Chapter II: Front Matter (2)

Two lists of precious stones quite similar to those of the Book of Exodus are given in other places in the Bible, one in Ezekiel 28:13, where “every precious stone” is said to have been the covering of the King of Tyre, and again in Revelation 21:19-20, where twelve different precious stones are mentioned as garnishing the foundations of the wall of the Holy City. The names and order of these in Ezekiel are, in the authorized version, as follows:

Sardius, topaz, diamond,
Beryl, onyx, jasper,
Sapphire, emerald, carbuncle.

To these the Septuagint adds the following:

Chrysolite, ligure, agate.

The revised version gives marginally, ruby for sardius, carbuncle for emerald, and emerald for carbuncle. In Revelation the list as given in the authorized version reads as follows—

Jasper, sapphire, chalcedony,
Emerald, sardonyx, sardius,
Chrysolite, beryl, topaz,
Chrysoprase, jacinth, amethyst.

The marginal renderings give lapis-lazuli for sapphire and sapphire for jacinth.

Top row:
Garnet (January.)
Amethyst (February.)
Bloodstone (March.)
Second row:
Diamond (April.)
Emerald (May.)
Agate (June.)
Third row:
Ruby (July.)
Sardonyx (August.)
Sapphire (September.)
Fourth row:
Opal (October.)
Topaz (November.)
Turquoise (December.)

Though in each of these lists only twelve precious stones are mentioned, there is nothing to indicate that their use was in any way connected with the months of the year. Just when it became the custom to designate each month by a particular gem or how the custom originated is impossible to determine. The custom seems to have sprung up in modern Europe some time during the fifteenth or sixteenth century. Whether it originated in the twelve gems of Aaron’s breastplate as many believe, or was introduced by astrologers from the Arabians as others think, is not yet known.

The modern practice of considering the stone of each month especially appropriate to persons born in that month is probably still more recent in its origin. In former times gems could be possessed only by rulers or the very wealthy, so that their general use in the above manner was not possible. But now that nearly every one can own a gem of some kind the possession of “birth stones” and the attachment of special sentiments to them has become common. The custom is a pretty one, and is to be commended, for the stones are imperishable and the sentiments ascribed to them represent the accumulated traditions of many ages, races and peoples.

As to the particular stone which is to be considered appropriate to each month usages differ. Such differences have doubtless arisen from the desire to introduce gems which were formerly little known or unattainable on account of their cost, as substitutes for stones formerly prized but now held of little value. Thus the precious opal now much admired was hardly known in former times. By some it is now used as the birth stone of the month of October, while others retain the beryl. The diamond has been introduced in modern practice in quite a similar way. The carnelian and chrysolite by some still used for the months of August and September are stones held of little worth at present, and hence others are usually substituted. The particular order and kind of stones adopted in the accompanying plate is given in accordance with some verses quoted in a pamphlet first published by Tiffany & Company, of New York, in 1870. The author of the verses is not known, nor is it known by just what authority these gems were chosen. The choice, however, seems as satisfactory as could be made. Some of the verses have been quoted in previous numbers of this magazine, but they may here be given entire:

JANUARY.

By her who in this month is born,
No gems save garnets should be worn;
They will insure her constancy,
True friendship and fidelity.

FEBRUARY.

The February-born shall find
Sincerity and peace of mind,
Freedom from passion and from care,
If they an amethyst will wear.

MARCH.

Who in this world of ours their eyes
In March first open shall be wise,
In days of peril firm and brave,
And wear a bloodstone to their grave.

APRIL.

She who from April dates her years,
Diamonds shall wear, lest bitter tears
For vain repentance flow. This stone
Emblem of innocence is known.

MAY.

Who first beholds the light of day
In spring’s sweet flowery month of May,
And wears an emerald all her life,
Shall be a loved and happy wife.

JUNE.

Who comes with summer to this earth,
And owes to June her hour of birth,
With ring of agate on her hand
Can health, wealth and long life command.

JULY.

The glowing ruby shall adorn
Those who in July are born;
Then they’ll be exempt and free
From love’s doubts and anxiety.

AUGUST.

Wear a sardonyx, or for thee
No conjugal felicity;
The August-born without this stone,
’Tis said, must live unloved and lone.

SEPTEMBER.

A maiden born when September leaves
Are rustling in September’s breeze,
A sapphire on her brow should bind—
’Twill cure diseases of the mind.

