Chapter II: Part 2

Although a variety of parasites which prey upon these larvae is not large, they are very numerous in individuals, and it is to this cause that only a small per cent of the larvae ever produce moths. These parasites develop beneath the skin of the larva as footless grubs, which, at first, do not attack the vital organs, but later these organs are preyed upon, and the larva dies. A wasp-like insect which preys upon this larva well illustrates in its habits the crudeness of many instincts. The female will lay eight or ten eggs upon one caterpillar, but as the young parasitic grubs require a large amount of food, only one is able to mature and the others perish.

CECROPIAN MOTH.
(Samia cecropia.)
Pupa.
Adult Male. Eggs on Maple Leaf. Adult Female.
About 1/2 Life-size.
Larva. Cocoon.
COPYRIGHT 1900 BY
A. W. MUMFORD, CHICAGO.]

The insect parasites seem, in many cases, to mature and transform into the adult stage after the caterpillar has built its cocoon, and thus many parasites lose their lives, since they are not always able to escape from the cocoon. A cocoon will sometimes be found filled with these small insects, which have not been able to make their escape, and have thus died in prison.

The adult larva, unlike Prometha, usually spins its cocoon not attached to a leaf, but along a stem; sometimes, however, they may be placed in other situations.

In about two weeks after the cocoon has been spun, the larva transforms into a chrysalis, in which stage it hibernates during the winter, and from which it emerges in May or June.

During the winter, when the leaves are not on the trees and shrubs which are frequented by these larvae, a large number of cocoons may easily be collected. These should be kept out of doors during the winter, for if kept in a warm room they will emerge during the winter or so early in the spring that food cannot be secured for the larvae.

If one secure a number of old cocoons, from which the moths have failed to emerge, and cut them open longitudinally, he may learn many interesting facts. A dead and dry mummified looking larva or chrysalis may be found, or, what is even more interesting, no trace of the larva or chrysalis may be present, but only a mass of small white, paper-like cocoons. These have been left by a colony of little wasp-like parasites which may occur in such large numbers that there is scarcely room for all to spin their cocoons, so that on account of being so closely crowded together, they are moulded into a mass of cocoons having the form of the cavity formerly occupied by the larva.

The cocoons of Cecropia are composed of two parchment-like layers of silk which are generally very dense and strong. The space between these two layers contains loosely spun threads of silk like a layer of packing material. The larvae seem normally to make three varieties of cocoons; one kind is very loosely constructed, much larger than the ordinary form and not attached to a twig, but found in the grass or in shrubs near the ground. The two other forms of cocoons are much smaller and more closely woven, but differ in size; female moths as a rule emerging from the larger cocoons, and males from the smaller ones.

Dead larvae are sometimes found in cocoons which are practically of a single thickness; there being no space between the outer and inner layers. The hollow skins of the larvae found in such cocoons clearly show that this unusual cocoon is due to the influence of parasites upon the larva.

In the upper open end of the cocoon, kernels of wheat, corn, beechnuts and even acorns have been found. How these get in this position seems to be quite a puzzle. In opening twenty or thirty cocoons, five or six kernels of corn have been found, thus showing that this occurrence is by no means rare. Chickadees and blue-jays have been given the blame for this work, since these birds are thought to have the habit of hiding food. The inverted outer layer of the cocoon clearly shows, in some cases, that the kernel of corn has been thrust into the cocoon with some force.

The head of the pupa lies at the small end of the cocoon, where the texture is less dense, and thus, when it is ready to transform into the moth, the head is in the best position for easy escape from the cocoon. But this provision alone is not sufficient to make sure the escape. At the time of emergence, the pupa secretes a fluid which escapes from the mouth and by moistening the cocoon softens the glue-like material which binds together the threads, thus making it possible for the freshly emerging moth to crowd its way between the fibres, and thus secure its freedom. When the moth first crawls out of the cocoon, its heavy body and small folded wings show but little resemblance to the fully-expanded moth. By degrees, however, the wings expand and become more rigid, the colors brighten, and finally the mature moth is developed.

The Promethea Moth is only about one-half the size of Cecropia, and the two sexes are very different in appearance; so much so that one would not at all think they were the same kind of moths. As in Cecropia the male moths are somewhat smaller than the females, and the antennae show the same kind of differences, i.e., the antennae of the males are much larger and feather-like. In color, the sexes of Cecropia are much alike, but in this moth the differences in color are very great, the dominant color in the female being a reddish brown, while that in the male is a very dark-brown or almost black. Thus these moths furnish an excellent illustration of what is called sexual dimorphism, a term used for those animals in which the sexes are very different in appearance, a subject to which Charles Darwin gave considerable attention, in his "Descent of Man."

The female moth lays her cream-colored eggs, which are a little smaller than those of Cecropia, upon shrubs and trees in clusters of five or six. The small larva usually hatches in about ten days, and feeds upon the leaves of ash, sassafras, lilac, tulip tree, maple, cherry, and a number of other trees and shrubs, but it is much more select in the choice of its food than Cecropia. The larvae have voracious appetites, devour many leaves and grow at a correspondingly rapid rate. The differences between the very young and the adult larva, aside from that of size, are very great. On account of the very limited elasticity of the skin, this larva, like other insect larvae, only increases in size after shedding. This is periodically accomplished by throwing off the old skin, which prevented expansion, and by growing a new and larger one. Promethea has from three to five of these moults, the number being influenced apparently by climate, since southern larvae have more moults than northern ones. The time between these moults varies from two days to a week.

