Chapter XX (5)

When we go into the question of steam yachts, no better advice can be given than that contained above, so far as hull and equipment are concerned. It is different when the proper care of machinery is considered. There it is where the services of a loyal and skillful engineer come into full play. Unless sufficient attention is paid to a vessel's boilers and engines during the critical time when she reposes in dock, disastrous results, entailing vast expenditure, are sure to follow. The complicated and ingenious mechanism which propels the modern steam yacht requires devoted regard. Very expensive when new, repairs during their second season, if in any way neglected in the winter, call for the resources of the purse of a Crœsus. In matters of this kind the old adage which relates to a stitch in time should be noted by the prudent yacht owner. Thus it is that an engineer and a sufficient staff should be kept on the pay roll in the winter for economic reasons alone. By this means extravagant bills for unnecessary repairs will be avoided. The engineer will take pride in his work and do justice to a liberal employer.

It is well known that engineers can only become acquainted with the true capacity of machinery by long and careful study. Statistics have proved that marine engines in the navy under the direction of good men have been run with less coal, less oil and greater working power year by year when the same man has had control of the engine-room. All of which means less strain on the owner's bank account.

Lincoln's famous aphorism about the unwisdom of swapping horses when crossing a stream applies with great precision to skippers and engineers. It takes time for the most masterly and adroit captain to become acquainted with the peculiar idiosyncrasies of a vessel, for it is true that each one has her own individuality, and it takes time to comprehend her. In this they much resemble the fair sex. It is a case of whip and spur on one hand, and saddle and bridle on the other. Which is to wield the whip or wear the saddle is a question between captain and ship. The struggle is sometimes a long one, but in the end mind conquers matter.

The captain, as in the case of Gen. Paine and the _Mayflower_, eventually gets the hang of her, brings her into a state of submission, and compels her to become a cup winner. The engineer in his own sphere accomplishes similar results. His machinery runs with the regularity of a chronometer. His owner's bills for coal and oil are confined within reasonable limits. There are no breakdowns. His firemen implicitly obey his orders, and all goes well in engine-room and stoke-hold.

If these few practical suggestions and hints prove of any service to yachtsmen, captains and engineers, the writer will feel happy. He has simply touched on the limits of a wide and fertile subject that might be expatiated upon at a large expense of paper and printer's ink.

XIII.

USEFUL HINTS AND RECIPES.

To whiten decks, mix oxalic acid with fresh water in the proportion of one pound to the gallon. Apply lightly with a mop and wash off immediately.

Good elastic marine glue for paying seams after they are caulked, can be made of one part of india rubber, twelve parts of coal tar heated gently in a pitch kettle, and twenty parts of shellac added to the mixture. When about to use this preparation, dip the caulking iron, used to drive the oakum or cotton thread into the seams, in naphtha, which dissolves the glue and helps to closely cement the seams. If oil is used instead of naphtha, the glue will not adhere. When melting marine glue for paying, take care to heat it very slowly.

Mildew on sails is almost impossible to remove, but the stains can be rendered a little less unsightly by well scrubbing the sail on both sides with soap and fresh water, and then leaving the sail to dry and bleach in the sun. Avoid the use of chloride of lime or other caustics or acids, which, while they might take out the mildew stains, would certainly rot the duck. Sometimes sails must necessarily be stowed when damp or wet, but they should be hoisted up to dry as soon as practicable. Every boat should be provided with water-proof sail covers.

Composition paints and other mixtures for preventing the fouling of boats' bottoms are plentiful as clams. Each one is warranted to be a specific against weeds and barnacles. But wooden or iron vessels, however treated, if left for any length of time at anchor anywhere on the Atlantic or Pacific coasts, are sure to become encrusted with barnacles and to be covered with such a rich growth of marine grasses as would take some particularly active work with a lawn mower to remove. Luckily small boats can easily be hauled out and scrubbed, but those with any pretension to size should most certainly be coppered. Copper in salt water will keep clean for a long time, the exfoliation being extensive. Some authorities recommend that the copper be coated with one or other of the compositions prepared for that purpose, but I think that to leave the copper clean will be more satisfactory in the long run. A coppered cruising vessel should not require her bottom to be cleaned more than four times in the season, but the oftener a racing yacht is hauled out to have her copper burnished the better should be the result, so far as speed is concerned.

There are several capital paints in the market with which to coat a yacht or boat below the water-line. But admirable though they may be, they are by no means weed or barnacle proof.

In choosing a binocular marine glass, take care not to be persuaded into buying a trashy article. A good one should have a magnifying power of seven times, as well as what is known as good definition—that is, the quality of showing all the outlines of an object with complete distinctness and without any haziness. To find out if a glass has this quality, direct it at any object clearly outlined against the sky—a church steeple, for instance. If the outlines of the object are indistinct, or if they are bordered with violet, blue, orange or red light, reject the glass, as it will never be worth anything. The frame of the glass should be rigid, or the tubes will become twisted and then you will see two objects in place of one. The more powerful a glass is the less field it possesses. While high power is desirable, it is well that a glass should have a large field. A poor glass is worse than none at all.