OCTOBER.

October’s child is born for woe,
And life’s vicissitudes must know;
But lay an opal on her breast,
And hope will lull those woes to rest.

NOVEMBER.

Who first comes to this world below
With drear November’s fog and snow,
Should prize the topaz’ amber hue—
Emblem of friends and lovers true.

DECEMBER.

If cold December gave you birth,
The month of snow and ice and mirth,
Place on your hand a turquois blue:
Success will bless whate’er you do.

The sentiments further ascribed to the above gems are, as given in a pamphlet by Mr. George F. Kunz and published by Tiffany & Company, in 1892, the following:

Garnet.—Insures Power, Grace and Victory to the wearer.

Amethyst.—Deep Love; prevents Intoxication.

Bloodstone.—Courage and Wisdom.

Diamond.—Purity; Preserves Peace, Prevents Storms.

Emerald.—Immortality, Conquers Sin and Trial.

Agate.—Health, Wealth and Longevity.

Ruby.—Charity, Dignity and Divine Power.

Sardonyx.—Conjugal Felicity; Prevents Misfortune.

Sapphire.—Constancy, Truth and Virtue.

Opal.—Hope, Innocence, Purity.

Topaz.—Friendship and Fidelity.

Turquois.—Prosperity, Soul-cheerer.

Oliver Cummings Farrington.

APPLE BLOSSOMS AND THE WARBLERS.

It was a cold, rainy day toward the last of May. The apple trees were a mass of pink and white, but the fast gathering petals on the green carpet told the story; not for long would be wafted in through each window a whiff of such perfume as only Dame Nature, May and Company can distill. Unfortunately, I was in no mood to appreciate the beauties of a spring rain, for it was a very evident fact that the bad weather would prevent our anticipated bird walk. This fact I was bewailing, looking forlornly from the window out into the dripping world, when lo, I found that, contrary to expectations, the mountain does on occasion appear unto Mahomet!

On the lawn north of our house are nearly a dozen apple trees, two of which have branches overhanging the roof. I noticed that the foliage was in livelier motion than is usually caused by an easy shower, and on closer examination discovered that the trees were fairly alive with flitting forms, birds—warblers in all their glory. This was long before noon, and it was but the beginning of a state bordering on ecstasy for me which ended only when darkness fell, as it gave me the opportunity for making the acquaintance of a family, straggling members of which, only, I had met since my interest in feathered friends awakened.

To my delight I immediately brought within range of my glass the little fellow which I had seen the year before in the same tree, and had described in my note-book as “wearing a sun burst of black on a yellow vest.” On this occasion he was much in evidence, and the details of his handsome coat could be plainly detected. He is mostly black, and you may distinguish him by the broad white patch on his wings and the yellow breast which is decorated by a black pendant necklace. He is the magnolia warbler.

The chestnut-sided was well represented in the flock, and was an old friend. With us here in New Hampshire, he stays through the summer, but it is only at this season that we are apt to meet him. One recognizes him by his clear greenish-yellow crown and by the clearly defined chestnut streak on either side of his white vest.

Of course the Lord of the Manor is the Blackburnian warbler. To my great delight, he brought his wonderful flaming breast within four feet of me as I sat in one of the upper windows, watching him explore the branches. Mark him well. His upper parts are black, while his crown, throat and breast are flaming orange. He, too, wears a white vest, marked at the sides with black. So beautiful is he that words fail to describe him, while to see him flitting about among the apple blossoms was indeed “a picture no artist could paint.”

The next on my list was a discovery, and one over which I was jubilant. He was an elusive little fellow, and led me out into the rain and kept me standing there with the drops trickling down my face as I searched the branches for him. He was the daintiest sprite imaginable, whose blue-gray coat was like satin and whose white breast shading from a yellow throat could not make him conspicuous. It was only when I discovered that his back was a beautiful shade of bronzy-greenish-yellow that I knew he was the parula warbler, the blue yellow back. Then I went to the authorities to learn more about my stranger. Then I read that he wears another distinguishing mark, a brown streak across the throat. Back to the garden I went. Eureka! he satisfied all conditions, and was named! During this shower of warblers the parula was the most numerous species, excepting, perhaps, the chestnut sided.

A redstart came in for its share of admiration, and his beauty deserved it, but his evident appreciation of his own charms as he dashed here and there, opening and closing his fan-like tail, rather detracted from his character as he was viewed alongside his beautiful companions, who, to say the least, are modestly unaware of their charms.

