Chapter IV: Part I (2)

He is a great aid to the fruit grower. Let anyone that doubts this repair to an orchard and observe a company of them taking their meals. And it is an interesting sight to watch a merry party of these little creatures, as with never-ceasing activity they dexterously explore the trees for food. With the greatest nicety they poise in every conceivable attitude; from the trunk they dart to the topmost spray, now to the center of the tree and then instantly to the outside branches. While searching the trunk or a perpendicular branch, the head may be upward or the reverse; or if a horizontal branch is undergoing examination his feet are as likely to point heavenward as not; or he may hang suspended from a swaying twig. Ever in motion, flitting, hopping, swinging to and fro, they investigate every nook and cranny and draw numberless injurious insects, their eggs and larvae from their lurking places. The chickadee’s tongue, a fork-shaped instrument, is admirably adapted to prying its prey out of crevices of bark.

They by no means confine their work to the orchard, but all kinds of trees and shrubs are alike visited. In thus performing the duty assigned them by Nature they are of inestimable service to man.

Addie L. Booker.

THE COWRIES AND SHELL MONEY.

Among marine mollusks none stand so favorably in the eyes of collectors or are so beautiful as the Cypraeas, or Cowry shells. With their glossy coats and varied colors they are indeed gems of the ocean, and it is little wonder that the conchologist has placed them first among the many families of marine shells.

The name Cypraea comes from Cypris, one of the names of the goddess Venus. About two hundred recent species have been described and they are found in nearly all parts of the world, though more numerous in the tropics and sub-tropics, where they live on coral reefs and under rocks. As in many other genera of shells the Cowries living in the tropics are more brilliantly colored than those from more temperate climes, a condition due to the large amount of sunshine and high temperature, both of these factors being essential to the secretion of color in the pigment cells of the animal.

The animal which inhabits a Cowry shell is a curiosity. The foot is large and spreads out in a wide mass, enabling the animal to glide along quite rapidly. The mantle lobes are folded over the back of the shell and are beset with many little tuft-like organs which stick out like young shoots on a plant. The mouth is placed at the end of a rather long snout or rostrum and the eyes are upon the outside of two long, tapering tentacles, about one-third the distance from the body. When the shell is young it is covered with a thin epidermis and has a thin, sharp outer lip, like some snails, but when it is full grown the outer lip rolls inward, becomes toothed or ridged, as does also the inner lip, and the aperture becomes a long and narrow slit reaching from the apex to the base of the shell. The mantle lobes, which are inconspicuous in the young shell, becomes larger and are reflected over the back, depositing coat after coat of shelly enamel until the first pattern of the shell, as well as the epidermis, is covered with a secondary, shining coat. On most Cypraeas there is a line of paler color, showing where the two lobes of the mantle meet on the back.

Like many other mollusks the Cypraea is able to dissolve the internal whorls and thus enlarge the capacity of its shell. This is also true of Conus, and Murex, and some other marine snails dissolve the spines which may be in the way when increasing the size of the whorls. The older naturalists, Lamarck and Bruguiere, believed that the Cypraea was able to dissolve its outer lip after it had been rolled over and toothed, but this theory has been proved to be incorrect. They founded their belief on the fact that some individuals of the same species were larger than others. This, however, is due simply to individual variation.

The beautiful colors so much admired are deposited by the reflected mantle and their variety is almost endless. Some are perfectly plain, white, brownish, yellowish or orange, others are spotted with red, white, brown, drab or black, and still others are variously banded. The eyed-cowry (Cypraea argus) has large, dark brown spots on a lighter background.

In form and sculpture the Cowries present a rather wide range of variation. The typical form is more or less cylindrical, or pyriform, while others are flat, oval or egg-shaped. The surface varies from smooth to spirally lined and pustulose. In size they vary from the little Trivia exigua, scarcely one-fourth of an inch long, to the huge Cypraea testudinaria, nearly five inches in length.