That sterling seaman, Capt. S. T. S. Lecky, tells a capital story about a marine glass, which I commend to anybody about to purchase one. In the window of a shop he noticed a binocular with a tag on it, which asserted that the glass had rendered an "object" visible at the distance of ninety miles. This was attested by a letter to be seen within. The captain's curiosity was excited. On inquiry in the shop he found out that the "object" was none other than the peak of the Island of Tristan d'Acunha, in the Southern ocean, which is so lofty that it can be seen in clear weather by the naked eye at a distance of one hundred miles. Therefore I say let your motto be _caveat emptor_ when you go cruising about in search of either a cheap marine telescope or binocular among marine store dealers or pawnshops. Remember that clearness of definition is more to be sought than high magnifying power, as in misty weather the glass with the last-named quality in a marked degree magnifies the haze as well as the object, and, of course, makes it still more blurred and indistinct—a defect on which it is unnecessary for me to further enlarge.

It is hard to distinguish with a low-priced binocular on a thick or rainy night the color of a vessel's lights, a white one sometimes appearing with a green or reddish tinge, and a green one looking like a white one. This applies also to lightships and lighthouses, and should make you careful as to your selection of a glass.

Captain Lecky says the proper way to test a binocular for night use is not to stand at a shop door in broad daylight, trying how much the glass enlarges some distant clock-face, but to wait till nightfall and test it by looking up a dark street or passage, and if figures before only dimly visible to the naked eye are rendered tolerably clear by the aid of the glasses, you may rest assured you have hit on a suitable instrument. It is well to go in the first place to an optician, and not to a "shoptician" versed in cheap-jack methods.

Iron ballast should be coal-tarred, painted, or white-washed with hot lime.

Masts and spars should be scraped and sand-papered. If there are any cracks in them, they should be stopped with marine glue before scraping. Apply a coat of wood-filler, then a coat of spar composition. When hard, give a second coat. Never apply varnish when there is much moisture in the atmosphere. In the vicinity of New York, wait till the wind is northwest if you wish to secure the best and most brilliant results.

If your boat is white, when repainting don't forget to mix a little blue with your white lead, raw linseed oil and dryers. This cerulean dash improves the look of the paint, and is far better than black, which produces a ghastly tint.

When for any purpose it becomes necessary or desirable to anchor a small boat on ground known, or suspected, to be foul, it is advisable to scow the anchor. Unbend the cable from the ring; make the end fast round the crown shank and flukes with a clove hitch, and bring the end _a_ back to _s_, and stop it round the cable with a piece of spunyarn; take the cable back to the shackle and stop it as at _b_. When the cable is hauled upon by the part _o_, the stop at _b_ will part and the fluke of the anchor can be easily broken out and lifted. For larger vessels a trip-line is sometimes bent to the crown and buoyed instead of scowing the anchor.

A capital composition for painting the bottoms of boats up to the water-line is made as follows: Take one pound of red lead, four ounces of copper bronze powder, the same weights of arsenic, chrome yellow and paris blue, one pint of dryers, one pint of boiled oil and one pint of copal varnish. Mix thoroughly, strain and apply. If too thick add more varnish. It will dry a rich copper color. It is neither barnacle nor weed proof, but is as good as some of the more expensive paints which pretend to possess both these qualities. Before painting, scrub the wood well and smooth down with pumice stone. Let it thoroughly dry before you begin to use the brush.

A good black paint for the outside of boats is made thus: To six pounds of best black paint add one pound of dark blue paint and half a pint of dryers. Mix with equal quantities of raw and boiled linseed oil until of the proper consistency. Stir well. Strain carefully, and then add one pint of copal varnish.

To stop cracks in a spar: When the spar is thoroughly dry run in marine glue. When the glue is hard scrape some of it out and stop the crevice with putty stained the same color as the spar.

Iron mould and other stains can be removed from a deck by a solution of one part of muriatic acid and three parts of water.

THE LEAD LINE.

The hand lead weighs fourteen pounds. The line to which it is attached is twenty-five fathoms long, and is marked as follows: At two fathoms, leather with two ends; at three fathoms, leather with three ends; at five fathoms, white muslin; at seven fathoms, red bunting; at ten fathoms, leather with hole in it; at thirteen fathoms, blue serge; at fifteen fathoms, white muslin; at seventeen fathoms, red bunting; at twenty fathoms, strand with two knots in it. By the different feel of the materials used it is easy to distinguish the marks in the dark. In sounding when the boat is in motion, swing the lead round and heave it as far forward as you can. By filling the hollow at the base of the lead with grease or tallow, a sample of the bottom mud or sand adheres to it, which may be useful in verifying the position of the boat by comparing it with the chart on which the nature of the bottom is indicated.

The first fathom of the hand lead line for use in a boat of light draught may be marked off in feet in any legible manner satisfactory to the marker.

The marks on the deep sea lead line commence with two knots at twenty fathoms, another knot being added for every ten fathoms, and a single knot at each intermediate five.

A hand lead for use in a small craft need not be so heavy as fourteen pounds.