Later, another discovery was made, and one that puzzled us for some time. At the first glimpse of him we said, “Chickadee, of course,” for we saw his black cap and his general black and white aspect. Then as he flew to a tree near the window, and we marked every point possible, we found that his back was closely striped with black and white, that his breast and belly were white, and that his wings were tinged with olive and had two white bars. We could not name him, and to my amazement Miss Wilcox did not have such a one in her “Common Land Birds of New England.” so not until I went to “Birdcraft” did I learn that my visitor was the black poll warbler. He was always intent upon his own affairs, seemed rather superior to the common herd, and was the last one of the visitation to leave me.

The Maryland yellow throat was here, too, away from his native alders, but seemingly not one bit confused to find himself an orchard bird. Perhaps he was only “going a piece” with his relatives and connections as they journeyed north. He is a beauty, and you may hear him in any alder swamp calling “witchy-titchy, witchy-titchy.”

I searched and searched for the black and white creeper whom we often see, but evidently he did not like a mixed crowd, for I did not discover him until several days later, when the main flock had passed on. The rest, however, were on every side, and so tame and confiding were they that a raised sash, or an ecstatic shout to a watcher at another window did not appear to disturb them in the least.

They were voiceless, though, intent upon nothing but dinner, except the redstart, who seemed to take settlement life as somewhat of a joke and, as he careered about, occasionally called to “sweet, sweeter, sweet.”

So the day passed, a continual surprise party, and the next day came, and still the flock lingered. But when the rain ceased, and the sun reappeared, they lifted their wings and hastened to pastures new, leaving only a straggler here and there. Will a spring rain this year find them passing over my apple trees? So may it be.

Grace E. Harlow.

RURAL RAMBLES.

Over the hills as the pewee flies,
’Neath the glorious blue of summer skies;
Through briery wastes where wild birds dwell,
Deep in the shade of some rocky dell;

Where the pennyroyal and mint smell sweet,
And the blackberry ripens in cool and heat;
Down the winding path by the rippling rill,
By the old-time creek, by the dear old mill;

By the vine-clad fence, in the alder’s shade
Where woodchucks and merry squirrels invade;
Through spreading fields of daisies bright,
Where butterflies roam from morn till night;

Past upland and hollow whence scents are blown
Of clover blossoms and flowers well known;
Over swamp and marshland where red-wings sing,
While in flag and tussock their nest they swing;

Through ancient orchards, o’er meadows green,
Where roses and buttercups girt the stream;
Away through the woodlands’ emerald shade
By sparkling springs, through fern-clad glade,

By old quarry ponds where memories cling
And gay swallows circle on tireless wing;
From dawn’s early light till twilight’s gloaming,
With scenes ever changing, there’s pleasure in roaming.
—Berton Mercer.

THE HORSE.
(_Equus caballus._)

There are many objects which are so commonly seen that we deceive ourselves by thinking we know much about them, and yet should we make a special study of these same objects, often we would find ourselves woefully ignorant in regard to some of their most distinguishing characteristics.

Every day of our lives we see Horses. These frequently move with exquisite grace and beauty, stepping daintily and proudly as if hardly deigning to remain on earth, but seeming just ready to rise and fly as did the fabled winged horse Pegasus. With rapidly moving feet

“The landscape speeds far away behind
Like an ocean driven before the wind,”

and we look on only to admire and wonder. And yet how comparatively few of those who watch the fascinating motion of a rapidly moving Horse know that the beautiful animal is running on only one toe, for that indeed is all it possesses for each foot. The foot proper extends as high as the apparent knee. This is in reality the wrist or ankle, and the apparent foot is but a finger or toe corresponding to the middle finger and middle toe of the hand and foot of man. The hoof may be likened to the finger nail. In fact, it is a great, thick, enlarged nail, finishing and protecting the toe above.

The Horse belongs to a great division, known as the odd-toed animals. There are about twenty-five species of these animals now existing and they are divided into four families, the one-toed Horses, the tapirs with four toes in front and three behind; the rhinoceroses with three toes, and the cony family with four toes on their fore feet and three on the hinderfeet. These four families are very different in their ways of living and are so unlike that one would not expect to find them relatives.

