Chapter I: Preface

Owing to the conditions of time, language, country, and race under which the various books of the Holy Scriptures were written, it is impossible that they should be rightly understood at the present day, and in this land, without the aid of many departments of knowledge. Contemporary history, philology, geography, and ethnology must all be pressed into the service of the true Biblical scholar; and there is yet another science which is to the full as important as either of the others. This is Natural History, in its widest sense.

The Oriental character of the Scriptural books causes them to abound with metaphors and symbols, taken from the common life of the time. They embrace the barren precipitous rocks alternating with the green and fertile valleys, the trees, flowers, and herbage, the creeping things of the earth, the fishes of the sea, the birds of the air, and the beasts which abode with man or dwelt in the deserts and forests. Unless, therefore, we understand these writings as those understood them for whom they were written, it is evident that we shall misinterpret instead of rightly comprehending them. Even with secular books of equally ancient date, the right understanding of them would be important, but in the case of the Holy Scriptures it is more than important, and becomes a duty. The field which is laid open to us is so large that only one department of Natural History, namely Zoology, can be treated in this work, although it is illustrated by many references to other branches of Natural History, to the physical geography of Palestine, Egypt, and Syria, the race-character of the inhabitants, and historical parallels. The importance of Zoology in elucidating the Scriptures cannot be overrated, and without its aid we shall not only miss the point of innumerable passages of the Old and New Testament, but the words of our Lord Himself will either be totally misinterpreted, or at least lose the greater part of their significance.

The object of the present work is therefore to take, in its proper succession, every creature whose name is given in the Scriptures, and to supply so much of its history as will enable the reader to understand all the passages in which it is mentioned. A general account of each animal will be first given, followed by special explanations (wherever required) of those texts in which pointed reference is made to it, but of which the full force cannot be gathered without a knowledge of Natural History.

The illustrations are all taken from the living animals, while the accessory details have been obtained either from the Egyptian or Assyrian monuments, from actual specimens, or from the photographs and drawings of the latest travellers. They have been selected and arranged so that each illustration explains one or more passages of Scripture, and it is hoped that the work will possess equal interest for the natural historian and the Biblical student.

CONTENTS.

MAMMALIA.

THE APE.

The Monkey tribe rarely mentioned in Scripture--Why the Ape was
introduced into Palestine--Solomon's ships, and their cargo of
Apes, peacocks, ivory, and gold--Various species of Monkey that
might have been imported--The Rhesus Monkey--The Hoonuman, or
Entellus--Habits of the Monkey, and reverence in which it is
held by the natives--The Egyptians and their Baboon
worship--Idols and memorials--The Wanderoo--Its singular
aspect--Reasons why it should be introduced into
Palestine--General habits of the Wanderoo--Its love of
curiosities--Probability that Solomon had a menagerie--Various
species of Monkey that may be included in the term _Kophim_--The
Satyr of Scripture--Babylon in its glory and fall--Fulfilment of
prophecy--Judaic ideas of the Satyrs, or Seirim 1

THE BAT.

The Bat mentioned always with abhorrence--Meaning of the Hebrew
name--The prohibition against eating Bats--The edible species,
their food and mode of life--The noisome character of the Bat,
and the nature of its dwelling-place--Its hatred of
light--Baruch and his prophecy--Appropriateness of the
prophecy--Singular Mahommedan legend respecting the original
creation of the Bat--The legend compared with the apocryphal
gospels--The Bats of Palestine--Mr. Tristram's discoveries--Bats
found in the quarries from which the stone of the Temple was
hewn--Edible Bats in a cave near the centre of
Palestine--Another species of long-tailed Bat captured in the
rock caves where hermits had been buried--Other species which
probably inhabit Palestine 11

THE LION.

Frequent mention of the Lion in the Scriptures--Probability that
it was once a common animal, though now extinct--Reasons for its
disappearance--The Lion employed as an emblem in the
Bible--Similarity of the African and Asiatic species--The chief
characteristics of the Lion--Its strength, activity, and mode
of seizing its prey--Various names of the Lion--Its courage when
roused--Its roar, and peculiar mode of utterance--Invisibility
of the Lion at dusk--The Lion lying in wait--The dwelling-place
of the Lion--Its restlessness at night--Passages illustrative of
these characteristics--Modes of capturing the Lion--The pitfall
and the net--Lions kept as curiosities--The Lion-hunt as
depicted on the buildings of ancient Nineveh 18

THE LEOPARD.

