Chapter II: Appendix: Notes on Bisayan Rhetoric and Poetics 117 (1)

Figures of Speech 117
Prose 121
Letters 121
Poetic forms 123
Versification 123
Collection of some Bisayan songs 124
Moral Poetry 124
Philosophic Poetry 125
Love Poetry 125
Sundry 126

NOTE ON FILIPINO DIALECTOLOGY 128

Words exactly the same in Bisayan and in Tagalog 128
Words with some dialectal differences 130
Differences in the vowels i, o 130
Differences k, h, l, r, d, t 131
Differences in the accent, and in the separation
of the syllables 132
Transformation from a to o and viceversa 132

ERRATA 133

ORTHOGRAPHY AND PROSODY

LETTERS.

The Bisayan letters are twenty: [3]

a, as a in large
b, }
c, } as in English
d, }
e, as e in well
g, as g in good
ng̃, as ng in long
h, as h in hat
i, sounding ee
l, }
m, } as in English
n, }
o, as o in long
p, as in English
qu, as the English k
r, }
s, } as in English
t, }
u, sounding oo as in good
y, as y in young

After knowing the respective sounds of these letters, according to the preceding table, no rule is necessary for the pronunciation of Bisayan words.

THE ACCENTS.

The orthographical accent is an important sign in Bisayan, in order to give to the words their proper pronunciation, and, consequently, their proper meaning.

Of the emission of the voice in pronouncing the Bisayan vowels, there are two ways: one is the ordinary way, like that of the English vowels, as in

baga (red-hot coal or wood),
dinhi (here),
olo (head),

and the other is by a guttural suspended emission of the voice, like

the last a in bagà (lungs),
the last i in dirì (not or no), and
the last o in torò (drop).

This guttural pronunciation is only used in the endings of words.

From the various combinations of these ways of pronouncing the vowels and the force with which they are pronounced, it follows that a vowel, no matter which one it is, has four different sounds:

1st. As ordinarily, and without any particular force.
2nd. As ordinarily, but with force in its pronunciation.
3rd. By a guttural suspended emission of the voice, and without
force.
4th. By a guttural suspended emission of the voice, and with force.

The first way does not need any orthographical sign. But the last three ones require a special orthographical accent in each ease.

When a vowel is pronounced as ordinarily, but with more force than others in the same word, the proper accent is the acute (´).

When a vowel is pronounced with a suspended guttural sound, but without any force, the corresponding accent is the grave (`).

And when a vowel is pronounced with a suspended guttural sound with force, its accent is the circumflex (ˆ), which is simply the combination of the two foregoing accents, as this last represents a sound that is the combination of the two sounds, suspended guttural and with force.

Therefore, in writing the word quita, for example, in its three different meanings and according to its three different pronunciations, it must be as follows:

quitá (we) quità (see) quitâ (look at).

RULE. There are three different accents in Bisayan: the acute (´); the grave (`); and the angular, which we may call improperly circumflex (ˆ).

The acute is located wherever it is needed, either at the beginning or in the middle or at the ending of the word. Examples:

úpa (reward) upá (rice chaff).

The grave and angular, by their nature, are only used upon words ending in a vowel, and then only upon the last vowel. Examples:

dacò (large), dacô (larger)

PUNCTUATION.

The signs of punctuation in Bisayan are the same as those in English, the rules for the use of the period (.), colon (:), semicolon (;), comma (,), parenthesis (), dash (—), quotation marks (“ ”) and apostrophe (’) being identical.

But the rules are different for the use of the interrogation and exclamation points, and hyphen.

In Bisayan, the Spanish way is followed in using two points of interrogation and two of exclamation, the one at the beginning of the question or exclamation (¿) (¡), and the other at the ending (?) (!).

While the hyphen (-) is also used in Bisayan to connect parts of a word divided at the end of a line, and to connect two or more nouns, adjectives, or particles, so as to form them into a single compound, it has an additional use which is to separate distinctly the syllables of certain words that would have a different meaning or none at all without the said separation. Examples:

sál-ong (to hook) sálong (resin)
súl-ay (belching of an infant) súlay (prop)
bac-ad (to unroll)
os-og (to draw near from afar)
im-im (lip)
sid-ap (to look at)
san-o (when, future)
cacan-o (when, past) [4]

NOTE.—The above separations are not of the same character as those caused by contractions or elisions, where the proper sign is not a hyphen, but an apostrophe. As,

gáb’i from gabii (night) cabitón’an, from cabitoónan (stars) pabáy’i, from pabayái (leave him or her) it’ im’ bugtò ng̃an from iton imo bugtò (your brother or hit’ ac’ patód, ng̃an hitón acon patód sister and my cousin).

Therefore, it would not be correct to write gab-i, cabiton-an, pabay-i, where the apostrophe should be employed instead of the hyphen. However, the apostrophe is used only when needed to avoid wrong pronunciation or confusion. So the last of the preceding examples is written without any sign of punctuation, thus: it im bugtò ng̃an hit ac patód.

VOWELS

The Bisayan people, especially in Leyte, always have a tendency to separate the vowels in pronouncing the words, there being no Bisayan dipthong. So it is bi-ol (small basket) and not biol; cá-on (eat), ti-il (foot), ma-opay (good), and not cáon, tiil, maopay. But this refers only to spoken language, not to written.

Some words, like uásay (axe), sabáo (broth) are pronounced ua-say, sa-bao, and not u-a-say, sa-ba-o. These syllables ua and ao are not dipthongs. The u in the syllable ua and the o in the syllable ao, are not the vowels u, o, but the consonant w. These words should be written more properly wásay, sabáw. [5]

SYLLABLES

Every vowel [6] with the consonant or consonants pronounced with it and every vowel pronounced alone form one syllable, and are written as such. This is the rule applied to the division of a word at the end of a line. Examples:

ca-ru-ca-yá-can (conversation)
bác-dao (stand)
a-ha-cá (hemp), etc.

CAPITALIZATION

In Bisayan, the following words should begin with capitals:

1. The first word of every sentence.
2. The proper nouns.
3. The names of the days of the week and the months of the year.
4. Titles of honor or office.
5. All words, except prepositions, conjunctions and unimportant
adjectives, in the titles of books and essays.
6. All names of God, and expressions referring to the Deity.
7. Words representing important events in history and epochs of
time.

CONTRACTIONS

There is no contraction used in Bisayan, except that in the sign mg̃a (a particle employed to express the idea of plurality).

Mg̃a is for mang̃a composed of ma (an important prefix of the Bisayan and Tagalog dialects, which bears the idea of abundance or plurality) and ng̃a (a conjunctive particle which is necessarily employed to connect the variable parts of speech).

