Chapter VI: Part II: Bread Making (3)

Now, one might suppose that the heat of the oven would certainly gelatinize a portion of the starch, and thus aid the diastase in the conversion of the starch into sugar, and avoid the necessity of cooking a portion of the flour. But when we consider the fact that the starch does not begin to gelatinize until the temperature is raised to 152 degrees, which is already about 30 degrees above the most favorable temperature for the activity of the diastase, and the fact that the diastase is killed at a temperature of about 175 degrees F., we can readily see why the gelatinization of starch in the oven is of little assistance to the diastase in the conversion of starch into sugar.

This also throws some light upon the fact that the low diastatic extract produced approximately as much sugar as the one having the high activity. As stated above, both of the extracts, when used to the extent of one per cent., figured on the flour, have sufficient diastase to convert the broken starch granules into sugar, and the higher activity then can be of value only in the conversion of starch into sugar after gelatinization of a portion of the starch by the heat of the oven, and then only while the temperature rises from 152 degrees F., at which temperature the starch is gelatinized, until it reaches about 175 degrees, when the diastase is killed, and under very unfavorable conditions, for the temperature is far above the most favorable activity of the diastase.

While the high diastatic extract seems to yield but little more sugar than the one of low activity when added directly to the raw flour, it has a decided advantage when a portion of the flour is cooked, for then the amounts of sugar produced by different extracts will bear much more nearly the same ratios to each other as the activities of the extracts.

Besides supplying saccharine material in the bread, malt extract has other advantages. In addition to the sugar it contains mineral salts, peptones, and other protein materials which stimulate fermentation. These proteins, besides being a source of nitrogenous food for the yeast, act upon the proteins of the flour, making them assimilable by the yeast.

In addition to the amylolytic ferment, the diastase, which converts starch into sugar, malt extract contains proteolytic ferments which act upon the gluten much as the ferments of the yeast. These ferments aid the yeast in preparing the gluten, and hence a smaller quantity of yeast can be used when malt extract takes the place of granulated sugar. In other words, the dough matures quicker, owing to the presence of these ferments in the malt extract. While the extracts with the higher diastatic activity produce only a little more sugar than the lower diastatic extracts, they act upon the gluten much more vigorously, and consequently the dough matures much sooner when a high diastatic malt is used. This latter, then, is better suited to hard flours, while the former can be used to good advantage with weak flours.

The dextrin formed by the diastase gives a very desirable color to the crust of the bread, which is often lacking when no malt extract is used. In addition to these advantages, malt extract produces an agreeable flavor, and this is, perhaps, one of the best arguments for its use.

From the table above it is evident that a given weight of malt extract goes much farther toward producing sugar in bread than does the same weight of cane sugar, but there has been nothing said of prices. By a few calculations I think we can show, approximately, how much the baker can save in dollars and cents by using malt extract in place of cane sugar. We will assume the flour to be worth $4.50 per barrel or 2.29 cents per pound, cane sugar 5 cents per pound and malt extract 7 cents per pound. As a basis of comparison we will take 100 pounds of cane sugar, which at 5 cents per pound will be worth $5.00. As stated above, one part of malt extract will produce 2.65 times its weight of sugar when added to the dough directly and 14.67 times its weight of sugar when a portion of the flour is cooked. Then it will take 100 divided by 2.65 equals 37.7 pounds of malt extract to produce 100 pounds of sugar by the first method. Since malt extract contains sixty per cent. or more of sugar, the 37.7 pounds would supply 22.6 pounds of sugar and there would be used up 77.4 pounds of starch from the flour to make up the 100 pounds of flour. The 77.4 pounds of flour at 2.29 cents per pound would cost $1.77 and the 37.7 pounds malt extract at 7 cents per pound would cost $2.64, making a total of $4.41 for the 100 pounds of sugar, against $5.00, the cost of the cane sugar.