The native country of the Horse seems to be nearly the entire northern hemisphere, for fossil remains are found throughout this region, but in America the Horse (never found south of Alaska) became extinct, and for a time there were no Horses on the western continent. After the discovery of America, Horses were imported into the country and in time some escaped from their owners and formed herds which have multiplied until there are a great many wild Horses now roaming over the new world.

In Europe wild Horses also became extinct, but at a comparatively recent date; but in Asia and Africa there seems to be no time when the wild Horses have not been roaming over the plains and tablelands, as free as the wind.

On the steppes of southeastern Europe there are great herds of peculiar Horses, called tarpans. These are indeed freedom-loving animals and one can but feel a certain sympathy with their unwillingness to be tamed. They are a rather small Horse with thin, strong legs, a rather long, thin neck and a comparatively thick, blunt-muzzled head. They have small, brilliant, wicked eyes; the hair is thick and short in summer and inclined to curl; in winter it is longer and coarser and on the chin becomes almost like a beard.

Not content to roam in freedom by themselves, they will, if possible, entice domesticated Horses to join their number. On this account they are persistently hunted, as they do considerable damage.

The great herds are divided into families, each family led by a stallion who is sole ruler, taking the best of care of his subjects, but permitting no irregularity. These herds wander from place to place, usually running against the wind, and their keen sense of hearing warns them of approaching danger. The stallions do not fear beasts of prey and will sally forth against wolves and beat them down with their fore-hoofs.

The earliest representations of Horses and the fossil remains of the prehistoric animals show them to be of rather small size and not unlike the tarpans, suggesting the idea to some minds that the tarpans were the ancestors of the modern domesticated breeds, but the facility with which the Horse will resume its wild state makes opinions of little value.

The South American wild Horses, called “the wild Horse of the Pampas,” were all descended from a few domesticated Horses left in the town of Buenos Ayres, which was abandoned some time after the year 1535. These Horses are called cimarrones. They roam in immense herds and are considered a nuisance, as they consume good pasturage and also lead away the domestic Horses. The mustangs of Paraguay, although domestic Horses, vary little from the conditions of the wild Horses of the pampas, as they are much neglected, live out of doors all the year around and really degenerate for want of care.

A. von Humboldt gives an interesting description of the life of the Horse in the Llanos, the great grassy plains lying further to the north. When the never-clouded sun turns the grass to dust, the Horses and cattle roam about, pressed by hunger and thirst, and by inflating their nostrils endeavor to discover by the damper air currents localities where the water has not yet evaporated.

The Mules, using more intelligence, beat with their fore-feet the prickly exterior of the melon cactus and quench their thirst with the watery pulp.

When finally the rainy season begins, the Horses still meet with danger and trouble, as the swelling rivers surround their grazing places and the colts are frequently drowned. Jaguars often lurk in the tall grass and crocodiles are a constant menace. Even among the fish there are dangerous enemies. The electric eels “can kill the largest animals by means of their powerful discharges if their efforts are concentrated upon certain portions of the body.”

The Horses are often their own enemies. Becoming frantic with terror, in a frenzy of fright, they destroy themselves by dashing against rocks or rushing over precipices.

There is much that is interesting in regard to the half-wild Horses of North America. These are all descendants of imported varieties, and while owned by the various ranchmen, they have the freedom of the range or prairie. Ofter they are seen by their owners only at the annual “round-up,” when they are driven into the “corrals” in order that the colts may be marked with the brand of the owner.

One can spend much time studying the instructive facts in regard to the interesting wild and half-wild Horses of the globe, and still feel that much remains unlearned. Yet all will admit that the most beautiful and perfect types of Horses are those bred under the direct supervision of man.

Of those which attain the greatest speed, most prominent are the English thoroughbred, the American race horse, and the Trakehnen Horse, the finest Horse of German breed.

These are all the result of many years of careful selection, each finding among its ancestors the noted Arab steeds, “praised as the noblest animal of creation by the naturalist, the expert and the poet.” The Horses of the Levant and the Barbary have also aided to render the English thoroughbred the greatest race horse of the old world. The American trotters have not been behind, for as far back as 1889 the maximum recorded pace was one mile in two minutes and three and three-fourths seconds.

For the practical uses of life there seem to be as many breeds of Horses as are necessary to meet the varying requirements of an industrial civilization. We find all kinds and sizes, from the heavy and powerful Percheron or Clydesdale cart Horse, standing sometimes over six feet in height, to the smallest Shetland pony which may be even less than three feet at the withers, and we find Horses of various colors, of various lengths of mane and tail, and of varying degrees of intelligence.