NOTE. It would be desirable to have the following contractions adopted in Bisayan, inasmuch as they are universally recognized:

i.e. for id est.
e.g. ,, exempli gratia.
viz. ,, videlicet.
etc. ,, et cetera.
P.D. ,, post data.
P.S. ,, post scriptum.
N.B. ,, nota bene.
a.m. ,, ante meridiem.
p.m. ,, post meridiem. [7]

ETYMOLOGY.

PARTS OF SPEECH.

These are eight in number, in Bisayan: article, noun, pronoun, verb, adverb, preposition, conjunction, interjection.

ARTICLES.

There are three classes:

Definite: an (the)
Indefinite: in (a)
Personal: hi or si (no equivalent in English).

The definite article, as well as the indefinite, is used in Bisayan in the same manner as its equivalent in English. The definite article, however, is sometimes used before proper nouns, and it is very often used before the demonstrative and possessive pronouns. Examples:

Nacánhi an batà (the boy or girl has come)
Nacánhi in batà (a boy or girl has come)
An Dyos [8] macagagáhum (God is omnipotent)
An iní nga bucád (this flower)
An acon calò (my hat)

The personal article is always used before the names of persons; it is also used before the personal pronouns, except the third persons. Examples.

Hi Pedro (Peter)
Hi acó (I)
Hi icao (you)

Instead of hi, si may be used. [9]

These articles do not change in gender. Examples: an amáy (the father), an iróy (the mother); hi Juan (John), hi María (Mary).

The definite and indefinite articles change in the plural in the following way:

SINGULAR PLURAL

an an mg̃a [10]
in in mg̃a

The personal article does not change, in person or number, except in the third person plural where it takes the form of the third personal pronoun third person, plural number. Examples:

Hi quitá (we)
Hi camó (you, in plural)
Hirá Pedro ng̃an hi Juan (Peter and John)

DECLENSION.—Articles have two cases: nominative and objective.

SINGULAR | PLURAL
|
NOMINATIVE: an in hi or | an mg̃a in mg̃a hirá or
si | sirá
OBJECTIVE: han or hin or ni, | han mg̃a hin nira,
san sin can | or san mg̃a or canda
| mg̃a sin
| mg̃a

Examples:

An batà nagbahása han surát ni Pedro (the boy reads Peter’s letter). Hirá Carlos ng̃an hi Juan naghátag (Charles and John gave flowers canda Tomás ng̃an hi Pedro hin mg̃a to Thomas and Peter). bucád

The objective case covers all the different cases used in other languages after the nominative, that is to say, the genitive, dative, accusative and ablative cases.

RULES. 1. The Bisayan articles are used immediately before the words to which they refer.

2. The definite article may be used without expressing the object to which it refers, having, in this case, the nature of a relative pronoun. Examples:

An nagtótoon, nahabábaro (He, who studies, learns).
An mg̃a nagtututdò ha aton (They who teach us.)

3. The personal article is always necessary before the names of persons. It is not correct to say “Pedro nagsusurat”; hi is needed, and it must be: “hi Pedro nagsusurat” (Peter is writing).

EXCEPTIONS. 1. Between the definite article and the word to which it refers, other words may be placed, in some instances, as in this phrase:

An iní ng̃a baláy (this house), or
an maopay ng̃a batà (the good boy or girl).

The regular order in constructing the last phrase is:

an batà ng̃a maopay.

2. When the names of persons are in the vocative case, the personal article is not used. Thus we say:

Mariano, cadí dao (Mariano, come, please).
Pamatì, Juan (listen, John).

3. In the objective case of hi, can is used before the verb, and ni after the verb. Examples:

An can Juan guinsurát (what John wrote)
An guinsurát ni Juan (what John wrote)

N.B.—The indefinite article, when needed at the beginning of the sentence, is replaced by the phrase “usa ng̃a” So, if we wish to say “a boy came yesterday,” we should not say

in batà nacánhi cacolop; but
usá ng̃a batà nacánhi cacolóp.

This phrase usá ng̃a is not a perfect article, but it has the character of an adjective, even when used as an article. Therefore, both the indefinite in and the phrase usá ng̃a may be used in the same sentence. So, we can say, changing the regular order of the last sentence:

Nacánhi cacolóp in usá ng̃a bata (a boy came yesterday).

NOUNS

These are substantive and adjective. Both may be grouped in the following classes: primitive, diminutive, figurative, verbal, compound, derivative, proper, common, positive, comparative, superlative, cardinal, ordinal, partitive, distributive and collective. Nothing particular needs be said about the primitive.

DIMINUTIVE

Examples:

PRIMITIVE DIMINUTIVE

baláy (house) balaybálay
saróual (trousers) sarouálay
carahà (frying-pan) caraháay
balóto (little boat) balotóhay

As is seen, the diminutive is formed by the repetition of the primitive or by adding to the latter the affix ay or hay.

The primitive is repeated when it has not more than two syllables. As,

from

dáhon (leave), dahondáhon,
cáhoy (tree), cahoycáhoy.

The affix ay or hay is added when the primitive has more than two syllables; ay being used in cases where the noun ends with a consonant, or a vowel with a grave or angular accent; and hay being employed when the primitive ends with a vowel otherwise accented or non-accented or a vowel that is pronounced separately from the consonant preceding it, or is preceded by more than one consonant. As,

from

sacayán (boat), sacayánay,
habobò (low), habobóay,
balicô (crooked), balicóay, [11]

abacá (hemp), abacáhay,
babaye (woman), babayéhay,
banat-i (a tree so called), banat-ihay,
malacsi (fast), malacsihay.

But the dissyllabic primitive is not repeated when its first vowel is followed by more than one consonant, or when the last vowel has an acute accent or is pronounced separately from the consonant preceding it. In such cases the affix ay or hay is employed, the rules established for the use of these affixes being applicable to such diminutives. As,

from

támsi (bird), tamsíhay, not tamsitamsi,
túl-an (bone), tul-ánay, not tul-antul-an,
pulá (red color), puláhay, not pulapula, [12]
sagpò (plug), sagpóay, not sagposagpò,
sab-a (a kind of banana), sab-áhay, not sab-asab-a,
bungto (town), bungtóhay not bungtobungto.

Generally, as it has been observed in the preceding examples, the adjectives follow the same rules. As,

from

matám-is (sweet), matam-isay,
malomó (soft), malomóhay,
halípot (short), halipótay.