It may not be generally known that all watches are compasses if used according to the following instructions. Point the hour hand to the Sun, and the South is exactly half-way between the hour and the figure XII on the dial. For instance, suppose it is four o'clock; point the hand indicating four to the Sun, and II on the dial is South. Suppose again it is eight o'clock; point the hand indicating eight to the Sun, and the figure X on the dial is South. Some cranks carry a compass card in their watch case so that they may always determine without delay or trouble the direction of the wind whenever the Sun is visible.

Photo by J. S. Johnston.

"HALF RATERS."
]

XIV.

RULE OF THE ROAD AT SEA.

The boat sailer must possess a knowledge of the rule of the road at sea, unless he wants his sport brought to an untimely end by collision. He should become thoroughly familiar with the International Steering and Sailing Rules, so that if he encounters steamships, fishing craft, pilot boats, etc., he will be able so to maneuver his own vessel as to escape collision.

The prudent skipper of a little vessel should always give steamships and ferryboats a wide berth. Big steamships sometimes are slow to answer their helms, and often will not get out of the way of small craft, although compelled to by international law. Should your boat be run down by one of these monsters of the deep you, of course, have your remedy in a court, but you are apt to find litigation very expensive when suing a steamship company, and a suit often lingers for years until, having exhausted every process, it finds itself at last on the calendar of the Supreme Court of the United States.

It is not advisable to attempt to cross the bows of a steamer unless you have plenty of room and you are a good judge of distances. Steam vessels go at a faster rate than they seem to, and the momentum of their impact is very great. Instead of crossing a steamer's bow go about on the other tack, or haul your foresheet to windward till she has passed. Discretion is always the better part of valor. Not to monkey with ocean steamships or ferryboats is as valuable advice as that time-honored warning to boys not to fool with the buzz-saw.

Do not get "rattled," whatever you do, but keep your eyes "skinned" and your head clear.

Skippers of ferryboats often try to show off their smartness by steering as close as possible to small pleasure boats and then giving them the benefit of their wash, sometimes swamping their unfortunate victims. It is fun for the fellow in the ferryboat's pilot-house, but it is the reverse of pleasant to the man wallowing in the seething water. Therefore, do not court danger by approaching too near these unwieldy marine brutes, but if you are so luckless as to get into their wash handle your boat so that she shall not get into the trough of the waves, but take the sea on the bluff of the bow, where it will do the least harm.

Navigation by daylight in fine, clear weather is easy, but when it is dark and foggy special precautions must be taken or collision is inevitable. I do not propose to reprint in this little book the full text of the international regulations for preventing collisions at sea, but I have prepared an abstract, which will be sufficient for the practical purposes of an amateur sailor.

LIGHTS.

Between sunset and sunrise the following lights shall be carried by a steamship when under way:

At the foremast head a bright white light, visible on a clear night at a distance of five miles, showing the light ten points on either side of the ship from right ahead to two points abaft the beam.

On the starboard side a green light showing from right ahead to two points abaft the beam, visible at a distance of two miles.

On the port side a red light similar in all respects, except color, to the green light.

To prevent these green and red lights from being seen across the bow they must be fitted with inboard screens projecting at least three feet forward from the light.

Steamships towing other vessels shall carry two white masthead lights in addition to their side lights.

Sailing vessels when under way or being towed shall carry only the green and red lights as provided for steamships under way.

Small vessels that cannot carry fixed side lights in bad weather must have them on deck on their respective sides ready for instant exhibition on the approach of another vessel.

All vessels at anchor shall show where it can best be seen, at a height not exceeding twenty feet above the hull, a white light in a globular lantern of eight inches in diameter, visible all round the horizon at a distance of at least a mile.

Pilot vessels shall only carry a white light at the masthead, visible all round the horizon, and shall exhibit a flare-up light every fifteen minutes.

Open boats are not required to carry fixed sidelights, but must, in default of such, be provided with a lantern, having a green slide on one side and a red slide on the other, which must be properly shown in time to prevent collision, taking care that the green light shall not be seen on the port side nor the red light on the starboard side.

Fishing and open boats, when at anchor or riding to their nets and stationary, shall exhibit a bright white light, and may, in addition, use a flare-up light if deemed expedient.

FOG SIGNALS.

In fog, mist, or falling snow, whether by day or night, a steamship under way shall blow a prolonged blast of her steam whistle every two minutes, or oftener. A sailing vessel under way shall blow her foghorn (which must be sounded by a bellows or other mechanical device and not by mouth power) at intervals of not less than two minutes, when on the starboard tack one blast, when on the port tack two blasts in succession, and when with the wind abaft the beam three blasts in succession.

Vessels not under way shall ring the bell at intervals of not less than two minutes.

STEERING AND SAILING RULES
FOR SAILING VESSELS.

A ship running free shall keep out of the way of a ship closehauled.

A ship closehauled on the port tack shall keep out of the way of a ship closehauled on the starboard tack.

When both are running free with the wind on different sides, the ship which has the wind on the port side shall keep out of the way of the other.

When both are running free with the wind on the same side, the ship which is to windward shall keep out of the way of the ship to leeward.