While all Horses are not well treated, yet no animal is so respected and loved by man and no other animal has become so close a companion. While many nations as a whole have loved and cherished their Horses, the Arab steeds have been most appreciated and have entered closest into the daily life and thought of their masters. Only when it has attained its seventh year do they consider the education of the Horse complete and meanwhile it has been the constant companion and friend of its master.

In the extravagant and poetical language of the East, one Arab thus speaks of his beloved Horse: “Do not tell me that this animal is my horse, say that he is my son. It runs more quickly than the wind of a storm, more swiftly than the glance that sweeps the plains. It is pure as gold. Its eye is clear and so keen that it sees a hair in the dark. It overtakes the gazelle in its course. To the eagle it says: I hurry on like you. When it hears the shouts of girls it neighs with joy, and the whistling of bullets rejoices its heart. From the hands of women it begs for alms; the enemy it beats in the face with its hoofs. When it can run to its heart’s desire, it weeps tears. It recks not whether the sky be clear or the blasts of the desert obscure the light of the sun with dust; for it is a noble steed and despises the rage of the storm. There is no other in this world that could vie with it. Swift as a swallow, it courses on; so light is its weight that it could dance on the breast of your beloved and not annoy her. It understands all like a son of Adam, and all it lacks is speech.”

John Ainslie.

A MELODY.

Afar and near, afar and wide,
The murm’ring chant of a running stream,
Across the rocks to the brimming tide
Of the shining sea, its waters gleam.

Low in the beeches, hid from sight,
A robin is singing a song so sweet,
Its rapturous melody seems a flight
Of song from Heaven’s own azure deep.

O fateful river, now gleaming, now dark,
Like my checkered life of shadow and sun,
But always through it the song of my heart
Like the robin’s vesper, to God is sung.

But ever the river rolls along
With manifold crews of human souls;
And ever, the robin’s clear, sweet song
Is heard afar as the river rolls.
—Amanda M. E. Booth.

THE VERBENAS.

“Hallowed be thou, Vervain,
As thou growest on the ground,
For in the Mount of Calvary
There thou wast first found.”

The name Verbena in the language of flowers signifies enchantment. It is an ancient Latin name for a common European Vervain. As a classic name, however, the name Verbena was applied to any branch that was used in the celebration of religious rites. Though the Vervain of our illustration belongs to this genus it is not the same plant that was held in high esteem and as a sacred herb by the Greeks and Romans, yet it is generally believed that the “herba sacra” of these ancient peoples was a Vervain. And even to-day the name “Herb of Grace” is sometimes applied to the common wayside flower which we illustrate.

Virgil and other classic poets speak of the Verbena as used in altar decorations and as a garland for beasts led to the sacrificial pyre. Virgil, in his Eclogues, refers to it as a charm by which to recover lost love. Plinius states that no plant has been more honored than the Verbena among the Romans. Mr. Knight, in his biography of Shakespeare, says: “Some of the children said that a horseshoe over the door, and Vervain and dill, would preserve them, as they had been told, from the devices of sorcery.”

The genus Verbena includes about one hundred and ten species, often of a weedy character. They are chiefly American. In fact, in 1836, Loudon spoke of the Verbenas as “a genus of weedy plants.” At the present time this statement is not true of many species, for under the florist’s influence they have been brought to a high degree of perfection and they are well thought of as ornamental plants. Even in Loudon’s time there grew on the prairies of South America several species of great beauty which he would not have classed as weeds had he been familiar with them.

The Blue Vervain is one of the weedy members of the genus. It is common along our waysides and with its erect form and long spikes of blue flowers would be quite attractive could the flowers all mature at the same time. It has frequently been placed under cultivation, but has but little value as a garden flower. But in the waste grounds of roadsides it is a pleasing sight even if its leaves are gray with dust.

This plant is sometimes called Simpler’s Joy. It was given this name because in years gone by it was a popular herb with the “simplers,” or gatherers of medicinal plants.

THE BLUE SPRING DAISY.
(_Erigeron pulchellus._)

Daisy-like and modest, is not the name the Blue Spring Daisy much more appropriate for this hardy little plant than Robin’s or Poor Robin’s Plantain, by which it is often known? What has it to do with the robin? To be sure it sends forth its stems and blossoms in April when the birds are happiest, yet the robins appear much earlier. Then, too, the robins are not poor, for they are the best cared for among birds. Its flowers are often of a bluish cast, though they may be violet or even nearly white; they appear in the spring and are daisy-like.