But in must of the adjectives formed with ma (a particle bearing the idea of abundance) and ha [13] (a particle that bears the idea of place), like maopay, mabusag, mapulá, hatáas, halabà, the prefixes ma or ha are disregarded in the formation of their diminutives, their abstract roots being the only elements taken into consideration, as if such adjectives were dyssillabic. Thus, opay, busag, pulá, táas, lubà, being the abstract roots of the last mentioned adjectives, their diminutives will be:

from

maópay (good), maopay-ópay
mabuság (white), mabusagbúsag
mapulá (red), mapulapulá
hatáas (high), hataastáas
halabà (long), halabalabà [14]

There are some adjectives that have irregular diminutives. Such are the following:

DIMINUTIVE
from REGULAR IRREGULAR
dacò (large), dacòdacò dacolaay [15]
gutì (small) gutigutì gutirurù [16]

FIGURATIVE

We call those nouns figurative that are applied to the objects which, not being of the same nature as that which is expressed by their roots, show nevertheless analogy or similarity with those represented by the corresponding primitive, in their meaning, form, use, or application.

Examples:

from

bobón (fountain), mobonbóbon [17] (fontanel); cabáyo (horse), carocabáyo, (objects that are like a horse or cloud). dámpog (cloud), darodámpog,

When the primitive has not more than two syllables, the formation of its figurative follows the same rules as those for the dissyllabic diminutive. As,

from

hadì (king), we have
hadihadi (a person who, by his vanity or harshness, resembles the
figure of a king).

But when thy primitive has more than two syllables, or its last vowel is preceded by more than one consonant or is pronounced separately from the consonant—preceding it, its figurative is formed by adding to the root a prefix composed of its first syllable if it begins with a consonant or of its first vowel if it begins with a vowel and the syllable ro (a particle that bears the idea of imitation, repetition, or collection). As,

from

sacayán (boat), sarosacáyan
ulalahípan (centipede), uroulalahipan
isdà (fish), iroisdà
can’on (cooked rice) carocan’on [18]

NOTE.—Many of the figurative nouns have the same forms as the collective. There are few figuratives among the adjectives; of these, those having the form of figuratives are really comparatives. [19]

VERBAL

These are formed from the verb-root transformed by particles referring to the agents or the objects of the roots.

Examples:

from

sáyau (to dance)

parasayáu (dancer),
tigsayáu (person who sometimes dances),
magsarayáu (person appointed to dance)
sarayauán [20] (place designed for dancing).
sarayauón (dance or musical piece to be danced) [21];

from

umá (to farm)

paraúma (farmer),
tig-úma (person used to do farming),
mag-urúma (person in charge of farming),
urumáhan, contracted urúmhan (place designed for farming),
urumáhon, contracted urúmhon (ground or plant to be
cultivated);

from

surat (to write), the similar verbals as above, so far as the idea
of the root and the use permit, with this variant:

susurátan, not sururátan,
susuráton, not sururáton;

from

toóc (to weep), the similar verbals, so far as the root and the use
permit, and this besides:

matóoc (weeper);

from

bóong̃ (to break), the similar verbals, and this:

maboroóng̃ (liable or expected to be broken);

from

inóm (to drink), the similar verbals, and the following:

mainominóm (an inviting drink);

from

sosón (to correct), the similar verbals, and this:

hinóson (person fond of or bold in correcting);

from

útang̃ (to borrow),

hing̃útang̃ or hing̃ung̃utáng̃ [22] (person fond of or bold in
borrowing).

It may be observed that not all of the verb-roots produce the same number of verbal nouns. It depends on the particular character of every idea conveyed in the root, and mainly on the use.

From the preceding examples, it is seen that the transformative particles of the verbal nouns are various, the said particles being the prefixes para, tig, mag, ma, hi, the interfixes [23] r, ro, um or the affixes an, on. These particles are very important in Bisayan as they greatly help to enrich the limited vocabulary of this tongue.

For the sake of clearness, we shall see first the affixes.

AN, ON.

These particles refer to the complement of the verb-root, an to the indirect object of the action (generally regarding the place where the act occurs), and on to the direct object (generally referring to the termination of the action).

An or on is used when the root ends with a consonant or a vowel with a grave or angular accent.

An h preceds them when the roots ends with a vowel otherwise accented or non-accented, or pronounced separately from the preceding consonant or consonants.

The particle an or han is simply added to the root, as,

from

catúrog (to sleep), caturogán (sleeping place); sing̃ba (to adore), sing̃báhan (church); taclob (to cover), taclóban [24] (covering place); tan-ao (to see at a distance), tan-aoan [25] (watching place);

or is employed either with the interfix r combined with the first vowel of the root or with the first consonant and vowel of the root instead, as

from

cáon (to eat) caraonán

from

tíroc (to assembly) titiroeán (meeting place);

or with its first vowel if the root commences with a vowel, as

from

aro (to ask) aaroán (place designed for asking).

The particle on has the same use as an, as

caturogón,
siringbahon,
lilibácon (from libác, to backbite),
aaroon.

NOTE.—The affix an is sometimes doubled, as,

from

lohód (to kneel down), lodhanán [26]

from

tambò (to lock out), tamboànan, from tambóan (window).

PARA, TIG.

Para bears the idea of habit, custom or occupation. Tig conveys the idea of a repeated, but not frequent, act.

They are simply prefixed to the root without any other complementary particle, as,

from

cánhi (to come).

paracánhi,
tigcánhi.

MA, WITH ON, WITH RO, OR WITH R.

The particle ma conveys the idea of fondness, desirableness, or passive potentiality or possibility.

When, it means fondness, it is employed either by putting it at the beginning of the root without any other particle, as

from

cáon (to eat), macáon (glutton),

or by combining it with the affix on or hon, according to the case, as

from

catúrog (to sleep), macaturogón (sleepy head),

from

arába (to moan), maarabahón (person fond of moaning).

When the prefix ma, bears the idea of desirableness, it is placed before the doubled root, when the root has not more than two syllables and its last vowel is preceded by not more than two consonants or is not pronounced separately from its preceding consonant or consonants, as

from

cáon, macaoncaón (thing inviting to be eaten) [27]

from

oná (to commence), maonaoná (provocative, quarrelsome),

and in cases where the root has more than two syllables, or if not, where its last vowel is preceded by more than two consonants or is pronounced separately from the consonant or consonants preceding it, then this prefix is employed in combination with the interfix ro preceded by the first consonant and vowel of the root or by the vowel only if the root begins with a vowel, as

from catúrog, macarocaturóg,
,, bányac, (to kick), maharobányac,
,, síd-ap, (to look at), masirosíd-ap,
,, arába, maaroarabá,
,, ígham, (to grunt), mairoígham,
,, ós-og (to draw near from afar), maoroós-og.

When the particle ma conveys the idea of passive potentiality or possibility, it is used with the interfix r combined with the first vowel of the root. The r with its complementary vowel is put after the first syllable of the root. As,

from bóong (to break), maboroóng (brittle)
,, abót (to reach), maarábot (attainable).