A ship which has the wind aft shall keep out of the way of the other ship.

FOR STEAM VESSELS.

If two ships under steam are meeting end on, or nearly end on, so as to involve risk of collision, each shall alter her course to starboard so that each may pass on the port side of the other.

If two ships under steam are crossing so as to involve risk of collision, the ship which has the other on her own starboard side shall keep out of the way of the other.

Steamships must, in cases where there is risk of collision, keep out of the way of sailing vessels.

A vessel, whether sail or steam, when overtaking another, must keep out of the way of the overtaken ship.

Where by the above rules one of two ships is to keep out of the way, the other shall keep her course.

The following rhymes should be committed to memory:

When both sidelights you see ahead,
Port your helm and show your red!
Green to green or red to red,
Perfect safety—go ahead!

If on the port tack you steer,
It is your duty to keep clear
Of every closehauled ship ahead,
No matter whether green or red.

But when upon your port is seen
A stranger's starboard light of green,
There's not so much for you to do,
For green to port keeps clear of you.

A ship which is being overtaken by another shall show from her stern to such last-mentioned ship a white light or a flare-up light. This rule was only adopted in 1884, but I saw it practically exemplified in the ship _Rajah of Cochin_ in the year 1874. The _Rajah_ was running down the Southeast trades one pitch dark night in April, homeward bound; I was in charge of the deck. We had studdingsails set on both sides, on the mainmast and foremast. Suddenly out of the darkness astern there loomed up the sails on the foremast of a big ship whose jibboom seemed to be right over the _Rajah's_ stern. She carried no side lights, her skipper being probably of an economical turn of mind. I took the lighted lamp out of the binnacle, and jumping on the wheel gratings waved it as high as I could, at the same time yelling with all my might. I could hear the man on the lookout aboard the pursuing vessel roar out, and then came a clatter and a rattle of ropes and a flapping of sails as with her helm hard to port the ship that was pursuing us luffed out across our stern. She snapped off a few stunsail booms, but that was better than running us down. Capt. Sedgwick, who was in command of the _Rajah_, was awakened by the noise and came up from below in his pajamas. He quickly realized what a close shave his ship had experienced.

BUOYS AND BEACONS.

In approaching channels from seaward red buoys marked with even numbers will be found on the starboard side of the channel and must be left on the starboard side in passing in. Black buoys with odd numbers will be found on the port side of the channel and must be left on the port hand in passing in.

Buoys with red and black horizontal stripes will be found on obstructions with channel ways on either side of them, and may be left on either hand.

Buoys painted with black and white perpendicular stripes will be found in mid-channel, and must be passed close aboard to avoid danger.

All other marks to buoys will be in addition to the foregoing and may be employed to mark particular spots, a description of which will be found in the printed Government lists.

Perches, with balls, cages, etc., will, when placed on buoys, be at turning points, the color and number indicating on what side they shall be passed.

XV.

THE COMPASS.

I have no space in this volume to write an exhaustive chapter on navigation. It is, however, an art easily acquired, and may be wholly self-taught. There are certain rudimentary rules for finding one's way at sea by dead reckoning, that everyone starting out on a cruise should master. The instruments needful are a compass, parallel rulers, dividers, patent log, lead line, aneroid barometer, clock, and the necessary charts of the sea which it is proposed to navigate.

In a small cruiser a compass is generally carried in a portable binnacle. When steering by it take care that the lubber's point is in a direct line with the keel or stem and sternpost. For the benefit of the uninitiated, I will explain that the lubber's point is the black vertical line in the foreside of the compass bowl, by which the direction of the vessel's head is determined. A misplaced lubber's point is sure to cause grave errors in the course actually made. The compass should be as far removed as possible from ironwork of any kind. A spirit compass, as I have remarked elsewhere, is the only kind suitable for small craft. Those with cards of hard enamel, floating in undiluted alcohol, which renders freezing impossible, are the best. The amateur boat sailer should become familiar with the compass, be able to box it by both points and degrees, and to name its back bearings.

The points of the compass are thirty-two in number, as follows:

North

North by East

North, North-East

North-East by N.

North-East

North-East by E.

East, North-East

East by North

East

East by South

East, South-East

South-East by E.

South-East

South-East by S.

South, South-E.

South by East

South

South by West

South, South-W.

South-West by S.

South-West

South-West by W.

West, South-W.

West by South

West

West by North

West, North-West

North-West by W.

North-West

North-West by W.

North, North-W.

North by West

North

These points are sub-divided into quarter points, and again into degrees. The table given on pages 142-143 shows the angles which every point and quarter point of the compass makes with the meridian:

POINTS, ANGLES AND BACK BEARINGS OF THE COMPASS.

_Opposite or Back _Pts._ _Dgrs. _Pts._ _Opposite or Back
Bearings._ &c._ Bearings._

North. South. 0 0 0 0 0 North. South.