The botanist knows this plant of the hills and banks as one of the species of the genus Erigeron. This name is indicative of one of its characteristics. It is from two Greek words meaning spring and old man. Old man in the springs or early old is an appropriate name, for the young plants are quite hoary and this hairiness remains throughout its life.

The Blue Spring Daisy is not alone, for it has about one hundred and thirty sister species widely distributed throughout the world, but they are more abundant in the Americas, nearly seventy of these occurring in North America.

This unassuming plant frequently grows in large patches, yet does not crowd its fellows; often it grows in localities which the more delicate and brilliant of the early flowers are wont to shun. This may have been the theme which inspired these lines of the poet:

I love the lowly children of the earth!
I linger ’mid their artless ways
To feel their kinship and their fragile worth,
And catch their speechless praise.

Though the species of Erigeron are coarse growing and unpretentious plants, they lend themselves readily to garden cultivation. They are easily propagated and make good borders, for they are much more beautiful when massed than when allowed to develop as single plants. The forms vary greatly in color—orange, creamy, white, rose, violet, purple and bluish illustrate the range of color. The yellow centers heighten the color effect.

The flowers resemble those of the asters and the Blue Spring Daisy might be mistaken for an Aster. But few of the Asters, however, blossom earlier than the month of August and none before July, and the Spring Daisy does not blossom, as a rule, later than in June.

Miss Lounsberry says: “What strange idea filled the pretty head of Robin’s Plantain when it decked itself out to look like an Aster we do not know, but its deception is very transparent and we readily discover that it is not one of the Asters.” May we not look upon it as the harbinger of the true Astors?

THE LITTLE FEATHERED BOYS AND GIRLS.

In fragrant fields where graze the herds
And all along the old highway,
The boys and girls among the birds
Call each to each the livelong day.

Bob White, Bob White, pipes out the quail
From old fence posts and mossy stones,
In meadows where the ripened grain
In golden stacks awaits the flail.

A little tuft of feathers grey
That snaps its bill in eager glee
When e’er a fly is caught on wing,
Full forty times calls out Phoebe.

When fragrant dews fall from the sky—
And sinks the sun behind the hill,
From dark’ning woods rings out the cry,
O Whip poor Will—O Whip poor Will.
—Blandina D. Miller.

THE COTTON PLANT.
(_Gossypium barbadense_, L.)

Theise men ben the beste worchers of Gold, Sylver, Cottoun, Sylk and
of all such things of any other, that be in the World.

—Mandeville, Travels, p. 212.

The cotton plant is undoubtedly one of the most useful plants in the entire vegetable kingdom. As with other exceedingly useful, though common things, we are so accustomed to the blessings we owe to this plant that we almost entirely lose sight of its identity and very existence.

There are a number of cotton yielding plants which belong to the genus Gossypium of the Mallow family (Malvaceæ), the same family to which the Hibiscus and garden mallows belong. The most important species are G. barbadense, which yields the noted Sea Island cotton, and G. herbaceum. Both are extensively cultivated in the United States, the latter species more than the former. Other more or less cultivated species are G. arboreum, G. religiosum and G. punctatum. The cottons are handsome plants with large, showy yellow or purple flowers. They vary from comparatively small and herbaceous to shrubby or even approaching the dimensions of trees. The seeds are borne in a three to five lobed capsule, which ruptures at maturity, thus allowing the snow-white cotton head to appear. The outer surface of the seeds is covered with slender fibers, each fiber being simply a single, greatly elongated epidermal cell. The individual fiber is flattened, twisted upon its axis, flexuous, from one to two or three inches in length. These fibers constitute the cotton of the market, which finds so many important uses in human economy. Of course primarily nature intended these fibers for the special use of the plant itself; being a means of aiding in the distribution of the seeds, and no doubt also serving as a protection against being eaten by animals, as the dense, more or less intertwined growth of insipid, tenacious fibers constitute anything but a tempting morsel. Man, by his ingenuity and skill, has been enabled to utilize this product of nature in his own behalf.