The leaves upon which the larvae feed may have long or short petioles. A singular account has been given of how these larvae have overcome the difficulties associated with feeding upon long-petioled leaves. There is considerable risk of falling and of the leaf breaking away when a large larva crawls out upon a slender petiole. The larva avoids these risks and yet reaches the blade of the leaf. This is accomplished as follows: The larva grasps firmly the branch with its posterior legs; reaches out a considerable distance along the petiole, and bites it through in several places. This causes the leaf to droop; the larva now reaches out, seizes the drooping leaf, and draws it within convenient reach, where it can be eaten at leisure. This is a wonderful display of instinct, yet it is not infallible, because at times the petioles are eaten too far through, and when they droop, break completely away and fall to the ground.

When ready to spin its cocoon, the adult larva is about two inches long; these cocoons are very different from those of Cecropia. As a rule, they are found suspended from a branch by a silken cord, the length of which depends upon the length of the petiole of the leaf in which the cocoon was spun. Thus if the leaf has only a short petiole, this cord is also short, but if the petiole is two or three inches long, the suspensory cord is correspondingly long. The larva in constructing its cocoon, first spins a strong band around a twig, and binds the petiole of the leaf to the stem; this band extends down the petiole to the cocoon, and thus anchors it. The cocoon proper, or the part occupied by the chrysalis, is spun in a folded leaf. When this leaf dies and rots away, the cocoon hangs freely suspended by the cord, but it is very evident that the cocoon has been moulded in a leaf by the prints of the veins which remain upon it. A valve-like opening occurs in the upper end, through which the moth emerges.

The wings of the chrysalis are very small as compared with those of the adult moth; are folded to the body on the under side, and covered by the pupal skin. During the winter they remain transparent since there are at this time none of the rich colors present which are later found in the moth. About ten days before the moth emerges the wings become white, a few days later definite colors begin to appear on the under side of the wings between the veins. While in the adult moths the colors in the two sexes are very distinct, at this time their wings are very similar. The wings do not long retain this similarity, but gradually become more and more unlike until maturity.

Breeders of moths have often noticed that there is considerable uniformity with regard to the time of day at which certain kinds of moths emerge. For Promethea this time seems to be in the forenoon.

From an extensive series of experiments, it has been learned that the male finds his mate by means of scent and that this is doubtless the explanation for the very large antennae of the male, since it is in these organs that the sense of smell is located.

Although it may be very interesting to read about the activities of insects, a much more fascinating side of the subject is to handle and study the insects themselves, and there are but few better insects with which to begin a personal acquaintance than these which we have been considering.

Charles Christopher Adams.

A PLEA FOR LEGISLATIVE PROTECTION.

In former numbers of Birds and Nature we have seen how much our welfare and happiness depends upon the birds. Some hints have been given as to how we may encourage the birds to become residents of our premises so that we may enlist them in the constant warfare against worm and weevil. If there were no great and universal interest at stake in this question, How much do we owe to the birds? we should, perhaps, have no right to go beyond simple encouragement to the birds to multiply and do their good work in certain chosen places. But the interests are universal and so deeply concern the whole world that we have an undoubted right to say to those who would kill everything in sight, either for gain or for so-called "sport," Thou shalt not! In other words, we have the right to make laws forbidding anybody to kill birds except for the best of reasons. This right has been acted upon in most states and in many foreign countries, where various degrees of protection to the birds as well as to other animals have been secured.

But in very many, if not in most cases, the laws enacted have not furnished protection enough. Those who have put a price upon a bird's plumage, who furnish the temptation for others to break the law against killing birds, have not had a check put upon them. And the class of "sportsmen" which regards anything living (except man and some of the domestic animals) as legitimate targets for their weapons, have not been dealt with severely enough. Even where the laws have seemed prohibitive enough they have often failed of their purpose because not properly enforced. There are, then, two things to be considered. First, the passage of laws that will be prohibitive, and, second, machinery adequate to their enforcement.

The first question will then be, How may we secure the passage of laws such as we need? Certainly not by waiting for the state legislatures to do it. In such matters, at least, they wait for an expression of the people. Then agitate the question until the time is ripe for presenting it before the lawmakers of your state and push it. Write to Mr. Witmer Stone, the chairman of the American Ornithologists' Union, chairman of the Committee on Bird Protection, for a copy of the ideal law, and then act in line with other states. If each state acts in accord with some plan for the whole country, we shall have practically a national protective law. But even this community of interest will not accomplish the purpose for which we set out, even as a law, saying nothing of enforcement. All this is directed against the killing of birds. The law must prohibit the sale of the bird or any part of its plumage for any purpose. Carefully guarded exceptions or privileges might be favorable to those who need material for strictly scientific study. But it is necessary to go even further than this. We shall not accomplish our purpose until a law is enacted prohibiting the importation of feathers, whether on the skin or separated from it. If we are not yet ready to say that no feathers may be imported, then let us absolutely prohibit the importation of any part of any species of our native birds, whether killed in America or anywhere else. That much lies within our power. Evidently we are not yet ready to say that birds, or parts of birds--meaning our native birds--shall not be worn as an article of dress. We need a long campaign of education before that will be feasible.