The Leopard not often mentioned in the Scriptures--Its
attributes exactly described--Probability that several animals
were classed under the name--How the Leopard takes its
prey--Craft of the Leopard--Its ravages among the flocks--The
empire of man over the beast--The Leopard at bay--Localities
wherein the Leopard lives--The skin of the Leopard--Various
passages of Scripture explained 29

THE CAT.

The Cat never mentioned by name in the canonical Scriptures, and
only once in the Apocrypha--The Cat domesticated among the
Egyptians, and trained in bird-catching--Neglected capabilities
of the Cat--Anecdote of an English Cat that caught fish for her
master--Presumed reason why the Scriptures are silent about the
Cat--The Cat mentioned by Baruch 36

THE DOG.

Antipathy displayed by Orientals towards the Dog, and manifested
throughout the Scriptures--Contrast between European and
Oriental Dogs--Habits of the Dogs of Palestine--The city Dogs
and their singular organization--The herdsman's Dog--Various
passages of Scripture--Dogs and the crumbs--Their
numbers--Signor Pierotti's experience of the Dogs--Possibility
of their perfect domestication--The peculiar humiliation of
Lazarus--Voracity of the Wild Dogs--The fate of Ahab and
Jezebel--Anecdote of a volunteer Watch-dog--Innate affection of
the Dog towards mankind--Peculiar local instinct of the Oriental
Dog--Albert Smith's account of the Dogs at Constantinople--The
Dervish and his Dogs--The Greyhound--Uncertainty of the word 39

THE WOLF.

Identity of the animal indisputable--Its numbers, past and
present--The Wolf never mentioned directly--Its general
habits--References in Scripture--Its mingled ferocity and
cowardice--Its association into packs--The Wolf's bite--How it
takes its prey--Its ravages among the flocks--Allusions to this
habit--The shepherd and his nightly enemies--Mr. Tristram and
the Wolf--A semi-tamed Wolf at Marsaba 50

THE FOX, OR JACKAL.

The two animals comprehended under one name--The Jackal--Its
numbers in ancient and modern Palestine--General habits of the
Jackal--Localities where the Jackal is found--Samson, and the
three hundred "foxes"--Popular objections to the narrative--The
required number easily obtained--Signor Pierotti's remarks upon
the Jackal--An unpleasant position--How the fields were set on
fire--The dread of fire inherent in wild beasts--The truth of
the narrative proved--The Fox and Jackal destructive among
grapes--Allusions to the Fox in the New Testament--Partially
tamed Foxes 55

THE HYÆNA.

The Hyæna not mentioned by name, but evidently alluded
to--Signification of the word _Zabua_--Translated in the
Septuagint as "Hyæna"--A scene described by the Prophet
Isaiah--The Hyæna plentiful in Palestine at the present day--Its
well-known cowardice and fear of man--The uses of the Hyæna, and
the services which it renders--The particular species of
Hyæna--The Hyæna in the burial-grounds--Hunting the
Hyæna--Curious superstition respecting the talismanic properties
of its skin--Precautions adopted in flaying it--Popular legends
of the Hyæna and its magical powers--The cavern home of the
Hyæna--The Valley of Zeboim 62

THE WEASEL.

Difficulty of identifying the Weasel of Scripture--The Weasel of
Palestine--Suggested identity with the Ichneumon 68

THE FERRET.

Translation of the Hebrew word _Anakah_--The Shrew-mouse of
Palestine--Etymology of the word--The Gecko or Fan-foot, its
habits and peculiar cry--Repugnance felt by the Arabs of the
present day towards the Gecko 69

THE BADGER.

Difficulty of identifying the _Tachash_ of Scripture--References
to "badgers' skins"--The Dugong thought to be the Badger--The
Bedouin sandals--Nature of the materials for the
Tabernacle--Habits of the Badger--The species found in
Palestine--Uses of the Badgers' skins--Looseness of zoological
terms 70

THE BEAR.

The Syrian Bear--Identity of the Hebrew and Arabic titles--Its
colour variable according to age--Bears once numerous in
Palestine, and now only occasionally seen--Reason for their
diminution--Present localities of the Bear, and its favourite
haunts--Food of the Bear--Its general habits--Its ravages among
the flocks--The Bear dangerous to mankind--The Bear robbed of
her whelps--Illustrative passages--Its mode of fighting--Various
references to the Bear, from the time of Samuel to that of St.
John 75

THE HEDGEHOG, OR BITTERN.