Many of the larger species, like the tiger cowry (Cypraea tigris) and the black cowry (Cypraea mauritiana) have been household ornaments for centuries and have also served as playthings for young children, who have held them to their ears to “hear the sound of the roaring sea.”

Top row:
Cypraea exanthema (Half grown.)
Cypraea exanthema (Young).
Cypraea exanthema (Florida).
Second row:
Trivia solandri (California).
Cypraea annulus (Indian Ocean).
Third row:
Cypraea erosa (Indian Ocean).
Cypraea lurida (Mediterranean Sea).
Fourth row:
Cypraea spadicea (California).
Cypraea moneta (Philippines).
Fifth row:
Cypraea talpa (Pacific Ocean).
Cypraea mus (Europe).
Cypraea histrio (Indian Ocean).

In habits the Cowries are shy and they are slow in movement, sliding over the coral reefs and marine vegetation with a sluggish, steady motion. They present a beautiful sight when viewed through the water, their brilliant colors vying with those of corals, sea anemones and sea weeds. They are said to feed principally upon the coral animals.

From very ancient times the smaller Cowries have been used for adornment or barter. The Cypraea annulus, or ringed cowrie, which was found by Dr. Layard in the ruins of Nimroud, is said to be the same species which is now used by the islanders of the Indian and Pacific Oceans to weight their fish nets and to adorn their persons. In western Africa the money cowry (Cypraea moneta) has been and is now used as a medium of exchange in place of gold. Many tons were yearly shipped to England from the Indian and Pacific Oceans, to be again carried to Africa to barter with the natives for ivory and other articles.

The number of Cowries which have been given for various articles, with their value in American currency, is interesting. Thus it is recorded by the Conchologist Reeve that a gentleman residing at Cuttack in India paid for the building of his bungalow entirely in Cowries, giving over sixteen million specimens. The value of these Cowries was four thousand rupees sicca in Indian money, or about two thousand dollars in American money. In another place it is recorded that a young wife cost from sixty thousand to one million Cowries, or from about nineteen dollars to thirty-seven dollars, while an ordinary wife cost but twenty thousand shells or about six dollars.

The value of Cowries varies in different countries. In India five or six thousand may be purchased for one rupee, while in parts of Africa two hundred Cowries are worth sixteen cents. In Sudan, two thousand Cowries, which weigh about seven pounds, are worth one dollar. On the west coast of Africa, where trading in Cowries is largely carried on, the following gradation of value is recorded by Dr. Stearns:

40 Cowries = 1 string.
2½ strings = 1 pence.
100 Cowries = 1 pence.
50 strings = 1 head of Cowries.
10 heads = 1 bag.
2,000 Cowries = 1 head.
3 heads = 1 dollar.
20,000 Cowries = 1 bag.

In other places the value is about 1s. 3d. for 1,000 shells.

The money cowry is also used as ornaments on the trappings of horses and elephants, as well as on the persons of men and women. The rich yellow variety is much sought after by the chiefs of several island tribes, who permit no one but themselves or their sub-chiefs to wear them.

We may truly say that of all the mollusks, large or small, handsome or ugly, the modest little money cowry surpasses any in point of economical importance.

In the Friendly Islands the orange cowry (Cypraea aurantia) is used as a badge of chieftainship and for a long time specimens were almost priceless because no one but the chief was allowed to wear this ornament. Specimens of this species are frequently seen in collections, with a hole in the back by means of which it was suspended about the neck of the native chief.

Those who have described the Cowries have given them many fanciful names, some of which, however, are quite appropriate. Thus we have the caput serpentis or serpent’s head; the arabica or Arab shell, so named from the peculiar, hieroglyphic-like characters on its back; the lynx, pantherina and tigris, each shell resembling the coat of the lynx, panther and tiger; mus, the rat shell; rhinoceros, the rhinoceros shell; turdus the thrush, and cervus the deer. Many of the other names are equally well chosen, as moppa the mop cowry, and pustulata the pustulose cowry.