What, now, of the enforcement of these laws? Clearly the enforcement of any law must have behind it a public sentiment demanding enforcement. A law fails to be prohibitive when it receives only indifferent attention from the public for whom it was passed. It is our privilege to so bring to the attention of the people at large their own great interests, which are dependent upon the birds, that their eyes shall be opened to see the great necessity of prompt and united action. The great growth of popular interest in the birds during the past three years is the clearest proof that the time is now ripe for such a campaign of education. Push it now. In every mind there lies dormant an interest in nature which needs but a touch now to be awakened to activity and usefulness.

But there is still the machinery of enforcement to be considered, for however much the general public may be educated there will always be some persons, not a small number, we fear, who must be held in check by legislative action. In the first place, game wardens are too few, in most counties, to properly enforce the laws. They should be numerous enough and so situated that they may be reached readily. But if this increase in number be not practicable, then there is a way out of the difficulty. We must be more active ourselves. In a large majority of cases we shall have no need to cause arrests, but need only to inform the transgressor of the existence of the law, giving him some useful information of the great good which the birds do, and of the pleasure which may be gained from a study of the living bird, and the purposes of the law will be accomplished. For many times the transgressor is of foreign birth, knowing nothing of the esteem in which we hold the birds. Or else the person is simply thoughtless, or ignorant of the law and its purposes. The other cases of flagrant breaking of the law need and deserve prompt and severe treatment. Here it is often not a matter of education but of discipline. It is not pleasant to be an informer, but such cases should be put upon a par with any other sort of law-breaking, for there is a great public interest involved beside which our own personal interest, however great that may be, sinks into insignificance. It is a duty which we have no right to shirk.

To summarize the means by which we may hope to secure adequate protection for our rapidly decreasing birds: Legislative action brought about by combined effort throughout the country; enforcement of the laws enacted by an increase in the public interest, by an increase of the number of game wardens, by our own activity in seeing that the laws are enforced. By these means we may accomplish what we undertake.

Lynds Jones.

* * * * *

The little bird sits at his door in the sun,
A tilt like a blossom among the leaves,
And lets his illumined being o'errun
With the deluge of summer it receives;
His mate feels the eggs beneath her wings,
And the heart in her dumb breast flutters and sings;
He sings to the wide world, and she to her nest,
In the nice ear of Nature which song is the best?
--James Russell Lowell, "The Vision of Sir Launfal."

THE DOG AND ITS ANCESTORS.

That the domestic dog has been held in high esteem by mankind from the earliest times, is shown by written records and mummified remains obtained from countries situated widely apart. The statement occurs in the Zendavesta, that "the world exists through the intellect of the dog." Cuvier wrote that "the dog is the completest, the most singular and the most useful conquest that man has ever made * * * each individual is devoted to man and remains attached to him even unto death; and all this springs not from necessity nor from fear, but from a true friendship. The dog is the only animal that has followed man all over the globe."

Egyptian monuments dating back 3,400 years B. C., show several varieties of dogs, most of them being allied to the greyhound. Carved records of a later period portray the mastiff, a turnspit and a form closely resembling the hound. Without question the dog was domesticated in Europe previous to any historical record. His remains are found in the kitchen-middens of Neolithic times and an increasing size in the animals is noticed through the Bronze and Iron ages in Denmark. Remains of the Neolithic in Switzerland disclose skulls closely resembling our hounds, setters or spaniels. The Americans had indigenous dogs before the conquering Spaniards introduced European species, and mummies of dogs are found in the oldest Peruvian tombs.

All this goes to show that the differentiation of the dog took place at a very early date. As in the case of man, the link is missing, but the ancestry is certain. Without question the varieties of the dog originated in domestication and inter-breeding of different species of wolves living in various parts of the world.

The dog family is divided into three groups. First, the wolves or wild dogs, having a round pupil in the eye and a short tail. Second, the foxes, which are characterized by a slit-like pupil and a long bushy tail; and, third, the long-eared dogs which inhabit eastern deserts and possess more numerous and a different set of teeth than the other groups. Considered as a family they are distinguished by a lean body, small head, the slim or long legs terminated by small paws furnished with strong but not retractile claws. The fore paws usually have five toes while the hind paws are always limited to four. As the dogs do not live exclusively on animal food they are not as savage as the cats, neither do they possess the "soulless expression of face so characteristic of the felidae."

While most of the dog family are gregarious, certain forms lead lives that are solitary or nearly so. Other species are nocturnal in their habits, while yet others burrow in the earth for shelter or protection. All bend the joints of the legs in walking, all possess great speed and endurance, and without exception are good swimmers.

Intellectually, dogs are more highly developed than any other brute animal. Many forms act with a rational deliberation and follow carefully thought-out plans. The senses are wonderfully developed. The sense of smell is marvelous in many forms, while strength of eyesight distinguishes others.

Of the three groups mentioned, the wolf without question was the ancestor of the domestic dog. In the German mythology, he was consecrated to the god Woden, but when Christianity reconstructed old beliefs, Woden was metamorphosed into "The Wild Hunter," and the wolves became his attending dogs, which finally were evolved into the ghost-like wolves of nursery and fable. The wolf has all the attributes of the dog except the nobility which necessarily comes from education. The tail always droops, never curling upwards as in the domestic dogs, and even when tamed they rarely wag the tail. Among the wolves may be mentioned the jackals of Asia, which are said to have entered largely into the breeds of oriental dogs. These were known to the ancients as "gold wolves," and are said to be the foxes whose tails Samson set on fire in order to burn the fields and vineyards of the Philistines. The Indian wild dog, or "Kolsun" is claimed by many to be the progenitor of all domesticated dogs. He closely resembles a greyhound, and is found all over the Himalaya and East India country. He exhibits many traits characteristic of our hunting dogs.