0-1/4 2 48 45 0-1/4

N. 1/2 S. 1/2 0-1/2 5 37 30 0-1/2 N. 1/2 S. 1/2
E. W. W. E.

0-3/4 8 26 15 0-3/4

N. b. E. S. b. W. 1 11 15 0 1 N. b. W. S. b. E.

1-1/4 14 3 45 1-1/4

N. b. E. S. b. W. N. b. W. S. b. E.

1/2 E. 1/2 W. 1-1/2 16 52 30 1-1/2 1/2 W. 1/2 E.

1-3/4 19 41 15 1-3/4

N. N. E. S. S. W. 2 22 30 0 2 N. N. W. S. S. E.

2-1/4 25 18 45 2-1/4

N. N. E. S. S. W. N. N. W. S. S. E.

1/2 E. 1/2 W. 2-1/2 28 7 30 2-1/2 1/2 W. 1/2 E.

2-3/4 30 56 15

N. E. b. S. W. b. N. W. b. S. E. b.

N. S. 3 33 45 0 N. S.

3-1/4 36 33 45

N. E. S. W. 39 22 30 N. W. S. E.

1/2 N. 1/2 S. 3-1/2 39 22 30 1/2 N. 1/2 S.

3-3/4 42 11 15

N. E. S. W. 4 45 0 0 N. W. S. E.

4-1/4 47 48 45 4-1/4

N. E. S. W. N. W. S. E.

1/2 E. 1/2 W. 4-1/2 50 37 30 4-1/2 1/2 W. 1/2 E.

4-3/4 53 26 15 4-3/4

N. E. S. W. N. W. S. E.

b. E. b. W. 5 56 15 0 5 b. W. b. E.

5-1/4 59 3 45 5-1/4

N. E. b. S. W. b. N. W. b. S. E. b.

E. 1/2 W. 1/2 5-1/2 61 52 30 5-1/2 W. 1/2 E. 1/2
E. W. W. E.

5-3/4 64 41 15 5-3/4

E. N. E. W. S. W. 6 67 30 0 6 W. N. W. E. S. E.

6-1/4 70 18 45 6-1/4

E. b. N. W. b. S. W. b. N. E. b. S.

1/2 N. 1/2 S. 6-1/2 73 7 30 6-1/2 1/2 N. 1/2 S.

6-3/4 75 56 15 6-3/4

E. b. N. W. b. S. 7 78 45 0 7 W. b. N. E. b. S.

7-1/4 81 33 45 7-1/4

E. 1/2 W. 1/2 7-1/2 84 22 30 7-1/2 W. 1/2 E. 1/2
N. S. N. S.

7-3/4 87 11 15 7-3/4

East. West. 8 90 0 0 8 West. East.

The mariner's compass does not, however, give the true direction of the various points of the horizon. The needle points to the magnetic North and not to the true North, the difference between them being called the variation of the compass, which differs widely in various parts of the world, being sometimes easterly and sometimes westerly, and constantly changing. The amount is generally marked on the charts. In New York the variation for 1894 was 8° 26´ West, or three-quarters of a point to the West of the true North. Thus, to make good a true North course, the vessel would have to steer North three-quarters West. A rule easy to remember is that westerly variation is allowed to the left of the compass course, or bearing, and that easterly variation is allowed to the right of the compass course or bearing.

To convert true courses and bearings into compass courses and bearings with variation westerly, allow it to the right of the true course or bearing, and with variation easterly allow it to the left of the true course or bearing.

Deviation is another error of the compass caused by local attraction, such as the ironwork and iron ballast in a boat, or the proximity of a marlinespike to the binnacle. In a wooden boat, if proper care is taken, there should be no appreciable deviation of the compass. Deviation can be discovered by swinging the boat as she lies at her moorings, having first obtained the true magnetic bearing of some distant object, such as a lighthouse or a church steeple. As the vessel's head comes to each point of the compass, a compass bearing is taken of the object, and the difference between that bearing and the true magnetic bearing is observed and noted, and afterward tabulated. It will often be found that the deviation differs not only in amount, but in name, for different directions of the ship's head, being easterly at certain points and westerly at others.

The rule is to allow westerly deviation to the left to get the correct magnetic course, and easterly deviation to the right to get the correct magnetic course.

To find out the error of the compass in order to steer a true course, the _sum_ of the deviation and the variation when both are of the same name, and their _difference_ when they have different names, must be ascertained. For instance, deviation 20° West and variation 25° West, would give an error of compass 45° West, which should be applied to the left.

If the deviation was 20° East and the variation 10° West, the difference between them would be 10° East, which compass error should be applied to the right to steer a true course.

In order to find the compass course or course to steer, proceed as follows, the true course being North 40° East, the variation being 38° West and the deviation 18° East:

Variation, 38° W., being of contrary names, take their difference.
Deviation, 18° E.
------
Correction, 20°, apply to the right, being westerly.

True course N.40° E. ------ Compass course N.60° E.

Another example is given where the variation and deviation are both easterly and the true course is S., 75° West.

Variation, 24° W., being of same name.
Deviation, 16° W., add together.
------
Correction, 40°, apply to the left, being easterly.

True course, S. 75° W.
------
Compass course, S. 35° W.

A volume might be written on the mariner's compass. It is a fascinating study, but unfortunately my space is limited.