The particle ma is frequently replaced by the prefix ig or i combined with the interfix r or its substitutes, as

from tambal (to cure), igtarámbal or (medicine),
itárambal
,, surat (to write), isusúrat (thing to write
with).

MAG AND THE R.

The prefix mag bears the idea of forcible, necessary, or continuous agency. It is employed with the interfix r combined with and before the first vowel of the root. This combination is placed between the first and the second syllable of the root. But when there is an r in the root, the interfix r is replaced by the first consonant of the said root. If the root begins with a vowel, the interfix r is sometimes suppressed, the said first vowel being used instead of the interfix. As,

from sódoy (to stroll magsotodóy (one who strolls
about), about)
,, bilíng̃ (to seek or magbiríling̃ (searcher),
search),
,, siríng̃ (to request), magsisíring̃, (petitioner), not
magsiríring̃,
,, ósoc (to set up), mag-orosóc (person designed
to set up),
,, arót (to cut the mag-aárot (barber).
hair),

The particle mag is frequently contracted into ma, in which case the root is considered as having an r, as

from suláy (to tempt), manunúlay (tempter),
,, tábang̃ (to assist), mananábang̃ (helper).

HI

This particle conveys the idea of boldness. When the root begins with a labial consonant, except the m, the said consonant is transformed into m, as

from bása (to read), himása (person bold in reading),
,, pitíc (to leap), himític (person bold in leaping).

When the root begins with an m, the prefix hi is not commonly used but the prefix para ma, or tig, as

from múlay (to teach), para-, ma-, or tigmulay, not himúlay,
,, mogó (to observe), para-, ma-, or tigmógo, not himógo.

When the root begins with a vowel, ng̃ is [28] appended to the prefix; ng̃ is also appended when the root begins with a guttural consonant, but then the said consonant is suppressed. As,

from ásoy (to refer), hing̃ásoy (garrolous),
,, cáon (to eat) hingáon (bold in eating),
,, gúbat (to invade), hing̃úbat (bold in invading).

When the root commences with the nasal consonant ng̃, the prefix hi is ordinarily replaced by the prefix para, ma, or tig, or the first syllable of the root is made long, as

from ng̃isi (to laugh, para-, ma, or (person fond of
showing the tig̃ngisi, or grinning).
teeth), ñgisi

When the root begins with any other consonant, except l, n, r, the said consonant is suppressed and the letter n is appended to the prefix, as

from dolóng, (to struggle), hinólong (bold in struggling), ,, sosón (to correct), hinóson (bold in correcting), ,, tápod (to confide), hinápod [29] (bold in confiding)

In all of these cases, the syllable following the prefix hi is sometimes doubled, according to the use, as,

from himític, himimític,
,, hing̃ásoy, hing̃ang̃asóy,
,, hinóson, hinonoson, [30] etc.

UM.

This particle bears the idea of option. It is used among the verbs for the subjunctive mode. It is always combined with the interfix r or its substitutes, and is placed between the first consonant and the first vowel of the root. When the root begins with a vowel, the interfix is placed immediately before the vowel. Examples:

from cáon (to eat), cumaraón (person going to, or expected
to, eat),

,, abót (to arrive), umarábot (person expected to arrive), ,, arò (to ask), umaarô (person expected to ask).

Some roots without r follow the rule as if they had an r, as,

from sacá (to go up, to board), sumasáca (boarder).

Observations: 1. There are verbals formed with ma combined with the interfix r or its substitutes. This formation takes place only in the intransitive verbs commencing with the particle ca which then conveys the idea of passivity. As,

from caauód (to be ashamed), macaaráuod (shameful),
,, cabórong̃ (to be confused), macabobórong̃ (confusing),
,, casína (to be angry), macasisína (odious).

2. The infinitives of the verbs, which are always preceded by the particle pag, are frequently employed as substantives. In such cases the particle pag is transformed in the plural, its g being then replaced by the letter ng̃ if the root begins with a vowel or a guttural consonant, except g, or by the consonant n when the root commences with a dental consonant, or by the m if it begins with a labial. In the plural, the roots commencing with a consonant lose said consonant. When the root begins with a nasal or with the guttural g, said consonant is preserved and the g of pag is replaced by n. Examples:

from arò (to ask), cáon (to eat), dáop (to approach) bása (to read), ng̃oyng̃oy (to groan), gábot (to, pull), we have:

SINGULAR PLURAL

pag-arò (asking) pang̃arò,
pagcáon (eating) pang̃áon,
pagdáop (approaching) panáop,
pagbása (reading) pamása,
pagngoyngoy (groaning) panngóyagoy,
paggábot (pulling) pangábot,

3. The infinitives of roots commencing with the particle ca are also used as substantives, and then with or without the prefix pag.

from cabido (to be sorry), pagcabídò, cabídò, (sorrow).

In such cases, the affix an or on is sometimes employed, as

from casáquit (to be sad), casaquítan (sadness),
,, casína (to be angry), casinahón (anger).

COMPOUND

The use gives the following:

from solód (to enter) and sólodbálay, which means the person who baláy (house), thru his intimacy with the occupant of a house, enters in at any time; from sacá (to go up) and sacálúsad, applied to the person who is lúsad (to go down), very busy or who suffers a great misfortune and goes up and down the house repeatedly. It is also applied to boys or girls who go out the house frequently, especially without permission of their parents; from dosô (to push) and dosô-bótong, [31] applied to a person bótong (to pull), who takes determinations that are contradictory; from cábcab (to scratch) and cábcabtocâ, applied to persons who have tocâ (what a bird does when to expend for their subsistence all it picks up or bites that they gain by their work; something with its beak), from di, contraction of dirì diabotóncalóton, applied to that part (not), abotón, from abót (to of the human back, which our hands reach), and calóton, from cannot reach to scratch when it itches; cálot (to scratch),

from tábag (help), ha, a tabaghaamong̃-ámong̃, applied to those preposition for the objective who maliciously pretend to help a case, among̃ámong̃ (to person in trouble, but injure him. Etc. malign);

DERIVATIVE

We consider under this heading the nouns derived from other nouns. Those originated from a verb are already treated as verbals. Most of the derivatives are adjectives.

The derivatives, like the verbal, are formed with particles, prefixes, interfixes, and affixes.

The usual particles are ca, ma, maca, mag, maqui, hi, pala, tag, as prefixes; r, in as interfixes; and an, on as affixes. As,

from pauà (light), capanà (clearness)
,, áram (wisdom), maáram (wise)
,, bayáu (brother in mabaráyau (brother-in-law-to-be)
law),
,, bidò (sorrow), macabibidò (sorrowful)
,, isdà (fish), maquiisdà (fond of fish)
,, púsod (navel), himósod (payment for attending
to the navel of a
new-born child)
,, bugtò (brother or magbugtò (referring to two
sister), persons who are
brothers or sisters)
[32]
,, bisaya (bisayan), binisaya (bisayan tongue)
,, salâ (fault or saláan (guilty)
guilt),
,, búuà [33] (lie), buuáon (liar).