By the second method, in which a portion of the flour was cooked, it would take 100 divided by 14.67 equals 6.81 pounds of malt extract to produce 100 pounds of sugar. This would contain 4.1 pounds of sugar and there would be used up 95.9 pounds of starch from the flour to make up the 100 pounds of sugar. The cost of the 6.81 pounds malt extract would be $0.50 and the cost of the flour $2.20, a total of $2.70. Then there would be a saving of $5.00 minus 4.41 equals $0.59 by the first method and $5.00 minus $2.70 equals $2.30 by the second method on every hundred pounds of cane sugar used. So far we have considered only the saccharine material. The cane sugar, of course, contains nothing but saccharine material. The malt extract, however, in addition to the sugar, contains about seven per cent. of protein material, which has not been mentioned, and which is an item of considerable importance, and also mineral salts which stimulate yeast fermentation. Besides, the malt extract gives a color to the crust of the bread and a flavor which is quite desirable. When the starch of the flour is converted into sugar, the gluten remains and makes the bread that much richer in protein, which is one of the essential constituents of white bread; also it absorbs several times its weight of water and thus increases the yield of the bread.

It is quite evident that there are many points to be considered in connection with the use of malt extract in bread baking. Most of the evidences, however, seem to indicate that it can be used to good advantage. The principle that “If a little is good, more is better,” will not apply, however. Two pounds to the barrel may give splendid results, while four pounds to the barrel may cause a miserable, soggy loaf of bread. The amounts that can be successfully used depend upon the strength of the flour and the diastatic activity of the extract. With a weak flour one must use low diastatic extracts, while with strong flours one may use larger quantities of extracts with a greater diastatic power.

COTTON SEED OIL IN BREAD-MAKING

BY DAVID CHIDLOW

Cotton seed oil has received so much attention from bread makers in the past few years that it would seem there was nothing left unsaid regarding its advantages in bread-making; but thoughtful bakers will be alert to learn anything new regarding the properties of oil for shortening, which will make them better bakers by using shortenings, with an understanding of their properties in bread-making.

Why Are Shortenings Used?

Shortenings are used in bread-making to accomplish certain definite results, the most common being: first, the coating of each little cell in the loaf whereby the moisture is retained in the loaf, preventing its escape exactly in the manner that waxed or oiled paper would prevent the escape of moisture from a loaf around which it was wrapped. Cut a good loaf after it has been baked about twelve hours, examine it in full daylight, and notice the sheen reflected from each rounded cell. This sheen is greater in loaves which have been properly fermented, using the right proportion of shortening, than in the loaves where the shortening was either deficient in amount or of improper character. Of this matter we will say more further on. Secondly, the use of shortening whitens the bread. Thirdly, a part of the shortening combines with the gluten to make it elastic, and thereby expands more readily and makes a reasonably large loaf. All of these points you can test very readily by making up small batches, using 100 ounces of flour. Take a reasonably good spring wheat patent flour and use 6 pounds 4 ounces of flour, 1½ ounces of yeast, 1½ ounces of salt, 2 ounces of sugar and 3 pounds 12 ounces of water, taking the water at such a temperature so that you will have the dough at 84. Make up the dough and place it in a wooden pail, previously oiled, then cover the dough. At the end of two hours take the dough out and fold it over two or three times. At the end of three hours do the same thing again; again at three and one-half hours. See that dough temperature is maintained as near 84 as possible. At four hours scale it off into sizes for your pan, and prove about sixty minutes in a proving chamber having a temperature of 90.

So far I have said nothing about the quantity of oil to be used. This is because I want you to realize what an influence the amount of shortening has on dough and its expansion. In one dough of the size given above use 1 ounce of oil; in another use 2 ounces; in the third use 3 ounces. Add the oil to the sugar and salt, rub down smoothly until it is a creamy mass; then add a little of the water and a little of the flour and rub down again. Do this with each of the doughs so that the oil will be uniformly mixed in the dough. You will note that the texture of the loaf containing the least amount of shortening is broken. The loaf will not really stand the amount of proof that is given to it, because the gluten will not stretch sufficiently to hold in the gas. The loaf containing the 2 ounces of shortening will be improved very much, and the one containing the 3 ounces will not only be improved in texture and appearance, but will retain the moisture very much longer, as you will find, if you will put a loaf from each of the doughs aside for two days, weighing before and after standing.

Each Shortening in Its Proper Place.