There is another correction to the compass that the amateur should have cognizance of. It is called leeway, and is, in untechnical language, the drift that the ship makes sideways through the water because of the force of the wind or the impulsive heave of the sea. Some craft, because of deficiency in the element of lateral resistance, such as in the case of a shallow, "skimming-dish" sort of a boat, with the centerboard hoisted up, will go to leeward like a crab. Others of a different type, such as the "plank-on-edge" variety, with a lead line attached, will hang on to windward in a wonderful manner. It requires, therefore, a certain amount of judgment as well as of knowledge in this particular section of nautical lore to be able to estimate with any degree of approximate certainty the leeway a vessel may happen to make. It should not be forgotten that build has much to do with this, and that trim and draught of water are also two powerful elements in this connection. For instance, a boat with outside lead and a centerboard in a strong breeze and a lumpy sea, so long as the wind permitted her to carry a commanding spread of sail, might make no appreciable leeway, but, on the contrary, might "eat up" into the wind. But given the same boat without the lead and without the adventitious aid that the centerboard affords, she would be compelled to dowse her muslin at the first puff, and as a purely physical consequence she would retain no hold on the water and would drift off to leeward like an irresponsible she-crab.

Thus leeway must be estimated by experience. It is often a most disturbing quantity, especially when the weather is foggy and the channel in which you are steering is perplexing on account of rocks or shoals. I have already expatiated on the wisdom of anchoring in such a contingency as this whenever the elements will permit. But, of course, one is a slave of the winds and the waves, and "bringing-up" is not always possible. I should, therefore, advise the amateur to carefully watch his boat and endeavor to find out approximately the amount of leeway she makes when the first reef is taken in by comparing the direction of the fore and aft line of the boat with that of her wake. This method may also be pursued with advantage under all conditions of wind and weather, and by this means a moderately correct and very useful table may be made.

The old navigators like the Drakes and the Frobishers had this matter arranged for them, so when they sailed forth on voyages of great emprise and portent they were guided by certain tabulated formula that gave them full and implicit directions for the allowance of leeway. Thus the skipper of a ship with topgallantsails furled was told to allow one point; when under double-reefed topsails, one point and a half; when under close-reefed topsails, two points; when the topsails are furled, three points and a half; when the fore-course is furled, four points; when under the mainsail only, five points; when under the balanced mizzen or mizzen staysail, six points; and when under bare poles, seven points.

This antiquated method of computation answered very well, for those sterling and sturdy navigators of the olden times seemed to have had a rare faculty of achieving their adventurous purpose and of gaining, too, both fame and fortune. But the commander of a clipper ship, with whom I sailed as a youngster, undertook to demonstrate to me the absurdity of any such hard-and-fast rule. We had carried away our three topgallant masts, off Cape Agulhas, while threshing hard against a westerly gale. They were whipped out of us like pipe-stems. It took all hands a whole day to clear away the wreck. Next day the weather moderated sufficiently for us to have carried every stitch of canvas could we have set it. There were a number of vessels beating round the Cape, and all took advantage of the cessation of the gale to spread all their flying kites to the breeze. Our ship, under three topsails, inner and outer jibs, foresail, mainsail, crossjack, spanker, foretopmast, maintopmast and mizzentopmast staysails, beat all the fleet. When it came on to blow again we were the first to reef, because some of our rigging had got badly strained in the squall that took our topgallantmasts away. Still we maintained our lead, although jogging along comfortably while our opponents were driving at it, hugging their topgallantsails and with lee rails under.

"Now," said our captain, coming on the poop after he had worked up his dead reckoning at noontime, "you see all those ships dead to leeward—well they ought to be to windward of us unless all the books on navigation are wrong. I have entered in my traverse-table the courses we were supposed to have made good under the old rule, and have thus proved its falsity. The fact is the ships that were turned out in the days when these nautical axioms were first propounded were built by the mile and cut off in lengths to suit. They had no shape to speak of below the water-line, and perhaps the rule applied to each alike. Times are different now, and leeway must be determined by the model of the ship."

The rule for reckoning leeway is as follows:

Wind on starboard side, allow leeway to the left.

Wind on port side, allow leeway to the right.

Or you may thus define it:

Vessel on starboard tack, allow leeway to the left.

Vessel on port tack, allow leeway to the right.

In this connection it might be well to urge the young mariner against keeping his boat all a-shiver and bucking against a head sea, and all the while sagging off bodily to leeward. It is better far to keep the wake right astern and keep way on the vessel—unless, of course, the weather is too violent.

The direction and rate of tides and currents have also to be allowed for when correcting a compass course. Thus in crossing Long Island Sound from Larchmont to Oyster Bay in thick weather, the magnetic course as given in the Government chart would have to be rectified and allowance made for the condition of the tide, whether ebb or flood, or your boat might never reach her destination.

XVI.

CHARTS.

There are no better charted coasts in the world than those bounded by the North Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. The United States Navy has done and is doing magnificent hydrographic work. The charts issued by the Government are accurate, reliable, up-to-date and reasonable in price.