Ca bears the idea of quality, and is used alone or in combination with the affix an. As

from hatáas (high), cahatáas (height),
,, dáot (bad), caraótan, carát’an (badness).
,, pauà (light), capauà (clearness).

It is sometimes combined with the interfix in and the joined affix anon, as

from masúgot (obedient), camasinug’tánon (obedience).

Ma conveys the idea of abundance and future condition. In the first case, it is added at the beginning of the primitive, which is the form of great many adjectives, as,

from ísog (courage, rage), maísog (courageous);

and when it means future condition, it is used with the interfix r combined with the first vowel of the primitive, as,

from asáua (wife), maarasauá (woman betrothed)

The particle ma is frequently combined with the interfix in and the affix on or ánon. In plural, the ma is appended with g. As

from túman (performance), matinumánon (faultless) plural,
magtinumánon
,, sugót (obedience), masinug’tánon (obedient)

It is also used without any affix, and then the primitive is doubled as from tubâ (a wine) matubatubâ (person or thing that smells as tubâ).

Maca has the idea of potentiality, and is added to the beginning of the primitive, by doubling the first syllable of the primitive or by using the intermix r combined with the first vowel of the primitive. As,

from álo (shame), macaaálo (shameful),
,, lípay (joy), macalilípay (rejoicer),
,, budlay (grievance), macaburúdlay (grievous).

Mag conveys the idea of mutual relationship, and also of continuity in a few cases. It is simply added at the beginning of the primitive.

Relationship. Examples:

from patód (cousin), magpatód (cousins each other).

It is sometimes appended with tala, as from amáy (father), magtalaamáy (father and son, or father and daughter).

The derivatives formed with mag conveying the idea of mutual relationship, are always in plural.

Continuity. Examples:

from ága (morning), Mag-ága (the whole night until the
morning);
,, colóp (evening); magcólop (the whole day until the
evening.)

Maqui signifies the idea of fondness, and is employed without any other transformative particle, as,

from Dyos [34] (God), maquidyos (pious).

It is used in very few cases to form verbals, as

from hámpang̃ (to be present maquihahampang̃on (person fond of
during a being present or
conversation), taking part in a
conversation).

Hi, as transformative particle of derivatives, conveys the idea of boldness, and also of consideration, or of payment. We have seen that it means boldness when joined to verbs to form verbal nouns [35]. As to its use, it follows here the same rules as when employed with verbs. Examples:

from quinatsilâ (Spanish hing̃inatsilà (one who ventures
language), to talk Spanish,
knowing but little
of it).

,, apóy (grandfather), hing̃apóy ,, púsod (navel), himósod [36]

Pala means resemblance. It is combined with the affix an. As,

from buyo (betel palabuyóan (applied to the wine of
nut), cocoanut, that resembles
the taste of the betel nut)
,, biráu (a plant), palabirauán (applied to the fruit of
cocoanut that resembles the
color of biráu)
,, camote (sweet palacamotián (applied to the fruit of
potato), “nang̃ca” (a tree) that
resembles the color of
camote)
,, gátas (milk) palagatásan (applied to the young rice
or corn whose grain is yet
liquid resembling the milk)

Tag conveys the idea of ownership or authorship. It is simply added to the primitive. As

from baláy (house), tagbaláy (owner of a house)
,, sugò (order), tagsugò (author of an order).

It is sometimes used to indicate distribution, and then it is frequently combined with the prefix ma preceding it. As

from túig (year), tagtuig (year by year)
,, ádlao (day), matag-ádlao (every day).

These last particles are sometimes replaced by iquina which expresses the same idea. As

from túig, adlao, búlan (month), pagcáon (meal)
iquinatúig (every year)
iquinaadlao (every day)
iquinabulan (every month)
iquinapagcáon, (every meal)

The interfix r, which bears no particular meaning, is here employed under the same rules as those established for its use in the figurative and verbal nouns.

The interfix in expresses imitation. It is added at the beginning of the primitive if the latter commences with a vowel. Otherwise, it is placed before the first vowel of the primitive. As,

from Súlug [37] (the archipelago of Súlu),
sinulúg (a fight or dance after the Suluan fashion)
from tuyáo (crazy),
tinuyáo (foolishness)
from ínsic (chinaman),
ininsic (chinese language; ways; or habit).

An and on among the derivatives, signify the idea of abundance or participation, an frequently conveying the idea of place. Both are appended to the primitive without any other particle, and complemented with an h, in the same way as in the formation of verbals. [38] Examples:

from pálad (fate), paláran [39] (fortunate), ,, asáua (wife), asauáhan (married man), ,, salapi (silver, salapian (wealthy) money), ,, curi (difficulty), curián (stubborn person) ,, sumat (information), sumatán (credulous) ,, burabud (fountain), buraburon [40] (place where there are many fountains) ,, taro (wax), taróhon (an object that has wax on) ,, tubac (ant), tubacón (a thing that has ants on.)

These particles are sometimes employed jointly, the an preceding the on. This compound affix, anon, bears the idea of great abundance, or birth or residence place, and is preceeded by an h according to the same rules established for an and on. Examples:

from mang̃gad (wealth), mang̃gáran (wealthy),
manggaránon (rich).
,, abacá (hemp), abacáhan (person that has
hemp), abacahànon
(person that owns
much hemp),
,, Tan-auan (a town so tan-auananon (native or resident
called), of Tanauan).
,, Palo (a town so paloánon (native or resident
called), contracted of Palo),
palon’on
,, Tolosa (a town), tolosahanon, (native or resident
contracted of Tolosa),
tolosán’hon
,, Dagami (a town), dagamiánon, (native or resident
contracted of Dagami),
dagamin’on
,, Maasin (a town), maasinánon, (native or resident
contracted of Maasin),
maasinhon [41]
,, Sugbu (Cebú), sugbuánon, (native or resident
of Cebú),
,, Samar (province samaránon, (native or resident
so called), contracted of Sámar),
samárnon
,, Manila (Manila), manilaanon, (native or resident
contracted of Manila).
manilan’on
,, America (America), americahanon, (American).
contracted
americanhon [42]

OBSERVATIONS. There are other forms of derivatives, viz: ca cat iquina or quina, taga, tagum or tagun, hi.

Ca means also company, as from tupad (to be side by side) catúpad (the person side by side).

Cat means season, as from “áni” (harvest), “cat-aní” (harvest time).

