whelk, and the crab, the sea-star, or “five fingers,” and the large drum-fish, which swallows them almost by the bushel, shells and all; these help to thin the Oyster-beds, and make the dredger’s labours less remunerative than they would otherwise be. Here is a picture of one as he stands in his boat just about to throw his dredge into the sandy bottom, where he knows the delicious testaceans do, or ought to, lie most thickly. The dredge, which is a triangular iron frame with a net over the bottom, will naturally sink, and when the line to which it is attached ceases to run out, the dredger will put his boat in motion, and draw it thus over the Oyster-bed, and then pull it up filled, it may be, with little fat “Miltons,” or large “Colchesters,” or such other kind as the spot is known to yield.

The Latin for Oyster is _Ostrea_, and that is a name given to a genus of the _Pectinidæ_ family, comprising beside the _O. edulis_, or Common Oyster, many other species. _Edulis_ means eatable. Home naturalists divide these Ostraceans into two groups, first with simple or undulated, but not plaited valves; second, those which have the borders of their valves distinctly plaited.

To the first group belong the Common Oyster, and between thirty and forty other living species which are found principally in warm and temperate latitudes. In the Polar ocean none have been discovered, and in the hotter climates they are most abundant, being found in large beds or banks near the coast, and often attached to rocks and even to trees which grow by the water, so that the accounts of some old travellers who stated that they saw Oysters growing upon trees, were not so false as many supposed them.

The annexed figure is that of the Cock’s-comb Oyster, _Ostrea Crista-Galli_, a native of the Indian Seas, and a very remarkable shell, on account of its crooked or deeply indented form; the specific name means cock’s-crest. The Chinese Window Oyster, called _Placuna Placenta_, which we may, if we like, translate into a pleasant or agreeable cake; the shell, it will be seen, is round like a cake, and its smoothness and regularity of form render it agreeable to look upon; this species too comes from the Indian Seas, where it is taken on sandy bottoms. The American Spiny Oyster, or _Spondylus Americanus_, brings us into another family, that of the Water Clams, called by naturalists _Spondylidæ_; with the spines stuck out every way, and no way in particular, it looks like a head of hair greatly in need of the assistance of one of its _pectinated_ relatives. The specific name of this curious shell explains itself; the generic name comes from the Latin _Spondylis_—a kind of serpent.

Passing over the family _Malleidæ_, or Hammer Oysters, we come to the _Meleagrinidæ_, or Pearl Oysters, of which Fig. 1, Plate VIII, is an example, this is the _M. Margaritifera_ of naturalists, the mollusk in whose shells pearls are chiefly found. Here are two long words; _Meleagris_ is the Latin for a Guinea or Turkey Hen, to the markings of whose plumage naturalists might have imagined the shells of this genus bore some resemblance. There was, says the mythology, a celebrated hero of antiquity named Meleaga, but we can hardly suppose that there is any association between his name and that of a genus of Oysters, of which edible we read the ancients were very fond, and they are said to have had a fancy not only for the mollusk itself, but also for the pearls found in its shell, which at their luxurious banquets they dissolved in wine, to make the draughts richer, or at all events more expensive; and this brings us to the specific name of the Pearl Oyster, _Margaritifera_, which comes from the Latin _Margarita_—a pearl; the French use this word slightly altered in the spelling, thus _Marguerite_ for both a daisy, and

A PEARL.

This jewel, so highly valued for its chaste beauty, is but a secretion of animal matter, resulting from the efforts of some uneasy mollusk, annoyed by a foreign substance, which has found its way into his habitation, to make the best of an unavoidable evil by enclosing it in a soft smooth covering. Let us imitate the Oyster, and when annoyed or afflicted, by meekness and patience, and christian charity, strive to turn our vexations and troubles into “pearls of great price,” and “goodly pearls,” like those mentioned in scripture.