The top of a chart when spread out in front of you so that the reading part appears to you like the page of a book, and you can read it from left to right, is the North, the bottom is the South, the side on your right is the East, and the side on your left is the West. There are always compasses on a chart, either true or magnetic, by reference to which and with the aid of the parallel rulers the bearing of one point from another may easily be ascertained by the following method:

Lay the edge of the rulers over the two places; then slide them (preserving the direction) till the edge of one ruler is on the center of the nearest compass; when this is done read off the course indicated by the direction of the ruler.

To measure the distance between two places on the chart spread out the dividers till their points are over them, then apply to the graduated scale at the bottom of the chart, which will give you the required distance. This method, it should be remembered, is only accurate when applied to the large coasting charts. When measuring distances on general charts which extend across many degrees of latitude, the mean latitude of the two places must be measured from.

There are certain signs and abbreviations used on charts which are easily comprehended, such as _hrd_ for hard, _rky_ for rocky, etc. Lighthouses and lightships are clearly marked, and shoals, rocks and other obstructions to navigation are plainly defined. All the marginal notes on the charts should be made familiar by the navigator. I need scarcely say that charts, instruments and books of sailing instructions should be kept dry. There are cylindrical tin boxes for charts which are quite cheap, and these I recommend.

The position of a vessel may be ascertained simply and accurately by cross-bearings. Suppose you are in a ship at _A_ in Fig. 6. The point with the lighthouse on it bears correct magnetic N. by W., and the point with the tree on it E. by N. You lay the parallel rules over the compass on your chart at N. by W., and work them to the lighthouse, preserving the direction. You then draw the line from the lighthouse to _a_. You then lay the parallel rules over the compass on your chart at E. by N., and work them in a similar way to the tree. Then draw the line from the tree to _a_. The spot where the two lines cut was the vessel's position on the chart when the bearings were first taken. The distance of the ship from both lighthouse and tree can be measured by taking in the dividers the distance between either and the ship, and referring to the scale on the chart.

It should be remembered that when sailing along the land cross-bearings will always determine your position, always allowing the proper corrections on the compass. In taking cross-bearings, try to have a difference between the two objects of as nearly ninety degrees as possible.

The old-fashioned log-ship and log-line for determining the distance run by a vessel need have no place in the equipment of a small yacht. There are several patent self-registering logs which record the distance run, either on the taffrail or on dials on the log itself. Their performance is fairly satisfactory, but they should be kept well oiled, and should be often examined and tested—for instance, in a run between two objects whose distance apart is well known.

By careful attention to the Lead, the Log and the Look-out, a boat may be navigated, by dead reckoning, with a certain amount of accuracy.

A nautical mile, or knot, is the same as a geographical mile. Its length is six thousand and eighty feet. A statute mile in the United States measures five thousand two hundred and eighty feet.

XVII.

MARLINESPIKE SEAMANSHIP.

WITH INSTRUCTIONS FOR MAKING SPLICES
KNOTS AND BENDS.

The amateur yachtsman should be able to make all the splices and most of the knots in common use. This knowledge will come in quite handy when fitting out his craft in the spring, and will save him the expense of hiring a sailor to do the work. I have spent many happy hours in rigging a fifteen-ton cutter, doing all the work myself (except stepping the mast) with the aid of a boy.

A few fathoms of rope, a marlinespike, a knife, a small pot of grease, a ball of spun yarn, another of marline and one of roping twine, and you are equipped for work. Splicing ropes and making fancy knots may be made a quite pleasant way of spending a winter's evening. It keeps one out of mischief, and the art once learned is rarely forgotten. I think if you follow my directions and take heed of the diagrams that accompany them (which I have taken pains to make as clear as possible) you will have no difficulty in becoming quite expert in the use of a marlinespike.

The ends of all ropes, whether belonging to the running or standing rigging, must be whipped with tarred roping twine or they will unravel. Take the rope in your left hand and lap the twine round it very tight a dozen times, taking care that the end lies under the first turns so as to secure it. Then make a loop with the twine and continue the lapping for four turns round the rope and the end of the twine, as shown above. Haul taut and cut off the end.

EYE SPLICE—Unlay the rope and lay the strands E, F, G at the proper distance upon the standing part, as shown at A. Now push the strand H through the strand next to it, as shown in B, having first opened it with a marlinespike. Strand I is then thrust over the part through which H was passed. Strand K is thrust through the third on the other side. Repeat the process with each strand, and then hammer the splice into shape with the butt of the marlinespike. Stretch and cut off the ends of the strands. If particular neatness is required, the strands, after having been passed through the standing part the first time, should be halved and passed again, and then still further tapered by being quartered before being passed for the third and last time. An eye splice is useful. Standing rigging should have eyes spliced in to go over the mast-head, and for dead-eyes to be turned in, etc.

FIG. 1.