Iquina or quina expresses nature, as from “táuo” (man), “buhi” (alive), “iquinatáuo” (property peculiar to men), “quinabuhi” (life).

Taga, means origin or residence, posession, or measure, as from “Leyte” (Island so called), “súndang̃” (bolo), “íroc” (armpits), we have: “taga Leyte” (from Leyte), “tagasúndang” (one who bears a bolo), “tagairoc” (up to the armpits). When this particle taga means measure, it is sometimes replaced by pa, as from “háuac” (belly), “paháuác” (up to the belly).

Tagum expresses the idea of power, virtue, or peculiarity. When the primitive commences with n, the m of tagum is suppressed. When the primitive begins with a consonant not labial, the said m is replaced by n. It is sometimes combined with the affix an, As: from “matá” (eye) “baba” (mouth), “lipong” (confusion), we have “tagumatá” (peculiar disease of the eye), “tagumbabáan” (person whose words have a peculiar power or virtue), “tagunlipóng̃an” (one who has the power to make himself invisible).

Hi is also combined with the interfix r and the affix an, as from “polós” (profit), “himorólsan” (profitable). Among verbs ha is used instead of hi, as from “cáon” (to eat), “hacaraón” (eatable).

NOTE.—The past participles take sometimes the affix an, as

from cauil (fish-hook), quinauilán (fish caught with
“cauil”)
bitánà (a kind of fishing binitanáan (fish caught with
net), “bitanà”).

There are other transformative particles not so important as those already mentioned, and which the use will show to the student.

PROPER AND COMMON

Like in other tongues there is in Bisayan a distinction between proper and common nouns. Tacloban, Catbalaógan, Ilong̃-ílong̃ (Iloilo), Espanya (Spain), Pedro (Peter), Guillermo (William), etc., are proper nouns; bucad (flower), bató (stone), áyam (dog), etc., are common.

The Bisayan language has also familiar names for persons. As

of Pedro, Péndong̃, Endong̃, Edóng̃, Edós, Pedó, etc;
,, Juan, Uáuang̃, Uauay, Uáuà, Uuán, Uuâ, etc;
,, Vicente, Tenteng̃, Titíng̃, Sente, Setée, etc;
,, Rafael, Pápeng̃, Paéng̃, Paél, Pápè, etc;
,, Margarito, Titong̃, Itong̃, Titoy, Itoy, etc.;
,, Francisco, Quicoy, Incoy, Quicò, etc;
,, Juana, Uánday, Uáday, etc.;
,, Antonio, Tónyo, Todóc, etc.;
,, Alejandro, Andong̃, Andoy, etc.;
,, Isabel, Sabel, etc.;
,, Gregorío, Goyóng̃, etc.;
,, Saturnino, Satúr, etc.;
,, Claudia, Calán, etc.

Among the names of places, there are a few formed by the preposition can (which means possession or property), and the particles ca (which denotes abundance), and guin (which conveys the idea of past passive action), as

Cansámqui (a place, which probably belonged formerly to one named Samqui) Can-orquin (place probably owned formerly by one called Orquin) Canramos, [43] transformed Carrámos (place probably owned or possessed in former times by one named Ramos)

Cabuyúan (place where formerly there was much “buyu”
(betelnut))
Cabalían (place where the strong current of the sea breaks the
oars (balì))
Guintiguían (place in the “San Juanico strait,” where the strong
current of the sea tests the rowers (tigui))
Guintúlyan (a place in Basáy, Samar, where probably many fishes
were caught (tulúy) with nets.)
Etc.

NOTE.—The names of persons among the Bisayan people are all
Christian at the present time. Many of the surnames are Spanish,
many others being of Bisayan origin as Lágbas, Pócpoc, Macasáit,
Cabaobao, Balasbas, Yagomyom, etc.

To indicate relationship, as the English papa, mamma, and respect, confidence, or tenderness, there are a number of Bisayan nouns, which show by themselves the relation between the speaker or writer and the person to whom the noun is applied. Examples:

for papa, tátay or tatáy, tátang̃ or tatáng̃, itáy, or itáng̃;
,, mamma, nánay or nanáy, nánang̃ or nanáng̃, ináy, or ináng̃.

There are others applied to grandfathers and grandmothers, and also to those persons who act or are considered as fathers or mothers. Examples:

Mano, manóng, mamo, mamoy, babay, dudoy, dudù inco, tutoy, yuyu,
iyô (applied to elder brothers, uncles or elder male relatives of
any degree, even to persons not related to but respected by the
speaker or writer).
Mana [44] manang, manáy, mama, mamay. manding, duday, duda, insi
tutay, yuya, tuta (applied to elder sisters, aunts or elder female
relatives of any degree, even to women not related to, but
respected by the speaker or writer).
Tío, or tí, tia or tí (applied as á form of politeness and respect,
respectively to men or women not related to or unknown by the
speaker or writer).
Idoy, íntoy, budóy, busóy, and idáy, inday, udáy, idíng, iyíng,
bididay, nonay, neneng, (applied with tenderness to boys or girls
respectively).

NOTE.—The word cuán (so and so), not meaning anything by itself, is applied to persons or things whose names the speaker or writer does not know, or venture, or wish to express. As the phrase “so and so”, it helps a great deal in a conversation, and is used also instead of the verbs and other parts of speech.

The words inín (contracted of iní nga) and adâ (I guess, perhaps) are also used in the conversation, as auxiliary particles, they being then equivalent to the English why.

Examples:

Question.—“¿Guinsorat mo na an balos?” (Have you already written
the answer?)
Answer.—“Oo guincoan co na gad” (Yes I already have).
Q.—¿Háin an basahón? (Where is the book?)
A.—Inin ... aadto ada ha ac solód (why ... I guess it is in my
room)
Q.—Mapiráu, ¿ano in bubuhaton co? (I am sleepy, what shall I do?)
A.—Ada ... catúrog (Why ... to sleep).

POSITIVE, COMPARATIVE, AND SUPERLATIVE.

As in other languages, there are three degrees for adjectives, also used for substantives in Bisayan. These degrees are positive, comparative and superlative.

Nothing particular needs be observed about the positive degree, except what is mentioned in the foregoing paragraphs:

The comparatives are formed exactly in the same way as the figuratives [45], the number of syllables being disregarded, as if all has more than two syllables.

from hatáas (high), harohataás (higher),
,, hobóg (intoxicated), horohobóg (more intoxicated),
,, táuo (man), tarotauó (more of a man).

In the formation of adjectives prefixed with ma, this particle is preferably disregarded, as if such particle did not exist, as

from maópay (good), maoroopáy (better)
,, magbuság (white), maboroboság (whiter), etc.

There is another form of comparative consisting in the use of the combined particles labi (more) and ca, as

labí ca maopay (better),
labí ca mabusag (whiter).