In a number of experiments at Chidlow Institute, Chicago, seven years ago, it was found that every kind of fat that could be used in bread-making had a character of its own which it exhibited in various ways. In fact, they varied so widely as to suggest much deeper research than was at first contemplated at that time. In making up a number of doughs, small amounts of each shortening was added to the loaves, increasing the amount until a proportion of 40 pounds per barrel of flour was used, the lowest amount of shortening used being 2 pounds per barrel of flour. The loaves from each of these batches were placed aside with a view of finding out how much of the shortening was brought to the outside of the loaf by escape of the moisture, and it was found that nearly all shortenings came to the surface or crust of the loaf in different proportions. These tests were made many times over, and always with the same results. With some shortenings the amount of fat brought out was nearly one-half of what was added; in others it would be less than one-fourth, and in some it was as high as three-fourths. Evidently the shortening that would carry three-fourths of the quantity to the crust was unfitted for bread-making by that particular method and with that particular flour.

The details of these experiments are of no service here. They are only referred to as indicating a difference of result obtained by the use of different shortenings. The same thing was noted in making experimental doughs. These were made of the same weight of flour, yeast, sugar, shortening, and water. They were then placed in a glass jar which was marked off so as to give clear readings of the expansion of each dough. The jars were then placed in a water bath maintained at a uniform temperature, and covered with glass to keep the surface of the dough moist. Some of the shortenings used permitted the doughs to rise very much higher than where other shortenings were used, and it made no difference how often these doughs were made and the tests repeated. The shortenings that permitted a very high expansion of the dough on one test always gave a high expansion in another test, so that the results were uniform. This gave us the very information we were in search of, showing us that we must find the best method for each kind of shortening, and for each kind of flour.

Best Method of Using Cotton Seed Oil.

The following instructions are based upon a part of these experiments under the following specific conditions: In the first place it must be understood that a method of making bread is best suited for a particular flour, and that alteration of flour usually requires an alteration in the method, or at least a modification of the method. Many of the spring wheat patent flours being sold are second patents, and as such they are best made into doughs by use of sponges. Take, then, spring wheat second patent flour and a four to six hour sponge. One-half of the total oil should be used in the sponge and the other half in the dough. This brings shortening in accomplishing the expansion of the loaf, in giving a clear whiteness to the loaf, and a bright sheeny coating of the cells making up the structure of the loaf. The average amount of shortening used for pan bread in the United States is five pounds per barrel of flour. Assuming this proportion, then, at least one-half pound of shortening can be discarded without any loss of the shortening power.

The foregoing instructions are not applicable to other flours than of the type given, nor can they be used properly with straight doughs.—_Cotton Seed._

CORN FLAKES USED IN BREAD

Corn flakes are made from the starchy part of the maize kernel. The starch of corn itself has little value for the bread baker in its crude form. It is insoluble in cold water, and can only be dissolved by the disintegration of the organized structures of the granules.

On being boiled with water it forms a gelatinous looking mass, and dissolves.

When examined after boiling the starch granules are seen to have broken up, a small part remaining in the liquid as minute insoluble particles.

In this condition starch is very susceptible to the action of the bodies known as ferments.

Bearing this in mind, this same change takes place in the process employed in the manufacture of corn flakes, that is, the crude starch granules have become completely gelatinized.

The value of gelatinized starch as formed in corn flakes, especially when used in connection with a small quantity of malt extract or malt flour, is not sufficiently understood by many bakers, and it is hoped that these few remarks will make the matter clearer and be of interest to all bakers who are desirous to increase their knowledge in the works of their chosen vocation.

It has conclusively been shown in text-books, that cooked starch, i. e., corn flakes, are more susceptible to “saccharification,” that is, sugar is sometimes called saccharum or saccharine matter, hence the term which is applied to this change that the starch thus undergoes. This conversion is due to the ferment known as diastase found in malt and has the power to convert the gelatinized starches of the corn flakes into maltose. Maltose, on the other hand, is changed by the ferment zymose, contained in yeast, into glucose.

This body is of interest to the baker as being the ultimate form to which all sugars are changed, and in this state is readily broken down into carbonic acid gas and alcohol, which causes doughs to rise. It follows then that corn flakes are a very valuable article to the baker on account of its gelatinized starch, its low cost, absolute sterility, its purity, and, above all, its great moisture-absorbing qualities.

Its use in connection with malt may eliminate the use of cane sugar entirely, and still furnish all the saccharine necessary to give bread the desired sweet flavor and taste. In order to make this clear, the result of the following experiments will corroborate the above statement. After the bread was baked and dried and ground the quantities of reducing sugar were determined by chemical test:

No. 1—100 gm. flour, 58 c. c. water, 2.5 gm. cane sugar gave 5.5 gm. saccharine.

No. 2—100 gm. flour, 56 c. c. water, no cane sugar, gave 3.9 gm. saccharine.