Prominent among several distinctive and familiar breeds of dogs is the Greyhound, which while graceful and universally popular as a pet, and a sporting dog, is unfaithful and unsympathetic. The great lung capacity gives the animal unusual endurance, but while possessed of keen sight and hearing, the sense of smell is very deficient. The Mastiffs constitute another group embracing many of the familiar forms. Among these are the Danish dog, the German Mastiffs, the Bulldog and the Pug. With the exception of the Pug, which is justly called a caricature of a dog, the group is remarkable for fidelity, courage, determination and strength. Great Britain is the home of the Hounds which, because of their intelligence and docility, are considered to be in the first rank of domestic dogs. All the varieties of this group are born hunters, being strong, swift and possessed of unusually keen senses, especially that of smell. Among these are the Pointers, the German Bloodhounds, the Staghounds, the Beagles, and the Foxhound. This last is justly considered the greatest of hunting dogs, possessing the speed of the greyhound, the courage of the bulldog, the delicate scent of the bloodhound and the sagacity of the poodle, he is well equipped for his duties in field and forest.

Probably no two dogs have so endeared themselves to mankind as the St. Bernard and the Newfoundland. Both of these, together with the Spaniels, Setters and the sagacious Poodles make up the Spaniel group. While as a class they are not remarkable for docility or endurance, these defects are more than compensated by a superior intelligence, fidelity, courage, keen scent and great speed. Much has been written about the qualities of the Newfoundlands and St. Bernards. The first are said to be the best of all water dogs, possessed of great beauty and an exceptional fund of good nature, gentleness and gratitude. The heroic deeds of the others are inseparably linked with their native home, the Hospice of St. Bernard. The intelligence and courage exhibited by these dogs among the avalanches and frozen wastes of their mountain homes have given them a place in history and earned for them the title of "The worthiest of them all."

The Setter, which is illustrated in this article, is an excellent type of a certain class of the Spaniels. The animal is an excellent hunting dog and gains its name from its habit of crouching close to the ground when pointing game.

* * * * *

Everywhere, everywhere, Christmas to-night!
Christmas in lands of the fir-tree and pine,
Christmas in lands of the palm-tree and vine.
Christmas where snow-peaks stand solemn and white,
Christmas where corn-fields lie sunny and bright,
Everywhere, everywhere, Christmas to-night!
--Phillips Brooks, "A Christmas Carol."

A FAVORITE HAUNT.

Children, as a rule, especially those born and raised in the rural districts, have some favorite haunt where they especially delight to spend their time and where certain pleasant associations are formed, the memory of which is treasured in after years.

The writer was no exception to this rule, and he will endeavor to describe a certain "Deserted Limestone Quarry," which, in his case, was the favorite haunt of childhood. A perusal of the following will give my readers an idea of the general appearance of the locality. In the center was a large body of deep water, bounded on three sides by steep banks, interspersed with huge rocks and sandstone boulders. On the fourth side was a cart road leading to the double stone lime kiln, then out of use. The south bank was bordered by a piece of woodland, through which ran a little rippling brook, and the other three sides by pasture fields. Within the deep gulch, and extending around about two-thirds of the body of water, was a combined cart road and pathway, at the extreme end of which, lying under two large, overhanging rocks, was a spring of most delicious water. It was quite deep, but you could see the golden sand and white pebbles at the bottom very plainly. Hanging from the banks above mentioned were numerous sumach bushes and blackberry briars. Such were the natural surroundings of my favorite haunt. A charming place, indeed; quiet, retired, and a veritable paradise for the admirer of nature's beauties.

Now a few words regarding the many little friends with which I associated, and whose habits and daily lives I studied. Within the lime kiln a pair of Pewees built their nest; among the briars on the bank, the Song Sparrows reigned; in the piece of woodland referred to were the nests of a Green Heron, of Blue Jays, Crows, Cat Birds, Wood Thrushes, Crested Flycatchers, etc. I also observed Belted Kingfishers on many occasions, but never found a nest. Owing to the large number of insects around the water the quarry was a favorite feeding ground for King Birds, Pewees and Swallows, and they could be seen skimming over the surface of the water from early dawn to the twilight of evening.

Aside from this large bird population, there were land and water turtles, snapping turtles, frogs in all stages of transformation, sun and catfish, many beautiful butterflies, and a family of little gray rabbits. I had the pleasure of seeing the latter when they were scarcely larger than small kittens. Along the borders of the woods were gray squirrels, ground squirrels and ground hogs. Thus, in this one particular, opportunity was afforded for the study of a large number of natural history subjects. Here, too, was the pleasant odor of fresh green spearmint and the sweet scent of wild roses. In the early spring time a profusion of wild violets (blue and yellow), dog-tooth violets, blood roots, spring beauties, anemones, "jack-in-the-pulpit," belwort and hare-bell were to be found in the strip of woodland, and later in the season the pasture fields were covered with buttercups and daisies.

Were all details entered into, a volume could be written concerning this old quarry and the many happy hours spent there, but I will not burden my readers with further reminiscences of my favorite haunt.

Berton Mercer.

CARNIVOROUS PLANTS.