FIG. 2.
]

SHORT SPLICE—Unlay the ends of two ropes of the same size and bring their ends together, as shown in Fig. 1. Hold the rope D and the strands A, B and C in the left hand. Pass the strand E over A and under C of rope H and haul taut. Pass strand G over B and under A. Pass strand F over the strand next to it and under the second. Turn the rope round and treat the other side in the same way, when the splice will be like Fig. 2. The single tucking of the strands will not, however, be strong enough, and the process should be repeated on both sides, halving the strands for the sake of neatness. This splice is used only for rope that is not required to run through a block.

Fig. 1.

Fig. 2.
]

LONG SPLICE—Unlay the ends of the two ropes that are to be joined some two or three feet, according to the size of the rope. Place the two ends together, as shown in Fig. 1. Unlay strand C and lead it back to A; then take D and lay it up in the space left by C. Do this with the strands E and F on the opposite side. The rope will now look like Fig. 2. Give the two middle strands, G and H, a lick of tar if the rope is of hemp, and grease if of manilla, and knot them together with an overhand knot, taking care that the knot is so formed as to follow the lay of the rope. Then halve these strands and pass them over one strand and under two. Treat the remaining strands in the same way, after which stretch the rope well and cut off the ends of the strands. A long splice is the neatest way there is of putting two ends of a rope together. If well made it does not increase the diameter of the rope, and therefore renders through blocks as though it did not exist. If one strand of a rope is chafed through while the other two are sound, a new strand may be put in to replace it, and the ends may be finished off in the same way as in a long splice.

CUT SPLICE—A cut splice is made the same as an eye splice, only with two ropes instead of one.

OVERHAND KNOT—It is used at the ends of ropes to prevent them from unreeving. There should always be one in the end of the mainsheet, which is difficult to reeve again in anything like a breeze.

REEF KNOT—It is always used to tie the reef points of a sail. First make an overhand knot and then pass the ends so that they take the same lay as the crossed parts of the overhand knot. If passed the other way, the knot will form what sailors call a granny, which will slip when it is subjected to a strain.

BOWLINE KNOT—Take the end (1) of the rope in the right hand and the standing part (2) in the left hand. Lay the end over the standing part and turn the left wrist so that the standing part forms a loop (4) enclosing the end. Next lead the end back of the standing part and above the loop, and bring the end down through the loop as shown. This is a very useful knot.

RUNNING BOWLINE—It is made by passing the end of a rope round its standing part and forming a bowline as in Fig. 8.

BOWLINE ON A BIGHT—To make it, double the rope and take the doubled end (1) in the right hand, the standing part (2) of the rope in the left hand. Lay the end over the standing part, and by turning the left wrist form a loop (3) having the end inside. Next pull up enough of the end (1) to dip under the bight (4), bringing the end towards the right and dipping it under the bight, then passing it up to the left over the loop and hauling taut.

TWO HALF HITCHES—Pass the end of the rope round the standing part and bring it up through the bight. This makes a half hitch. Repeat the process and haul taut. If the knot is to bear a great strain, seize the end back with spunyarn to the standing part.

TIMBER HITCH—Pass the end of a rope round the spar, then round the standing part _b_, then several times round its own part _c_ against the lay of the rope.

GAFF TOPSAIL HALYARD BEND—Pass two turns round the spar, then lead the end back round the standing part and underneath all the turns, bringing it round to its own part and back again over the two outer turns and underneath the inner turn.

BLACKWALL HITCH—It is the simplest method known of making fast the end of a rope to the hook of a tackle. The figure is self-explanatory, the underneath part or the rope being jammed hard and fast by the strain on the hook.

COMMON BEND—Make a bight with the end of one rope, and pass the end of the other through the bight from beneath, and round both parts with the end under its own standing part. The greater the strain, the faster will this bend jam.

MAGNUS HITCH—Pass two round turns with the end of a rope over a spar, then take it before the standing part, pass it again under the spar and up through the bight.

SELVAGEE STROP—It is made by driving two nails into a length of plank at a distance apart equal to the desired length of the strop. Make fast one end of a ball of spunyarn or knotted ropeyarns to one of the nails and pass it round the other, continuing the process until the strop is as thick as required. Marl it down with spunyarn and sew canvas or leather round it if intended for a block.

GROMMET STROP—It is made of a single strand of rope. To make it, lay one end over the other at the size required, and with the long end follow the lay round until a ring is formed with three parts of the strand all round. Finish by dividing the ends, overhand knotting, and passing them over one strand and under the other exactly as in a long splice. To make a neat job, use a strand from rope that has been some time in use and is well stretched. The strand should be about a foot more than three times the length of the strop, to allow for the knotting. It may be wormed and covered with canvas or leather if intended for a block.

Fig. 19.

Fig. 20.

Fig. 21.

Fig. 22.
]

Figs. 19 and 20 show a Wall Knot. Unlay the end of a rope and with the strand A in Fig. 19 form a bight, hold it down at the side B, pass the end of the next strand C, round A, the end of strand D round C and through the bight of A. Haul taut and the knot is made as in Fig. 20. This can be crowned by taking strand in Fig. 21 and laying it over the top of the knot. Then lay B over A, and C over B and through the bight of A and haul taut. Fig. 22 shows a double wall and double crown, which is made by letting the ends follow their own parts round until all the parts appear double, first walling and then crowning.