This last form is sometimes used for superlatives.

The superlatives are of three classes:

Those which do not admit any comparison, and which we call absolute or supreme superlatives, as

guimaopáyi (the best of all);

those which are not so absolute, and which we call ordinary superlative, as,

capín ca maópay }
maopay nga capín } (very good);
maopay hin sogóng̃ [46] }

and those which convey the idea of excess, and which we call excessive superlatives, as

uraúra [47] ca maópay } (to good).
maópay ng̃a uraúra }

As is seen from the preceding examples, the supreme supertive is formed by adding to the beginning of the primitive the prefix gui and by appending to said primitive the affíx i. The first syllable of the primitive may be doubled as use permits. As,

from hatáas (high, tall), guihataási, or (the highest)
guihahataasi
táuo (man), guitáu’i (a true and
perfect man).

The first form is also adopted for the substantives to show the highest degree of identity as in this phrase:

An guiaamáyi mo gud an natauág ha imo
(It is your very father who calls you).

The ordinary superlative is formed with the particles capin ca or labí ca placed before the primitive, or with the particles caópay, ng̃a capin, or hin sogong̃ put after the primitive. As,

from mabido (sorry)
capín ca mabidò }
labí ca mabidò }
mabidò caopay } (very sorry)
mabidò ng̃a capín }
mabidò hin sogóng̃ }

Some of the adjectives formed with particle ma, have another form for ordinary superlative, in doubling their root and disregarding the prefix ma, as from “masiróm” (dark), “masiromsiróm” [48] (very dark).

The excessive superlative is formed with the particle uraúra ca placed before the primitive, or the particle ng̃a uraúra located after the root. As,

from maasín (salty)
uraúra ca maasín } (excessively salty)
maasín ng̃a uraúra }

The idea of the excessive superlative is also expressed sometimes with the particles “lapás ca” (excessively), or with the phrase “dirí sonô hin ca” or “dirì socól hin ca” (out of measure), placed before the primitive, as

lapás ca maasín
dirì sonô hin ca maasín
dirì socól hin ca maasín.

NOTE.—The particles “labi” and “capin” take sometimes the affix an, as

from mahúsay (orderly, beautiful),
labínan ca mahúsay (very beautiful);
from masáquit (painful),
masáquit ng̃a capínan (very painful).

CARDINAL, ORDINAL, PARTITIVE, AND DISTRIBUTIVE.

The cardinal adjectives are the following:

usá, contracted us, (one)
duhá (two)
tuló (three)
upát (four)
limá (five)
unóm (six)
pitó (seven)
ualó (eight)
siyám (nine)
napulò [49] (ten)
napulo cag [50] usá (eleven).
caruhaán [51] (twenty)
catloán (thirty)
cap’atán (forty)
calim’an (fifty)
caúnman (sixty)
capitoán (seventy)
caualoán (eighty)
casiyamán (ninety)
usá ca gatós (one hundred)
duhá ca gatós (two hundred)
usá ca yocót (one thousand)
usá ca ríbo [52] (ten thousand)
usá cagatós ca ribo (one million), etc.

As it is noticed above, the cardinals are formed by the preposition “cag” (and), the prefix “ca” (which means collection) and the affix “an”, added to the primitives “usá, duhá, tuló, upáo, lima, unóm, pitó, ualó, siyám, napulo, gatós, yocót, ribo”, the phonetical reasons being taken in consideration. Thus we say:

caruhaán, not caduhaán,
catloan, not catuloán,
cap’atán not caupatán,
calim’an not calimahán,
caúnman, not caunoman.

The word “usa” is frequently contracted, especially in familiar language, by the supression of the last vowel. Thus:

us ca gatos }
us ca yocót } instead of “usá” ca etc.
us ca ribo }

In reading the numbers, the English way is followed, the particles “uga may” being sometimes employed especially in cases of large amounts. Thus, to read this number

987654321,

we would say:

“Casiyamán cag ualó cayocót, pitó cagatós caúnman cag limá caribo,
ng̃a may upát ca yocót, tuló ca gatós caruhaán cag usá.”

NOTE—In Bisayan, there is no word corresponding to the English zero (0). However, its figure is used in Bisayan. It is suggested that the word “lung̃ág” (empty), or “uaráy” (nothing) be adopted as corresponding to the word “zero” which is derived from modern Latin zephiram from Arabic cafrun, cifrun or sefer (empty).

The ordinals are formed by employing the particles “ica” (which bears the idea of order), placed before the cardinal. As

ica usá,
ica napulò
ica calim’an
ica upat ca gatós
ica siyam ca yucót
icá pito ca ribo.

The ordinal of usa has also simple forms, as siyahan, siyapá, and frequently admits the particle icag instead of ica, as icag usá.

The partitives have exactly the same form, as the ordinals, except in that the ordinals cag usa, siyahan and siyapá are never used as partitives; and that there is the form tung̃â and its variants catung̃â, tung̃â or catung̃â hin or ng̃a (half), employed instead of icaduhà.

The phrase ca bahín (part) is frequently used in the partitives to avoid confusion. Thus

an icaupát ca bahín (the fourth part)

The particle ica is sometimes contracted into caas “catung̃a” (half), “cauróg” (most).

The distributives are formed by adding to the cardinals the particle tag (which conveys the idea of distribution). As

tag dúha (two, each)
tag caualóan (eighty, each)
tag yúcot (thousand, each)

When the distributive bears the meaning of portion, the particle iquina is combined with tag. As

iquina tag duha (each two), etc.

COLLECTIVE

The collective nouns are formed by adding at the beginning of the primitive the prefix ca (which bears the idea of collection or reunion) and the affix an. As,

from bata (boy or girl), cabatáan (reunion of boys or girls)
táuo (person), catauóhan (reunion of persons).
duhá (two), caruhaán (twenty).

These forms are very frequently used to make the plural of the nouns, as of the singular batá we make the plural.

mga batà or cabataan.

NOTE—The particle ca is also employed to express abstract ideas, as

from buság (white color), mabuság (white), camabuság (whiteness)

The particle pag is sometimes added at the beginning of the particle, as

pagcamabuság (whiteness).

The collectives take also the form of the figuratives with or without the particles ca and an, as the use may permit, as

caborobong̃tóhan,
borobóng̃to.

NOTE.—There is another class of nouns which may be called depreciative. They are limited in number. The following belong to such class:

for batà (child),

nagbobóto (a being born thru an explosion)
lumátud (person of big abdomen)
lugtuc, [53]
motatô [54]
motó, from botó (report of a gun, explosion);

for anác (son or daughter)

nahólbot (past participle of “hólbot” to pull out of a hole);

for baba (mouth)

nasárag (of “sárag” to put something in the mouth);

for camót (hand)

camrauón (from “cámram”, what an eagle does with its fingers);

for tiil (foot)

sincádol [55] etc.