It is on the north-west coast of the Island of Ceylon, in the Indian Ocean, that the Pearl Oyster most abounds, and there it is that the Pearl fishery is conducted in the most extensive, systematic, and successful manner; this fishing commences at the beginning of March, and upwards of two hundred boats are usually employed in it; in each of these boats are ten divers, who go down to the Oyster-beds, five at a time, and so relieve each other; there are besides thirteen other men who manage the boat, and attend to the divers. Altogether it is computed that from fifty to sixty thousand persons, in some way engaged in the fishery, or preparation, or sale of the pearls, assemble at and near the scene of operations, which must be indeed a busy one. The number of Oysters taken during the period of the fishing, which is about a month, must be prodigious. One boat has been known to bring on shore, in the day, as many as thirty-three thousand; they are placed in heaps, and allowed to remain until they become putrid, when they undergo a very elaborate process of washing and separating from the shells, which are carefully examined and deprived of their pearly treasures. The stench arising from the decomposed animal matter is described as horrible, and the whole process filthy and loathsome in the extreme; yet out of the slime and mud and disgusting effluvia, come every year gems of inestimable value, calculated to adorn the brow of beauty, and form ornaments the most pure and delicate that can be imagined. For the exclusive right of fishing on the banks of Ceylon, for a single season, as much as £120,000 have been paid to the English government by one person, who sublets boats to others. Pearls vary greatly in value according to their colour and size; those which are perfectly white are the most valuable; next to these are those which have a yellowish tinge; the smallest kind, used for various ornamental purposes, are called seed pearls, the refuse is made into a kind of confection called _chimum_, highly relished by Chinese epicures. A single Oyster will sometimes contain several pearls, which are generally embedded in the body of the animal, but are sometimes fixed to the shell; it is recorded of one rich mollusk, that there were found in his possession no less than one hundred and fifty precious jewels; he must have been a miser, or perhaps he had taken them in pledge from his less provident neighbours.

From the earliest time, pearls have been considered as valuable ornaments; they are mentioned in the book of Job, (see chap. xxviii, verse 18th.,) and are often alluded to by Greek and Roman writers. Various attempts have been made to imitate them, and one mode of producing them, practised, it is said, more than a thousand years ago, is still carried on in China. In the shells of Pearl Oysters, holes are bored, into which pieces of iron are introduced; these wounding and irritating the animal, cause it to deposit coat upon coat of pearly matter over the wounded part, and so the pearl is formed. Artificial pearls are made of hollow glass globules or little globes, covered on the inside with a liquid called pearl-essence, and filled up with white wax. Historians speak of an ancient traffic in native pearls carried on by this country; and in modern times, British pearls of considerable value have been discovered, one not many years since, by a gentleman who was eating oysters at Winchester, was valued at two hundred guineas. Generally, however, the pearls of this country are inferior in the two requisites of colour and size.

Interesting accounts of Pearls and Pearl-fishing, will be found in “the Penny,” and “Saturday Magazines,” and many other works easy of access. There our young readers may learn of the perils and dangers to which the poor divers are exposed from the voracious sharks, which hover about the fishing grounds, and make a dash at their victim, heedless of the written charms, with which the priest or shark-charmer has provided him previous to his descent, and of much more than we can find space here to tell. All we can now do is to give the portrait, as drawn by Thomas Hood, of a lady who takes up her abode in all the pearl-producing bivalves, and who is therefore, perhaps on this account, called

THE MUSSEL AND THE COCKLE.

It is in the _Dimyaria_ division of the _Conchifera_ that we must look for these familiar bivalves, the Mussel, or, as it is sometimes spelled, Muscle, and the Cockle; the former called in scientific language _Mytilus_, which in Latin means simply a shell-fish, and the latter _Cardium_, which may have reference to the hinge of this bivalve, or the heart-shape assumed by several of the species; _cardo_, in Latin, signifying the hinge of a gate, and _cardesco_, a stone in the shape of a heart.