This name has been given to certain plants which have developed the curious habit of capturing insects and using them for food. This behavior seems at first sight most unplantlike, but it is discovered that the actual food of all plants is practically the same as that of animals. The chief peculiarity of carnivorous plants, therefore, does not lie in the food which they use, but in the methods which they have worked out for securing it.

They are all green plants, and hence are able to make food for themselves, but they live in surroundings which are poor in some of the material which they need in the manufacture of food, so that they have learned to supplement their food by capturing insects or other small animals. When it was discovered that these plants not only captured insects, but secreted substances for digesting them, it was thought to be a very astonishing fact. It is found, however, that all plants have digestive substances to act upon their food materials, and that animals are not peculiar in this regard. It would seem, therefore, that the use of such food as the bodies of insects and the digesting of this food are not facts which are peculiar to carnivorous plants, but belong to all plants as well.

It is interesting, however, to observe the various devices which plants have adapted for capturing their prey, and it is these various devices which form the subject of this paper.

Prominent among the carnivorous plants are the pitcher plants, whose leaves form tubes, or urns, or pitchers of various forms, which contain water, and to which insects are attracted and drowned. There is a very common pitcher plant in our northern bogs, in whose urn-like leaves insects are found drowned, but which does not have such elaborate arrangements for their capture as other forms. Perhaps the most famous of the pitcher plants is one which is common throughout the southern states. The leaves are shaped like slender hollow cones, and rise in a tuft from the swampy ground. The mouth of this conical urn is overarched and shaded by a hood in which are translucent spots like small windows. Around the mouth of the urn are glands which secrete a sweet liquid, and drops of this nectar form a trail down the outside of the urn. Inside, just below the rim of the urn, is a glazed zone so smooth that insects cannot walk upon it. Below the glazed zone is another zone thickly set with stiff downward-pointing hairs, and below this is the liquid in the bottom of the urn. If a fly is attracted by the nectar drops on this curious leaf, it naturally follows the trail up to the rim of the urn where the nectar is abundant. If it attempts to descend into the urn it slips on the glazed zone and falls into the water; and if it attempts to escape by crawling up the side of the urn, the thick-set, downward-pointing hairs prevent. If it seeks to fly away from the rim it flies towards the translucent spots in the hood, which look like the way of escape, as the direction of entrance is in the shadow of the hood. Pounding against the hood the fly falls into the water. This southern pitcher plant is known as a great fly catcher, and is frequently used for this purpose in the south.

The very largest of the pitcher plants is one which grows in the swamps of California, whose leaves sometimes become as much as two or three feet high, the huge pitchers forming the most capacious receptacle for insects of all kinds and sizes. Its general plan is like that of the southern pitcher plant described above, in that it has an overarching hood with translucent spots, and a trail of nectar which leads to the dangerous rim. It has become further elaborated, however, in that the hood extends into a gaudy fish-like appendage, whose colors and flapping serve to attract the flying as well as the creeping insects. The pitcher, also, instead of being straight, is spirally twisted, and has a wing-like expansion which serves as a guide in the spiral ascent to the rim, and leads the victim with definiteness and certainty to the region of danger. The fish-tail appendage is also smeared with the nectar secretion, so that any flying insect lighting upon it is enticed under the overshadowing arch and is almost sure of capture.

The most common pitcher plants of the tropics are the Nepenthes, one of which is shown in our illustration. It will be noticed that each leaf when fully formed consists of three distinct regions, namely, the leaf-like blade, which is continued into a tendril which coils around a support, and the tendril in turn ends in a curiously-formed pitcher, which has a more or less complete lid. These pitchers are often mottled with bright colors, and as they swing at the ends of the tendrils they seem to attract the attention of roving insects. Around the rim of the pitcher a very definite row of glands may be observed, which secrete the nectar to which the insects are attracted. The arrangements within the pitcher are such as have been described for the ordinary pitcher plant. These pitchers of Nepenthes are usually found containing insects, and often very many of them, whose bodies are being slowly digested and the products absorbed by the plant.

Another group of carnivorous plants consists of the sun-dews which grow in swampy regions and are quite common in our sphagnum swamps. While the pitcher plants depend upon luring insects to their death by drowning, the sun-dews depend upon stickiness. The leaves form small rosettes on the ground and are of various shapes. In one of the most common forms the leaf blade is round, and the margin is beset by prominent bristle-like hairs, each with a globular gland at its tip. Shorter gland-bearing hairs are scattered over the inner surface of the blade. All of these glands secrete a clear sticky fluid which hangs to them in drops like dewdrops, and since these dewdrops are not dispelled by the sun the plants have been called the sun-dews. If a small insect, in flying or creeping across the plant, happens to touch one of the sticky drops it becomes entangled, and then there follows a curious scene. If the insect is small, the single bristle-like hair, in whose sticky drop it has become entangled, will begin to bend inwards and will finally press the captured insect down upon the body of the leaf where the short glandular hairs receive it. If the insect is strong enough, however, to escape from a single sticky drop, neighboring hairs will bend toward the one which has captured the insect, and by adding their mite of strength and glue, succeed in detaining it until they all bend inwards and press it down upon the leaf. In some cases the whole half of a leaf will roll inwards in this attempt to secure an insect. In this position the captured insect is gradually digested and its nutritive substances absorbed.