Various readings of the word _Kippôd_--The Jewish Bible and its
object--The Syrian Hedgehog and its appearance--Its fondness for
dry spots--The prophecies of Isaiah and Zephaniah, and their
bearing on the subject--The Porcupine supposed to be the
Kippôd--The Hedgehog and Porcupine called by the same name in
Greek and Arabic--Habits of the Porcupine--Its quills, and the
manner of their shedding 80

THE PORCUPINE.

Presumed identity of the Kippôd with the Porcupine--The same
Greek name applied to the Porcupine and Hedgehog--Habits of the
Porcupine--The common Porcupine found plentifully in Palestine
85

THE MOLE.

The two Hebrew words which are translated as "Mole"--Obscurity
of the former name--A parallel case in our own language--The
second name--The Moles and the Bats, why associated
together--The real Mole of Scripture, its different names, and
its place in zoology--Description of the Mole-rat and its
general habits--Curious superstition--Discovery of the species
by Mr. Tristram--Scripture and science--How the Mole-rat finds
its food--Distinction between the Mole and the present animal 86

THE MOUSE.

Conjectures as to the right translation of the Hebrew word
_Akbar_--Signification of the word--The Mice which marred the
land--Miracles, and their economy of power--The Field-mouse--Its
destructive habits and prolific nature--The insidious nature of
its attacks, and its power of escaping observation--The Hamster,
and its habits--Its custom of storing up provisions for the
winter--Its fertility and unsociable nature--The Jerboa, its
activity and destructiveness--Jerboas and Hamsters eaten by
Arabs and Syrians--Various species of Dormice and Sand-rats 91

THE HARE.

The prohibitions of the Mosaic law--The chewing of the cud and
division of the hoof--Identity of the Hare of
Scripture--Rumination described--The Hare a rodent and not a
ruminant--Cowper and his Hares--Structure of the rodent
tooth--The Mosaic law accommodated to its recipients--The Hares
of Palestine and their habits 96

CATTLE.

The cattle of Palestine, and their decadence at the present
day--Ox-flesh not used for food in modern times--Oxen of the
stall, and oxen of the pasture--The use of the ox in
agriculture--The yoke and its structure--The plough and the
goad--The latter capable of being used as a weapon--Treading out
the corn--The cart and its wheels--The ox used as a beast of
burden--Cattle turned loose to graze--The bulls of
Bashan--Curiosity of the ox tribe--A season of drought--Branding
the cattle--An Egyptian field scene--Cattle-keeping an
honourable post--The ox as used for sacrifice--Ox-worship--The
bull Apis, and his history--Persistency of the
bull-worship--Jeroboam's sin--Various names of cattle--The
Indian buffalo 101

THE WILD BULL.

The Tô, Wild Bull of the Old Testament--Passages in which it is
mentioned--The Wild Bull in the net--Hunting with nets in the
East--The Oryx supposed to be the Tô of Scripture--Description
of the Oryx, its locality, appearance, and habits--The points in
which the Oryx agrees with the Tô--The "snare" in which the foot
is taken, as distinguished from the net 116

THE REÊM, OR "UNICORN" OF SCRIPTURE.

The Reêm evidently known to the Jews--Various theories
concerning the Unicorn--Supposed identity with the Indian
Rhinoceros--Passages of Scripture alluding to the strength,
violent and intractable temper of the Reêm--The Reêm a
two-horned animal--Its evident connexion with the Ox tribe--Its
presumed identity with the now extinct Urus--Mr. Dawkins'
treatise on the Urus--Enormous size and dangerous character of
the Urus--Rabbinical legend of the Reêm--Identity of the Urus
with the modern varieties of cattle--The Bull-hunts of Nineveh
121

THE BISON.

The Bison tribe and its distinguishing marks--Its former
existence in Palestine--Its general habits--Origin of its
name--Its musky odour--Size and speed of the Bison--Its
dangerous character when brought to bay--Its defence against the
Wolf--Its untameable disposition 131

THE GAZELLE, OR ROE OF SCRIPTURE.

The Gazelle identified with the _Tsebi_, i.e. the Roe or Roebuck
of Scripture--Various passages relating to the Tsebi--Its
swiftness, its capabilities as a beast of chase, its beauty, and
the quality of its flesh--The Tsebiyah rendered in Greek as
Tabitha, and translated as Dorcas, or Gazelle--Different
varieties of the Gazelle--How the Gazelle defends itself against
wild beasts--Chase of the Gazelle--The net, the battue, and the
pitfall--Coursing the Gazelle with greyhounds and falcons--Mr.
Chasseaud's account of a hunting party--Gentleness of the
Gazelle 133

THE PYGARG, OR ADDAX.