It is interesting to note the prices that have been paid for rare specimens of this family. At an auction held in London many years ago a specimen of Cypraea guttata brought two hundred dollars, and Cypraea princeps, another very rare shell, brought the same price. Cypraea umbilicata once sold for one hundred and fifty dollars, but may now be had for five dollars. Aurantia, the orange cowry, was once almost priceless, but is now sold at from twenty to forty dollars. Some of the lesser rarities are Cypraea scoltii, worth from five to eight dollars, and Cypraea decipiens, worth from fifteen to twenty dollars. These extravagant prices need not be paid by any one desiring a collection of these pretty shells, for the price of a single rarity will suffice to purchase the majority of the common species. Several private collections in the United States contain from one hundred fifty to one hundred seventy species, including a number of the rarities spoken of above.

In connection with the Cypraeas it is interesting to notice other species of shell money which have been used as money. The North American Indians used fragments of shells for money, which they called wampum. In New England wampum was in the form of beads, the manufacture of which required considerable skill. These beads were cylindrical in form, about one-fourth of an inch long and half as wide. They were of two colors and were drilled and strung on long cords.

The quahog (Venus mercenaria) was much used in the manufacture of shell money because of its two decided colors, pure white and deep purple. The white beads were called wampum or wompom and the black beads suckauhock, or black money. In addition to the quahog the whelk Buccinum and the “periwinkle” or “winkle” were used, the long, white columella being cut from the shell and made into beads.

We learn from some of the older records that in Massachusetts the wampum was valued at three beads to a penny or five shillings for a fathom. The fathom varied in size according to the number of beads allowed by law as an equivalent to a penny. If this was six, then the fathom contained three hundred and sixty beads, but if the number was four, then the fathom was composed of two hundred forty beads. Owing to the counterfeiting of wampum by the whites, who could make it much quicker with their tools than could the Indians, the value rapidly fell in later years and its use was finally discontinued.

On the coast of California the tooth or tusk shells, Dentalium, were used as money, being strung together as were the beads of the New England Indians. Those of the better quality were called Phai-Kwa or hi-qua and represented the highest standard of money. One hi-qua would purchase one male or two female slaves. The damaged or defective shells were called kop-kops, forty of which equalled one hi-qua in value. At one time a single hi-qua was equal in value to about two hundred fifty dollars. Other shells were also used on the Pacific coast, some of which were simply strung in the form of beads while others were cut from large shells. One of the latter was from the large clam, Pachydesma crassatelloides, and the pieces were called hawock or ha-wok, their value ranging from four to twenty-five cents. Another clam used was the Saxidomus aratus.

The little Olivella biplicata was used for beads and was called hol-kol. They were made by grinding off the apex, which left a hole through the top of the shell. The Haliotis or abalone was also used and was called uhl-lo. Pieces of the shell one or two inches in length were cut from the flat part of the abalone, a hole was drilled in one end and they were strung like beads. Their value was one dollar each, or ten dollars for a string of ten pieces. Like the shell money of New England that of the Pacific coast was counterfeited by the whites and for this reason the value of the native currency soon declined.

Frank Collins Baker.

THE BIRD OF SUPERSTITION.

There are several possible reasons why the owl has always been regarded as an ominous bird. Something uncanny seems to inhere in its noiseless flight, something unearthly to look out from its large, strange eyes. Even its voice arouses an eerie feeling, which is increased by the knowledge of its nocturnal habits. The poets are fond of alluding to its auguries of evil, Shakespeare alone finding a merry note in its “Tu-whit, tu-whoo,” and even he added an “owlet’s ring” to the noisome ingredients of the witches’ cauldron in Macbeth. He also speaks of

The fatal bellman
That givest the stern’st good night.

Chaucer speaks of the screech owl as

The prophet of woe and of mischance,

while Spencer alludes to—

The whistler shrill, that whoso hears doth die.