Perhaps the most famous and remarkable of the fly-catching plants is the Venus fly-trap, known only in swamps near Wilmington, North Carolina. This fly-trap does not depend upon drowning the insects, or upon sticking them fast, but upon its quickness of movement. Of course this seems most wonderful in plants, which are not ordinarily endowed with powers of quick motion. Dionaea, for this is the name of the Venus fly-trap, has a cluster of small leaves rising from the marshy ground, just as is the case with pitcher plants and sun-dews. The lower part of the leaf is like any ordinary blade, but above becomes pinched almost in two, and then suddenly flares out again into a round blade-like expansion which is constructed like a steel trap, the two halves snapping together and the marginal bristles interlocking like the teeth of a trap. A few sensitive hair-like feelers are developed on the leaf surface, and when one of these is touched by a small flying or hovering insect, the trap snaps shut and the insect is caught.

Many interesting experiments have been performed with Dionaea to show its quickness and its recognition of suitable food material. For example, although it will snap shut at the touch of a pencil point, or any other indigestible substance, it soon opens again; while in the case of a digestible substance the trap remains closed until digestion has taken place. It has been claimed further that when the trap has closed its bristles do not interlock closely at first, so that between the crevices very small insects may crawl out and escape. In such an event the trap opens again and waits for other prey. If this be true, it follows that the leaf does not undertake the rather long process of digestion until an insect of suitable size has been captured, one which cannot escape through the meshes of the bristles. Digestion is slow work with Dionaea as with an anaconda, being said to occupy not less than two weeks.

Among the common marsh plants in certain regions are the bladderworts, so-called because their bodies are kept afloat in water by means of numerous little bladders. While these bladders are used in this fashion, they also serve as most effective traps for certain very small water animals related to the insects. Each bladder has a sort of opening which is guarded by a door like that of an ordinary rat trap. From the side of this entrance hairs are floating and waving in the water, and within the transparent bladder are other waving tufts of hairs. For some reason these things are attractive to the minute water animals, and they push aside the easily-moved trap door, and entering the bladder find escape impossible, for the door, which was easy to push aside on entering, cannot possibly be moved outwards.

It must not be supposed that carnivorous plants are peculiar in the kind of food they use, but merely in the source from which they obtain it. There are other green plants which supplement their food supply by preying upon other plants. For example, the mistletoe is able to manufacture a certain amount of food for itself, but it adds to this supply by absorbing prepared food from the trees upon which it grows. The dodder is another illustration of a high grade plant which begins life independently, but presently breaks its connection with the soil and becomes entirely dependent upon the plants around which it twines and from which it absorbs.

A great many plants are known as root-parasites, that is, they absorb from the underground parts of other plants. This is notably the case with the orchids and heaths, which have the appearance above ground of being entirely independent, but which really are quite dependent upon the underground parts of other plants.

One of the lowest groups of plants, known as the fungi, have cultivated most completely the habit of dependence on other organisms. They attack both plants and animals, and are often exceedingly destructive. Among the better known of these parasites are the rusts, which attack and destroy many of our most useful crops. To the fungi there also belong the well-known bacteria, which are the cause of numerous contagious diseases both among plants and animals. It will be observed that these parasites are using exactly the same sort of food as do the carnivorous plants. This does not appear so striking in this case, simply because the attacking plants are so much smaller than the organisms attacked that they do not seem to capture them, although they are often none the less effective in destroying them.

John Merle Coulter.

MAPLE LEAVES.

October turned my maple's leaves to gold;
The most are gone now; here and there one lingers;
Soon these will slip from out the twig's weak hold,
Like coins between a dying miser's fingers.
Thomas Bailey Aldrich.

Description of Plate.--A, B, parts of the plant about natural size; 1, flower bud; 2, flower; 3, stamens; 4, ovary; 5, fruit; 6, seed coat; 7, seed.

MAY-APPLE.

(_Podophyllum peltatum L._)

"The blushing peach and glossy plum there lies,
And with the _mandrake_ tempt your hands and eyes."
--Quoted in _Tuckerman's America, p. 33_.

The may-apple is a small perennial herb with long root-stocks or underground stems (rhizomes), a native of the United States and Canada, growing in rather moist woodlands. The rhizomes attain a length of about twelve feet; they are sparingly branched with comparatively few roots at the nodes. Upon closer inspection one may notice the leaf scars and stem scars. Early in the spring the bud situated at the anterior end of the root-stock or rhizome, develops and sends up a stem upon which the leaves and flower are situated. The entire plant attains a height of about twelve inches. The leaves are large, peltate (from pelta, a small shield), margin deeply from five to nine lobed, lobes pendant thus giving the leaf a semblance to an umbrella. It is remarkable that the flowerless plants have only one leaf, while the flowering specimens always have two, which are opposite upon the stem apex, carrying the flower in the bifurcation as shown in the illustration.

Each plant bears a single flower upon a drooping stalk. The calyx consists of six greenish sepals, which, however, drop off as soon as the flower begins to unfold. The corolla consists of six or nine petals, which are quite large, thick and pulpy, and of a creamy white color. Authorities seem to differ as to the odor of the flower. Some speak of it as very fragrant; others designate it as nauseous and others express no opinion. Millspaugh, in his "Medicinal Plants," says, "The odor of the flowers is nauseous; I am always forcibly reminded of a bad case of ozaena when inhaling their perfume (?)." It is an undoubted fact that the rhizomes, stems and leaves have a very decided heavy, nauseous odor, and it is not unreasonable to assume that this odor is traceable in flower and unripe fruit.

The flowers expand in May and the fruit ripens in August. The fruit is a berry about the size of a plum. At first green, it changes to a soft yellow at maturity. It is not unlike a tomato in general appearance. When fully ripe it has a fragrant odor and tastes somewhat like the paw-paw (Asimina triloba).