No. 3—100 gm. flour, 62 c. c. water, .125 gm. malt, 3 gm. corn flakes, gave 5.4 gm. saccharine.

The different quantities of water were increased to give dough equal viscosity.

It must be remembered, in making comparisons from this table, that the saccharine matter in the bread is produced in one instance, by the action of the diastase contained in the malt extract, in the other by the action of the enzymes in the flour upon the partial disrupted starch granules of the flour itself, and in the third instance by the cane sugar used.

The results obtained from these experiments are interesting and worthy of careful consideration, inasmuch as ⅛ gm. of malt with 3 gm. of corn flakes (perfectly gelatinized starch) produced practically as much saccharine matter as when 2½ gm. of cane sugar was used. In other words furnishes the bread sufficient saccharine matter at the least possible cost. In addition to this the corn flakes absorbed twice its weight of moisture in the dough, thereby increasing bulk, a decided gain to the baker.

For the sake of argument, it is admitted that the same chemical action takes place when using any other highly starchy product which has been cooked. Corn flakes, however, eliminates any necessity for previous boiling, since it is already prepared in its manufacture and is very sensitive to the attack of diastasic action.

It is also a fact that some of the starch in the flour, which has become disrupted during the milling, is gelatinized by the heat of the oven during baking, giving diastase opportunity to convert some of the starch into sugar. But since raw starch does not gelatinize until the temperature has reached 150 degrees F., which temperature is already higher than the most favorable one for diastasic action, and the intervening time during which the temperature of the baking is increased to 175 degrees F. (a killing temperature for diastase), is very short, a relatively small amount of the gelatinized starch is converted and the baker therefore is compelled to add the more costly article, cane sugar, in order to produce the desired amount of saccharine matter in his bread. This fully explains the difference of saccharine matter found in experiments No. 2 and No. 3.

It further shows that bread containing gelatinized starch as found in corn flakes is fully as good a sugar producer as when using cane sugar, and, as before said, at the smallest possible cost.

To produce the maximum amount of sugar from corn flakes the proportions of malt extract and corn flakes as given, should be mixed in about two gallons of tepid water for each barrel of flour to be made into dough at a temperature of about 140 degrees F. Allow it to remain at this constant temperature for 1½ hours. In this time nearly all of the gelatinized starch of the corn flakes has become converted into maltose. In practice this would show that if 100 lbs. of cane sugar at a cost of $5 be used in bread work the same saccharine matter could be supplanted by using 116 lbs. of corn flake, a price of about $3.50 plus 18c worth of malt, making a total cost of $3.68, and shows a saving of $1.32 where 100 lbs. of sugar is employed.

Corn flakes, besides furnishing saccharine matter, has other advantages. It contains some mineral salts and proteids which are very acceptable nitrogenous foods and readily assimilated by the yeast, causing a rapid and vigorous fermentation.

They also prepare and soften the gluten, giving to the doughs that much desired velvety feeling, and the maximum expansion in the oven. Corn flakes and malt extract may also be used as a short ferment and makes it possible to decrease the amount of yeast usually used without affecting the quality of the bread.

A formula for pan bread which has been used for years and is giving good results is as follows:

Water, 1 qt.; malt extract, .40 oz.; salt, 1 oz.; corn flakes. 1 oz.; lard, 1.75 oz.; yeast, .33 oz.; dry milk, .75 oz.; flour, 3 lbs. 7 oz.

Of course, this can be increased to any amount.

The directions are: Take ⅛ part of the water to be used at temperature of 82 degrees F. and in it dissolve the corn flakes, malt extract and yeast. Let this stand 20 minutes to ferment. It will have risen considerably in this time and fallen; then add it to the balance of the ingredients and make dough.

Corn flakes give color to the crust, is an absorber of moisture, retains it and keeps bread fresh, and inasmuch as it has no pronounced flavor of its own will not predominate or cover up the flavor obtained from good wheat flour and correct fermentation.

This would indicate a third good quality of corn flakes, that is, used simply as a filler for its value as a water absorber only.

While the above tables indicate the use of 6 lbs. of corn flakes to a barrel of flour, satisfactory results have been achieved when 10 lbs. have been added per barrel of flour.

Much depends, however, where corn flakes are used simply as a filler, upon the strength of the flour.

To conclude, I have tried to show that corn flakes can be used in three different ways.