Roman soothsayers were accustomed to use owls’ feathers in their incantations. In many places its note is still considered a sure sign of impending death. In Borneo, it is said, that if a person on entering a forest hears the voice of an owl, he will at once return. The Mexicans, Indians and Basque shepherds regard the monkey-faced owl as an omen of ill-luck.

There is a story that Agrippa was so superstitious that when he beheld an owl perched over him on the occasion when the people shouted, “It is not the voice of a man, but of a God!” that he felt assured of the speedy death which followed.

But, on the other hand, instead of a prophet of evil, legend has it that the owl is the “bird of wisdom.” It was certainly consecrated to the service of Pallas Athene by the wise Greeks, whether on account of a certain air of intelligence, or because the goddess was herself the moon and therefore a nocturnal bird would be especially appropriate, we may never know.

There is a story to the effect that on one occasion, when an emblem of wisdom was to be chosen, all the contestants for the honor were finally eliminated except the Philosopher and the Owl. When the arguments in favor of the Philosopher had been duly considered, the Owl lifted up his voice and hooted: “I do not profess to embody all knowledge, but I have that which is better. I possess the art of concealing my ignorance.” Whereupon the judges, delighted with the idea, unanimously elected him as the better emblem of wisdom!

Many ancient customs had their origin in Egypt. The Egyptian wise men told the most learned of the Greeks that in knowledge they were but children compared with themselves. The superstitions regarding the owl may have arisen on the banks of the Nile, from a custom of the king of the country, who, whenever the death of a person was decided upon, sent to such individual the image of an owl, whereupon the unfortunate one was expected to kill himself at once. Small wonder the owl became in time a bird of ill-omen.

Belle Paxon Drury.

THE WISCONSIN DELLS.

Half-veiled by a purple haze,
The cliffs and crags, their turrets raise,
The fragrant forests, umber, green,
Scintillate in the sunlight’s sheen,
And whispering low, through clinging vines,
A berceuse comes from singing pines.
—Illyria Turner.

MY SUMMER NIGHT.

The dear voice of the summer night
Sings in my listening ear
A melody of joyous flight,
In sweetest cadence here.

I love the cricket’s monotone;
It almost seems to me
That star-notes, through the ether blown,
Have lodged in grass and tree.

A beetle, swinging down the field,
Booms on the lighted pane;
And, as it strikes, a thought revealed
Taps at my quivering brain.

The “peas and pork” bird in the air—
The solemn whip-poor-will—
Both thoughts of quaintest mystery bear
From off yon shadowed hill.

A silk-worm moth, with purple “eyes”
Upon its nether wings,
Around the lighted window flies,
Or to the casement clings.

So, all the eve, the gathering gloom
Speaks with its voices low;
Hearts unto hearts, in bits of bloom,
On summer evenings flow.
—Willis Edwin Hurd.

THE CHERRY.
(_Prunus cerasus_ L.)

Sauerkirsche, Weichsalkirsche, G. Ceriesier, Griottier, Fr.

Sweet is the air with the budding haws, and the valley stretching for
miles below
Is white with blossoming cherry-trees, as if just covered with
lightest snow.
—Longfellow: “Christus. The Golden Legend.”

The cherry-trees belong to the Rose family (Rosaceae) and are thus botanically related to the apple, rose, pear and strawberry. The numerous cultivated varieties are doubtless derived from the cherry whose original home was Asia Minor, from which country it spread to Europe and other countries many centuries ago. The plants are trees, mostly not large but handsome because of the green, simple, glossy serrated leaves and the beautiful numerous white flowers and the attractive red fruit. Pliny described the plant and designated Asia as its original home. About 63 B. C. the plant was brought to Rome. From Italy the cherry rapidly spread through Europe, for it was cultivated along the Rhine countries, in Belgium and in England, even during the time of Pliny. Alexander Trallianus recommended the fruit very highly in the treatment of consumption and in diseases of the liver.