The commercial and technical uses of cotton date back to very remote antiquity. Cotton fabrics were in use in China as early as 2300 B. C. At the discovery of America, beautiful cotton fabrics were found in Brazil, Peru, Mexico and the West Indies. According to the eminent Greek historian and traveler, Herodotus, cotton clothing was quite universally worn 484 B. C. The finest cloth came from the valleys of the Ganges, and not until the close of the campaigns of Alexander the Great did the manufacture of cotton cloth become a distinctive industry in Greece. It appears that during the time of Pharaoh cotton was yet a rare article since it is recorded that this eminent ruler presented Joseph with a costly coat made of this material, as a memento of high esteem. It is also a notable fact that the Egyptian mummies are swathed in linen instead of cotton cloth. No cotton seeds have ever been found in the ancient tombs of Egypt, nor is the plant represented upon the ancient mural paintings of that country.

In the eastern continent India was no doubt the principal cotton growing country; even China obtained its principal supply from that source. Not until about the ninth century of our era was cotton extensively cultivated in China. About the second century Arabian merchants brought cotton from India and began to cultivate it in the vicinity of the Red Sea, and from thence it gradually found its way into Spain about the sixteenth century, and from Spain into Italy and Greece.

No one knows exactly when cotton began to be used and cultivated in the western continent; we know that it must have been used a long time before the discovery of America by Columbus, for reasons already given. Mexican and South American mummy cloth is found to consist largely of cotton.

Description of Plate.—A, B, branch of cotton plant; 1, sepal; 2,
flowering bud; 3, petal; 4, 5, stamen; 6, pollen grain; 7, pistil; 8,
8a, 9, flower; 10, 11, 12, immature fruit; 13, ripe fruit; 14, 15,
seed.

Cotton is now extensively cultivated in the warmer countries of both hemi-spheres—in the southern United States since the sixteenth century. The cotton plant is in reality a perennial, becoming quite shrubby with age, but in cultivation it is treated as an annual, being grown from seeds planted each spring. Three or four seeds are planted to each hill, the hills being about three feet apart. After sprouting the weaker individuals are removed, and at the end of three or four months the remaining carefully cultivated plants are pruned to make them more spreading and give a better yield of cotton. The plants grow quite rapidly, the cotton maturing about five months after planting. With the exception of the pruning, the planting and cultivation of cotton in the southern states is not unlike the planting and cultivation of corn in the middle states.

The cotton is picked by hand into bags or baskets, spread out and dried, and finally carted to the cotton gin, a machine invented by Eli Whitney (1793), which separates the fibers from the seeds. The cotton is now pressed into bales, weighing from 400 to 500 pounds, for shipment. The cotton fiber is subjected to further processes of cleaning, carding, etc., before it is ready to be manufactured into cloth fabrics, thread, etc.

Nearly all parts of the cotton plant find a use. After the cotton is picked, the stalks are burnt upon the fields or “plowed under” to serve as a fertilizer for the soil, which would otherwise become impoverished very rapidly. The bark of the root is collected and employed medicinally, its medicinal properties being highly lauded by the negroes of the South. The seeds yield the cottonseed oil, which is not unlike olive oil. This oil, however, varies in purity, the purest being used as an adulterant of olive oil or as a substitute for this oil. The less pure grades are used for burning, but more in the preparation of woollen cloth and morocco leather, also as a lubricant for machinery. It is also used as a substitute for almond oil and olive oil in many pharmaceutical preparations and in the manufacture of soap. The seeds from which the oil has been expressed constitute the cottonseed cake, used as a nutritious cattle fodder. In the South a tea made from the seeds is considered a useful remedy in the treatment of malaria and dysentery. A tea made from the leaves is much used medicinally in Jamaica and other islands of the West Indies.

It is, however, the fiber, or cotton, which is the important part of the plant. It would be a tedious and difficult task to describe, or even enumerate, all of the uses to which it is put. It is used as wadding in clothing and quilts. It is used by the bacteriologist in the filtration of air; air passed through a layer of cotton is germ free. It is also used in the filtration of liquids. Purified and variously prepared, cotton is almost indispensable in surgery. It forms an excellent protective covering for wounds, ulcers, burns and scalds. It absorbs secretions and arrests hemorrhages. It is used in the preparation of gun cotton (pyroxylin) nitro-cellulose, collodion and flexible collodion. Gun cotton is prepared by treating cotton with strong nitric acid and is used in gunnery, blasting and in photography. Collodion (collodium) and flexible collodion are used in surgery, in the treatment of ulcers, skin diseases, to arrest hemorrhages, applied to inflamed areas, etc.