There are despectives derived from their primitives, as,

for húbya (lazy), “húbsac” [56]

The variations to which the Bisayan names are subject, are: gender, number, and cases.

GENDER.

The gender is scarcely regarded. We have however for few nouns the natural and grammatical genders.

Examples of natural gender:

MASCULINE FEMININE

laláqui (male person) babaye (woman)
lalaquí (male not person) babayé (female not person)
amay (father) iróy (mother)
bána (husband) asáua (wife)
bata (uncle) dadâ (aunt)
baylo (brother in law) hipág (sister in law), etc.

Examples of gramatical gender:

MASCULINE FEMININE

dudoy [57] duday
tutoy tutay
idoy iday
intoy inday
mano mana
manoy manáy
manong manang [58]
tío tía [59], etc.

NUMBER

The plural is determined by the particle mga or by those for collectives as formerly seen [60], or by the interfix g among the adjectives. Examples:

of táuo (man) “mg̃a táuo,” or “catauóhan” (men),
of dacò (large), dagcò (large, plural).
of matam-is (sweet), magtam-is (sweet, plural),
of hatáas (high), hagtáas (high, plural).

When the noun is preceded by numeral adjectives, the singular keeps its form, as

usá ca táuo (one man), napulò ca tauo (ten men),
usá ng̃a baláy (one house), calim’an ng̃a baláy (fifty houses).

Some adjectives do not admit the interfix g, for euphonical reason, as

of hubyà (lazy), mg̃a hubya, not húgbyà, etc.

CASE.

There is no inflection for Bisayan nouns to distinguish their different cases, as in Greek and Latin. The cases are determined by the prepositions and by variable parts of speech preceding the noun.

IMPORTANT OBSERVATION.

There are great many Bisayan nouns composed of the same letters, but which have different meanings according to the accent they bear. Of these are the following:

anáy (she-hog), ánay (before) apó (grandson or ápò (a thing fully grand-daughter), introduced) áyao (distributive ayáo (no, imperative) possession), bábà (mouth), babá (to carry a thing on the back) babáye (woman), babayé (female not person) baga (red-hot coal or bága (lung), bagá (like) wood), bálay (turn), baláy (house) bálod (a kind of dove), balód (wave) bálos (return), balós (revenge) bánus (abundant, thick), banús (to scrub) bárang̃ (an amulet), baráng (knot)

bayáo (brother-in-law), báyao (to lift up) bucád (flower), búcad (to dig up) búhat (work), buhát (to raise) buhi (alive), buhi (losse) buláo (yellow), búlao (to provoke a stranger) búrong [61] (fog), buróng (to throw) busà (reprimand), búsà (therefore) cóbal (thread), cobál (corn, callosity) comót (sinked), cómot (quick) dósol (pain of the dosól (despective form of stomack), “cáon”, to eat) hóron (to pass the night), horón (farm) igo, (just), igô (to be hit) lága (flame), lagà (cooked) láya (a net for fishing), layà (to wither), layâ (withered) laláqui (man), lalaquí (male, not person) látos (reaching, latós (to whip) overtaking), lúya (weakness), luyà (lime), luyâ (restlessness), luy-a (ginger) muláy (play), múlay (to teach) obós (low), óbos (to exhaust) usá or usâ (one), úsa (to marvel) úpa (reward), upá (rice chaff) pátag (plane), patág (a kind of basket) píli (a tree so called), pilì (to select) pálad (palm), palád (a fish) pusò (flower of banana), pusô (rice especially cooked) pusâ (pounded), pusà (to wash the feet) púto (a dainty so called), pútò (partition), putó (last son or daughter) sábot (agreement), sabót (filement or to understand) sácay, (passenger or sacáy (to embark) companion on a boat), sócot (frequent), socót (to collect)

súso (teat), susò (thickset), susô (a mollusk so called) tíao (joke), tiáo (maniac) tíma (finished), timá (uneven) túba (a plant so called), tubâ (wine from cocoanut or nipa) tubó (sugar-cane), túbò (to grow), etc.

TRANSPOSITION OF ACCENTS.

The accent of a word frequently changes its place upon its transformation.

In the diminutives formed by repetition of the root or by the affix ay, the acute accent is always placed upon the penult. As

from baláy, balaybálay
,, saróual, sarouálay
,, balóto, balotóhay.

The grave accent of the root is preserved; and its angular accent becomes grave, which is preserved in its repetition. As

from dacò, dacòdácò
,, bohô (hole), bohòbóhò (little hole).

When the primitive has the acute accent on its penult, said accent is transferred to the last syllable of the original primitive, the repeated primitive following the preceding rules. As.

from dáhon, dahóndáhon
,, cáhoy, cahoycáhoy
,, halípot, halipótay
,, maópáy, maopay-ópay
,, hatáas, hataastáas

In the figuratives, the same rules are followed; and when the interfix ro is employed, the primitive generally loses its acute accent which is placed upon the penult of the figurative. As

from sacayán, sarosacáyan.

In the verbal nouns, it is a general rule that when the verb root has its acute accent on its penult, its verbals have said accent trasplaced to their last syllables, and viceversa, as

from sarát, (to write), from bása (to read)
parasúrat parabasá
tigsúrat tigbasá
magsusúrat magbarasá
susurátan barasahán
susuráton barasahón
masúrat mabasá
isusúrat, ibarasá;

except when the transformative particle is ma meaning desirableness, in which case the acute accent is always on the last syllable; and also in case of the particle hi, where the accent is always put on the penult. As

masuratsurát,
himása.

In case where the penult, of the verb root is necessarily long, as when its vowel is followed by more than one consonant, and when the last syllable of the root is pronounced independently from the consonant or consonants preceding it, then the original acute accent of the root is preserved on the penult of the verbal. As

from cánhi (to come), dól-ong (to bear, to accompany)
paracánhi paradól-ong
tigcánhi tigdól-ong
cumaránhi domoról-ong
caranhían dorol-óngan
caranhíon dorol-óngon
macanhíon madol-óngon
icaránhi idoról-ong
hang̃aránhi hinonól-ong

In the derivatives, when the accent is on the penult of the primitive, it is also placed on the penult of the derivative; and when the accent is on the last syllable of the primitive, it is also put on the last syllable of the derivative, as

from áram, maáram
bayáu, mabaráyau
púsod, himósod
búua, buuáon
tubác, tubacón.

It must be noted that we refer to the acute accent. It sometimes happens that the last syllable of the primitive has angular accent, in which case such accent is discomposed, the grave being kept and the acute being transposed to the penult of the derivative, as

from salâ, saláan,