In the language of flowers cherry blossoms signify inconstancy, which is somewhat peculiar, since the tree and the fruit are so frequently mentioned in a favorable sense in legend and folklore. Christ at one time gave Peter a cherry with the admonition not to despise little things. The tree is also consecrated to the Virgin Mary according to a tradition.

Cherry trees are cultivated throughout all civilized countries. As with most other long cultivated fruits the various varieties are the product of crossing (cross-pollination), artificial selection and cultivation, and desirable plants are perpetuated by grafting. There are various wild growing species of cherry, which must not be confused with the cultivated varieties. The wild black cherry (Prunus serotina) is very common in our woods. It is a handsome tree, varying from 15 to 100 feet in height. It has a smooth bark on the younger branches. The fruit is rather small, fleshy portion thin and of a very dark color when fully ripened. The wild black cherry must not be confused with the poisonous choke cherry (Prunus virginiana), which is a smaller tree and has red berries instead of black. Double caution is necessary since the scientific names are interchanged in various works. There is another Eastern cherry known as wild red, bird or pin cherry (Prunus pennsylvanica), which also has red fruit. There is also the common sweet cherry (Prunus avium). The common peach (Prunus persica) and the common garden plum (Prunus domestica) are close of kin.

The fruit of the cultivated domestic cherry is the most desirable and is usually had in mind when cherries are mentioned. The fruit is technically a stone fruit or drupe and not a berry; the outer portion of the fruit covering known as exocarp is fleshy and constitutes the edible portion. The endocarp is hard and forms the shell which encloses the seed. The fresh, fully ripened fruits are relished most by children, as well as by adults. Birds also are very fond of ripe cherries. Robins are on such a keen lookout for the ripening berries that the busy farmer is often a total loser. These birds often guard the trees jealously against all intruders, clamorously alighting on the very heads and shoulders of the boys who presume to climb the trees to pick the fruit.

Cherry wine is made from the fleshy pulp, which has an excellent quality and flavor. Cherry syrup is the product of fermentation and filtration with the addition of sugar and is used as a flavor for cold drinks and added to medicines to improve their efficiency and to disguise the taste. By crushing and distilling the seeds cherry water is obtained. The flowers and fruit stems are employed in kidney and catarrhal troubles. Cherries may be preserved by drying or pickling. The fruits are also macerated in whisky and brandy, adding to these drinks an agreeable flavor and acidity. For this purpose the fruit of the wild black cherry is very extensively used. The bark, particularly of the wild black cherry, is extensively employed in medicine. It is a very popular household remedy for the treatment of coughs and colds in children. The gum which exudes from the incised or otherwise injured bark is also used medicinally.

Cherry wood is hard and takes a good polish. It is used in cabinet making, interior finish and for inlaid work.

Cherries are also employed by the confectioner and by the baker in making pies. The seeds (kernels, pits) are first removed. The habit of swallowing the pits is a dangerous one, as serious and even fatal troubles are caused by them.

Albert Schneider.

NASTURTIUMS.

A tangle of broad, green leaves,
All over the garden border;
A mass of wonderful blooms,
Parading their gay disorder.

Petals of sunset and flame,
Their orient, velvet-soft splendor
Aflare on long, sinuous stems,
Aromatic, pale-tinted and slender.

Trespassers wilful and bold,
Wherever they choose they wander,
Spendthrift of color and scent—
Made but to riot and squander.

E’en to the court of the rose,
Their eager, loose tendrils outreaching;
Unable to guess at her pride,
Or to care for her thorn’s sharp teaching.

Yet such is their charm and delight,
One pauses, half ready to flout them;
For O, at the mid-summer’s height,
What were the garden without them?
—Lulu Whedon Mitchell.

Transcriber’s Notes

--Created an eBook cover from elements within the issue.

--Reconstructed the Table of Contents (originally on each issue’s
cover).

--Retained copyright notice on the original book (this eBook is
public-domain in the country of publication.)

--Silently corrected a few palpable typos.