The Dishon or Dyshon--Signification of the word
_Pygarg_--Certainty that the Dishon is an antelope, and that it
must be one of a few species--Former and present range of the
Addax--Description of the Addax--The Strepsiceros of Pliny 141

THE FALLOW-DEER, OR BUBALE.

The word _Jachmur_ evidently represents a species of
antelope--Probability that the Jachmur is identical with the
Bubale, or Bekk'r-el-Wash--Resemblance of the animal to the ox
tribe--Its ox-like horns and mode of attack--Its capability of
domestication--Former and present range of the Bubale--Its
representation on the monuments of ancient Egypt--Delicacy of
its flesh--Size and general appearance of the animal 143

THE SHEEP.

Importance of Sheep in the Bible--The Sheep the chief wealth of
the pastoral tribes--Tenure of land--Value of good
pasture-land--Arab shepherds of the present day--Difference
between the shepherds of Palestine and England--Wanderings of
the flocks in search of food--Value of the wells--How the Sheep
are watered--Duties of the shepherd--The shepherd a kind of
irregular soldier--His use of the sling--Sheep following their
shepherd--Calling the Sheep by name--The shepherd usually a part
owner of the flocks--Structure of the sheepfolds--The rock
caverns of Palestine--David's adventure with Saul--Penning of
the Sheep by night--Use of the dogs--Sheep sometimes brought up
by hand--How Sheep are fattened in the Lebanon district--The two
breeds of Sheep in Palestine--The broad-tailed Sheep, and its
peculiarities--Reference to this peculiarity in the Bible--The
Talmudical writers, and their directions to sheep-owners 146

THE CHAMOIS.

The Zemer or Chamois only once mentioned in the
Bible--Signification of the word _Zemer_--Probability that the
Zemer is the Aoudad--Appearance of the Aoudad--Its strength and
activity--Fierce temper of the adult male--Horns of the
Aoudad--Their probable use as musical instruments--Habits of the
Aoudad--The Mouflon probably classed with the Aoudad under the
name of Zemer--Appearance and habits of the Mouflon 185

THE GOAT.

Value of the Goat--Its use in furnishing food--The male kid the
usual animal of slaughter--Excellence of the flesh, and
deception of Isaac--Milk of the Goat--An Oriental milking
scene--The hair of the Goat, and the uses to which it is
put--The Goat's skin used for leather--The "bottle" of
Scripture--Mode of making and repairing the bottles--Ruse of the
Gibeonites--The "bottle in the smoke"--The sacks and the
kneading-troughs--The Goat as used for sacrifice--General habits
of the Goat--Separation of the Goats from the sheep--Performing
Goats--Different breeds of Goats in Palestine 189

THE WILD GOAT.

The Azelim or Wild Goats of Scripture identical with the Beden
or Arabian Ibex--Different names of the Beden--Its appearance
and general habits--En-gedi, or Goats' Fountain--The Beden
formerly very plentiful in Palestine, and now tolerably
common--Its agility--Difficulty of catching or killing it--How
the young are captured--Flesh of the Beden--Use of the horns at
the present day--The Ako of Deuteronomy 203

THE DEER.

The Hart and Hind of Scripture--Species of Deer existing in
Palestine--Earliest mention of the Hind--The Hart classed among
the clean animals--Passages alluding to its speed--Care of the
mother for her young, and her custom of secreting it--Tameable
character of the Deer--The Rabbinical writers and their
theories--Shedding of the Deer's horns--Its fabled mode of
sleeping--The gall in the tail--Curious traditions of the enmity
between Deer and serpents--Virtues of a Deer-skin coat 208

THE CAMEL.

CHAPTER I.

The two species of Camel, and the mode of distinguishing
them--Value of the Camel in the East--Camels mentioned as
elements of wealth--Uses of the Camel--The Jews forbidden to eat
its flesh--The milk of the Camel--Thirst-enduring
capability--The internal reservoir--The hump, and its uses to
the animal--The Camel as a beast of draught and burden--How the
Camel is laden--Knowledge of its own powers--Camels for
riding--Difficulty of sitting a Camel--A rough-paced
steed--Method of guiding the Camel--The mesh'ab, or Camel-stick
of office--The women's saddle--Rachel's stratagem--Ornaments of
the Camel--The swift dromedary, Heirie, or Deloul--Its ungainly
aspect--Speed and endurance of the Deloul--The Camel-posts of
Bornu--Camel-drivers and their conduct--The driver's song--Young
Camels and their appearance--The deserted Camel 216