The most important part of the entire plant is the fiber or cotton as it is used in the manufacture of cloth. The modern method of cotton manufacture does not date back further than 1760. Prior to that time weaving and spinning were altogether domestic. At first the work was done by means of the ancient distaff and spindle, more recently the spinning wheel. By these only one thread could be produced at a time and, as may be imagined, the process was very slow. Furthermore, the yarn produced was inferior. A fairly good thread could be spun from flax, but the softness, shortness and unevenness of the cotton fiber made it difficult to produce a good uniform yarn by means of such crude apparatus. In fact, so poor was the yarn produced that in weaving it was used only for the weft (transverse thread), while linen, woolen or worsted yarn was used for the warp (longitudinal thread), in order that the cloth might have sufficient durability. During the middle of the eighteenth century the machinery for spinning was much more imperfect than the machinery for weaving. As a consequence, it became necessary to produce better spinning machines. In 1767 Hargreaves invented the “jenny” which spun eight threads at a time. In 1769 Arkwright invented the “waterframe,” or “throstle,” by means of which a much firmer yarn was produced. In 1785 Dr. Cartwright invented the “power loom,” which far surpassed any previous spinning machine. Other improvements were added from time to time, culminating in our highly perfected modern machines, which would require volumes for a complete description. We have machines with thousands of spindles. It is possible to weave a thread one thousand miles or more in length, yet weighing but one pound.

The raw cotton must be subjected to various processes before it is ready for spinning. The bales are opened and the cotton sorted, so as to insure a uniform quality. It is then passed through a scutching, willowing or cleaning machine, where all impurities and undesirable foreign particles are removed. Next it is passed through a carding machine, which straightens out the fibers and lays them parallel. It also passes through the spreading machine, roving machine and finally to the spinning machine.

The finer yarns are spun from Sea Island cotton, from which fine muslins, laces, etc., are made. This cotton has long fibers. The good qualities of short cottons are used in the manufacture of cambrics, calicoes, sheetings, shirtings, etc. Inferior grades of cotton are used for coarse yarns in the manufacture of coarse fabrics. Cotton is also mixed with wool. Yorkshire broadcloth is said to be about half cotton. From warps of cotton and wefts of wool or worsted (a variety of wool) are formed Orleans cloths, Coburgs, mousselines de laine, damasks, etc. There are also fabrics composed of silk and cotton, linen and cotton, alpaca and cotton, etc. It is used in the manufacture of cotton thread for sewing and pack thread for tying bundles, and other cordage.

Albert Schneider.

THE CLOUD.

I bring fresh showers for the thirsty flowers,
From the seas and the streams;
I bear light shades for the leaves when laid
In their noonday dreams.
From my wings are shaken the dews that waken
The sweet buds everyone,
When rocked to rest on their mother’s breast
As she dances about in the sun,
I wield the flail of the lashing hail
And whiten the green plains under;
And then again I dissolve it in rain
And laugh as I pass in thunder.
—Shelley.

INDEX.
Volume XI—January, 1902, to May, 1902, inclusive.

Page.

A
Animal Emotions. Alberta A. Field, 175
Antelope. The Autobiography of an. Alice Moss Joyner, 149
April (Poem). Walter Thornbury, 145
Arrow Head, The (Illustration), 182
Awakening (Poem). M. Townshend Maltby, 144

B
Berries of the Woods. Ella F. Mosby, 31
Between the Daylight and the Dark. S. E. McKee, 12
Bird that Hung Himself, A. Mary McCrae Culter, 65
Bird, The Pocket—The Scarlet Tanager. Belle Paxon Drury, 89
Bird, The Sing-Away (Poem). Lucy Larcom, 158
Birds and Flowers of the Mississippi Gulf Coast, April. James
Stephen Compton, 214
Bird’s Complaint, The (Poem). Henry Johnstone, 72
Birds in Their Winter Home, The—In the Fields. James Stephen
Compton, 90
Birds in Their Winter Home, The—In the Woods. James Stephen
Compton, 43
Birds on the Wing. M. D. Tolman, 24
Birds, Some of Our Winter—In Eastern Massachusetts. Winthrop
Smith, 67
Birds, The (Poem). Elizabeth Grinnell, 192
Birth Stones (Illustration). Oliver Cummings Farrington, 216
Bouncing Bet, or Soapwort (Illustration), 86