Podophyllum peltatum is variously known as may-apple, Indian apple, hog apple, wild lemon and raccoon berry in reference to the fruit; duck's foot (German, Entenfuss) in reference to the form of the leaf; wild jalap in reference to its medicinal properties, which are similar to that of jalap. The generic name Podophyllum, meaning foot-leaf, is given in reference to the leaf. The plant is also quite generally known as mandrake or American mandrake, but the mandrake proper, so frequently referred to in the books of Moses and in the works of Shakespeare, is not the may-apple but Mandragora officinalis L. of the night-shade family (Solanaceae), a native of southern Europe. Earlier collectors supposed the two plants to be similar if not identical. There is only one other species of Podophyllum which is a native of Europe.

Apart from its beauty the may-apple is highly valued for its fruit, which is considered a delicacy by the American Indians. Whites apparently do not care much for the fruit, though it is occasionally collected and eaten. The taste of the fully ripe fruit is quite pleasant. Some state it is like that of a tomato, and it certainly is not very nutritious. It must only be sparingly eaten because of its decidedly laxative properties. The entire plant is quite poisonous and it is stated that the cooked leaves have been eaten for "greens" with fatal results. The Indians have employed the plant medicinally for centuries.

The principal use of the American mandrake is medicinal. It is a very efficient cathartic, due to the presence of a resinous principle known as podophyllin, which has been given the name "vegetable calomel." It is no doubt true that this drug is in no small measure responsible for the decrease in the use of the old-time mineral drug calomel. Both rhizomes and leaves may be employed, but the former contain more of the active principle. The drug is rarely given alone because of the griping it produces; it is combined with hyoscyamus and belladonna, also with aloes and colocynth. In large doses it usually acts as an emetic, which would tend to prevent poisoning from an overdose. Podophyllin has been used in dropsy, scrofula and rheumatic affections. Applied externally it acts as a powerful irritant, similar to capsicum and mustard plaster.

Albert Schneider.

* * * * *

I opened the eyes of my soul.
And behold,
A white river-lily: a lily awake, and aware--
For she set her face upward--aware how in scarlet and gold
A long wrinkled cloud, left behind of the wandering air,
Lay over with fold upon fold,
With fold upon fold.

And the blushing sweet shame of the cloud made her also ashamed,
The white river-lily, that suddenly knew she was fair;
And over the far-away mountains that no man hath named,
And that no foot hath trod,
Flung down out of heavenly places, then fell, as it were,
A rose-bloom, a token of love, that should make them endure,
Withdrawn in snow silence forever, who keep themselves pure,
And look up to God.
--Jean Ingelow, "A Lily and a Lute."

INDEX.

Volume VIII--June, 1900, to December, 1900, inclusive.