First as a sugar producer, secondly as a yeast saver, and thirdly as a means to increase bulk and leave it to each individual baker to adopt either method, and trust to have been instrumental in telling something that may be of value, if not to every baker, at least to some.

POTATO FLOUR AND BREAD

Potato flour is a yeast food. It contains gelatinized starch, sugar, dextim amides and mineral matter, all of the bodies are yeast nutrients, the first-named being converted into sugar by a ferment in the yeast. The analysis of pure imported potato flour should approximately show as follows: Water, 10.69 per cent.; protein, 6.59 per cent; fat, 0.23 per cent; nutritious extractive matter, 78.73 per cent; fibre, 1.18 per cent; ash, 2.58 per cent, making in all a total of 100 per cent.

The extractive matter is mostly carbo-hydrates (sugar). The ash, the mineral matter, mostly phosphates.

We have here three important bodies for yeast production—carbo-hydrates, protein and phosphates, and the last two, moreover, act as powerful stimulants. Owing to these facts, the writer thinks a closer acquaintance about the use of potato flour will be of some interest to the progressive bread baker.

It is often said that formerly, before the introduction of compressed yeast, when potato ferments were mostly used, that bread was superior in flavor and keeping qualities than most of the bread baked at present.

Furthermore, bakers of to-day find it absolutely necessary to add large quantities of sugar, lard and often milk to their dough to overcome the effect that compressed yeast has brought about. It is not the writer’s intention to belittle the value of compressed yeast, as this product is now an inseparable commodity in the bakeshop.

It is, however, possible to get back the advantages obtained from the old potato ferment process by the judicious use of pure potato flour.

It eliminates entirely the old cumbersome method of boiling and mashing potatoes, scalding flour and setting away the ferment until ready for use, for five or six hours. Pure potato flour used in connection with a small quantity of diastasic malt extract will accomplish results gratifying to the baker and assist in cutting down cost of production.

In the first place, the diastasic power of the malt extracts converts the carbo-hydrates of the potato flour into maltose, and if this is carried in far enough produces more than enough saccharine matter for any dough. Secondly, the extractive and mineral matter of potato flour gives great assistance to the raising properties of yeast by stimulating and increasing yeast cells in a medium befitting their propagation according to the laws of nature. While this may seem clear in theory, any baker can easily ascertain the above bespoken values of potato flour by practical tests. The following formula will be sufficient to guide the baker to make any size test he contemplates to make for a straight dough: 1 qt. water, .08 oz. malt extract, 1 oz. potato flour, .75 oz. lard, 1 oz. salt, .33 oz. yeast, 3 lb. 5 oz. spring patent flour. For a barrel of flour this would equal 15 gals. water, 7 oz. malt extract, 3¾ lbs. potato flour, 3 lbs. lard, 3½ lbs. salt, 1¼ lbs. yeast, 196 lbs. flour.

Weigh the potato flour into a clean tub, pour 4 gals. of water, at 90 degrees F., in, also the 7 oz. of malt extract, and mix up; then break into it the yeast and see to it that it is all dissolved. Cover up with a clean bag. Now get all your other ingredients into the mixer or trough, the balance of the water, your salt and lard scaled off, and your barrel of flour ready. By this time your ferment in the tub will have risen, and be on the point of falling. It is then ready to mix all together and dough. The water should be tempered so as to bring the dough out between 82 and 85 degrees F.

Mix the dough well until clear. Allow it to stand and give it full proof before knocking down first time, which will take about 3½ hours. When it has come up again about three-quarters proof knock down again. Give it another one-half proof in the trough and your dough should be ready to take; in all, 5½ to 6 hours. You will find that potato flour makes your bread keep moist. It will give a rich nutty flavor and will give a much larger yield on account of its moisture, absorbing qualities, and on the whole make a very satisfactory loaf. This, in the writer’s estimation, is the best way to use potato flour in order to get best results at lowest cost of production.

Potato flour may be used dry. When making straight dough this way the potato flour must always be sifted into the flour dry. The quantity to use varies according to strength of the flour and the baker’s own ideas, say 4 to 6 pounds for each barrel of flour. Without changing your usual formula, except cutting some of sugar and increasing water, it will produce good bread.

If the potato flour is scalded and then cooled before using it will assist such as want to get a solid home-made loaf.