Almond, The (Illustration) (Albert Schneider), 188

Ant, An Hour With An (Harriet Woodbridge), 156

Antelope, The Prong-Horned (Illustration), 179

Aster, The Late Purple (Illustration), 62

Aster, The New England (Illustration), 62

Asters, The (Charles S. Raddin), 62

Autumn [Poem] (Frederick William Faber), 149

Autumn [Poem] (William Cullen Bryant), 145

Autumn [Sonnet] (Henry Wadsworth Longfellow), 98

Banana, The (William Kerr Higley), 95

Bantams, The Ways of Some (May H. Prentice), 152

Bass, The Calico , 82

Bee Balm or Oswego Tea , 117

Bird Family, A Few of the [Poem] (James Whitcomb Riley), 125

Birds and Poets [Selection] (John Burroughs), 128

Birds, Natural Rights of (Lynds Jones), 8

Bird Study (Olive Thorne Miller), 78

Bird, To the Vesper [Poem] (Frank English), 73

Birds, What Do We Owe the? (Lynds Jones), 72

Black-Eyed Susan or Ox-Eye Daisy , 111

Bob White [Poem] (Effie L. Hallett), 128

Bob White, A True Story of a Wayward (Charles Thompson), 113

Brittany , 34

Buffle-Head, The , 154

Carnivorous Plants (John Merle Coulter), 228

Castles in the Air (Charles Elmer Jenney), 175

Cattle, 32

Chat, Chatter of a (Elizabeth Nunemacher), 168

Christmas To-night [Poem] (Phillips Brooks), 226

Columbine, The (James Jensen), 100

Daisies, Sunflower and (Albert Schneider), 110

Day and Night [Poem] (Thomas Bailey Aldrich), 132

Debt, How We May Best Pay the (Lynds Jones), 122

December, [Sonnet] (Helen Hunt Jackson), 193

December, King [Poem] (Walter Thornbury), 193

Deep, The [Poem] (John G. C. Brainard), 139

Dog and Its Ancestors, The , 224

Eagle Lore (Phebe Westcott Humphrey), 53

Editor's Note, 144

Fashion, Cruel Treatment of Birds Demanded by (Lynds Jones), 150

Favorite Haunt, A (Berton Mercer), 227

Fish, The Flying, 144

Fish, The Growth and Variation of (Seth E. Meek), 84

Fish, The Origin of the [A Bird-Fish Story] (Albert Schneider), 90

Fishes, The Geographical Distribution of (Seth E. Meek), 161

Fishes, The Geological Succession of (Seth E. Meek), 133

Fish's Place in Nature, The (David Starr Jordan), 14

Flicker's Mistake, The (Nell Kimberly McElhone), 66

Flower, A Pattern (John Merle Coulter), 2

Flower in the Crannied Wall [Poem] (Alfred Tennyson), 68

Flowers and Their Invited Guests (John Merle Coulter), 59

Flowers and Their Unbidden Guests (John Merle Coulter), 119

Fowl, The Domestic , 125

"Frost Spirit," Selection From the [Poem]
(John Greenleaf Whittier), 169

Garden, School, 65

Gentian, Closed or Blind , 106

Gentian, Fringed , 106

Gentian, To the Fringed [Poem] (William Cullen Bryant), 108

Gentians, The Blue (Charles S. Raddin), 107

God's Handiwork [Poem] (John Wesley Waite), 7

Grebe, The American Eared , 159

Grouse, The Ruffed (Florence Holbrook), 102

Home, A Charming [Poem] (Anna R. Henderson), 48

How the Swifts Came to Build in Aunt Dorothy's Chimney
(Mary Grant O'Sheridan), 207

Insect Music, 31

Insects, Some Water (Charles Christopher Adams), 25

Insects, Water , 26

Jay, The Long-crested , 200

Junco, The Oregon (J. Mayne Baltimore), 80

Lady's Slipper , 58

Lake, A Mountain , 86

Legislative Protection, A Plea for (Lynds Jones), 221

Lily, Red or Wood , 2

Lily, The Wild Yellow, 71

Lily, Wild Yellow or Canadian , 70

Lions, The Baby, 109

Mallows, The , 51

Maple Leaves [Poem] (Thomas Bailey Aldrich), 232

May-Apple (Albert Schneider), 234

Migrations, The Fall [Poem] (Mary Drummond), 151

Moon-Baby, The [Poem] (Pall Mall Gazette), 215

Moths, The Luna and Polyphemus
(Charles Christopher Adams), 173

Moths, The Cecropia and Promethea
(Charles Christopher Adams), 216

Nature, Alone With [Poem] (F. Alexander Lucas), 1

Nature, The Gladness of [Poem] (William Cullen Bryant), 56

Nature [Selections] (Chaucer, Pope, Emerson, Thompson), 192

Nature, The Worship of [Poem] (John Greenleaf Whittier), 77

Nest, The Two-Storied (Ethel Morton), 41

Night, Day and [Poem] (Thomas Bailey Aldrich), 132

November [Sonnet] (William Cullen Bryant), 145

October's Bright Blue Weather [Poem] (Helen Hunt Jackson), 97

October [Sonnet] (William Cullen Bryant), 98

Oswego Tea, The , 117

Owl, The [Poem] (Alfred Tennyson), 198

Owl, The Western Horned , 194

Ox-Eye Daisy or Black-Eyed Susan , 111

Pigeon, Homing , 41

Pitcher Plant , 228

Plant Protection (John Merle Coulter), 182

Redstart, The American (Benjamin True Gault), 140

River, A Mountain , 20

River-Lily, A [Poem] (Jean Ingelow), 236

Rivers, Some Interesting Things About (Jenkin Lloyd Jones), 20

Rose-Mallow, Swamp , 51

Sapsucker, The Red-Breasted , 212

"Seasons," Selection from the [Poem] (Hood), 176

Sea Birds, Home of the , 134

Selection [Poem] (Milton), 83

Selection [Poem] (James Russell Lowell), 222

Sensitive Plant, The , 182

September [Poem] (Helen Hunt Jackson), 49

Snowdrop's Philosophy, The [Poem] (Wildea Wood), 55

Song [Poem] (George Eliot), 157

Sparrow, The Vesper , 74

Sunfish, The Common , 14

Sunflower, Tall or Giant , 111

Sunflowers and Daisies (Albert Schneider), 110

Sunrise Serenade, The [Poem] (Victor A. Hermann), 202

Tanager, The Louisiana , 166

Thrush, Wilson's , 8

Thrush, Wilson's, 13

Tiger-Lilies [Poem] (Thomas Bailey Aldrich), 68

Tree, The Birth of a [Poem] (Lucia Belle Cook), 187

Tree-Duck, The Fulvous , 205

Trout, The Rainbow (Seth E. Meek), 130

Victim of Circumstances, A (Mary Morrison), 203

What Birds Eat [Selection] (Olive Thorne Miller), 80

Wheat Harvesting (J. F. Steward), 42

Wheat Harvesting in the Great Northwest , 47

White Table in the Woods, A (Elizabeth Reed Brownell), 214

Willet, Some Facts About the Western
(Frank M. Woodruff), 146

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| Transcriber's Note: |
| |
| Minor typographical errors have been corrected without note. |
| |
| Punctuation and spelling were made consistent when a predominant |
| form was found in this book; otherwise they were not changed. |
| |
| Ambiguous hyphens at the ends of lines were retained. |
| |
| Mid-paragraph illustrations have been moved between paragraphs |
| and some illustrations have been moved closer to the text that |
| references them. The pagination of corresponding index entries |
| was corrected. |
| |
| Italicized words are surrounded by underline characters, |
| _like this_. |
| |
| The Contents table was added by the transcriber. |
| |
| The index contains links to articles in other issues of _Birds |
| and Nature_ magazine: Volume VIII Number 1, June, 1900, Volume |
| VIII Number 2, September 1900, Volume VIII Number 3, October |
| 1900, Volume VIII Number 4, November 1900. |
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