No other ingredient, to the writer’s knowledge, will produce bread that will compare in flavor and texture with the old style potato ferment bread than when employing pure imported potato flour judiciously, according to any of the above methods described, nor can any bread be made, considering quality, cheaper or as cheap.

FERMENTATION

A Few Remarks by E. Wilfahrt, an Authority Upon the Subject

The term fermentation, as applied to baking, we find first described as a form of spontaneous decay, changing the carbohydrates contained in the dough into alcohol and dioxide gas. Such fermentation is termed alcoholic. Other varieties of fermentation also exist during the process of doughing, and are termed lactic, acetous, viscous and putrefactive.

The process of fermentation which has for its object the manufacture of bread must be of alcoholic nature, containing ½ of 1 per cent. acidity in proportions of 95 per cent. lactic and 5 per cent. acetic. The presence of lactic fermentation softens the gluten, while the presence of acetic fermentation causes a larger expansion of the loaf.

Of course, the larger the percentage of the acetic acid in proportion to the lactic acid, the larger would be the ultimate expansion of the finished loaf; that is, if no excessive percentage of acidity is produced. While the presence of acetic acid in minute proportions acts favorably on the expansion of the loaf, an excess of it must result in sour bread. Consequently, the acids contained in their proper proportions in the fermented dough exert a beneficial influence, both as to the flavor of the bread and assistance in fermentation.

Viscous fermentation produces the much dreaded disease “rope in bread,” and is really the beginning of putrefaction of the raw material employed. This trouble is caused by over-acidity in the dough and heat, or by uncleanliness, which generates over-acidity, or excess growth of microbes, and this causes rope in bread.

Putrefaction means decomposition of materials employed. It is a non-alcoholic ferment, and the material undergoing putrefaction always gives out a decidedly bad odor.

In making a dough the first point to consider, after proper ingredients have been selected, is the temperature of the dough and of the proving room. The utmost care should be exercised to keep the dough room at a uniform temperature. The best temperature for dough is 78 degrees F., after mixing, and the temperature of the shop should be about 82 degrees F.

To keep a dough thus made at the proper temperature during the period of fermentation it is necessary to use salt in the proper proportions to the amount of sugar and shortening added in the mixing of the dough. So that the rising acidity during the process of fermentation may be properly neutralized salt is used, first to govern the fermentation, and secondly, to give the bread the necessary flavor. Although it is generally conceded that salt retards fermentation, nevertheless this action is most powerful on non-alcoholic ferments. Consequently, salt, if used in the proper proportion, really acts as a stimulant to produce a healthy dough, or perfect loaf of bread.

My experience has taught me that for plain white bread three ounces of salt to a gallon of water is the proper amount. For each two ounces of sugar and shortening added to a gallon of water, one-quarter ounce of salt should be correspondingly added, until four ounces of salt are used to the gallon.

Such a dough, therefore, will call for one-half pound each of sugar and shortening and four ounces of salt to each gallon of water. This would make a very rich home-made dough with a large yield, on account of its moisture retaining power.

In adding more than one-half pound each of sugar and shortening to the gallon, as in making rolls and sweet doughs, the amount of salt must be reduced one-quarter of an ounce for each additional two ounces of sugar, and shortening added to the gallon, until two ounces of salt is all that remains to be used to the gallon of water. From this limit only one-eighth of an ounce is deducted for each additional two ounces of sugar and shortening added.

The amount of flour added to the gallon of liquid depends upon the class of bread to be made. It averages 12½ to 15 pounds to the gallon.

Malt extract is one of the best acquisitions in the manufacture of bread, as it is very useful in increasing the keeping qualities of the product, and gives a better flavor to the loaf, such as is produced by the use of milk.

The shortening should be added after the dough is thoroughly incorporated with the balance of ingredients, as if added first, it will not give the desired results and the flour will not absorb the same quantity of water, as if the shortening were added last.

The temperature of the bakeshop during the operation of molding is another important feature. The dough room should be kept at as uniform a temperature as possible, as the dough is very susceptible to changes of temperature.

In some bakeries the water used is hard, while in other shops soft water is used. The character of the water used has as much to do with the fermentation as the temperature of the water. The softer the water the quicker the fermentation. Generally speaking, dough should never be made without the use of a thermometer to insure uniformity day after day. All ingredients used should be carefully weighed, then the so-called ill-luck in the shop will be a thing of rare occurrence.