Chapter I: Part 1

BRITISH BIRDS IN
THEIR HAUNTS

By the late
REV. C. A. JOHNS, F.L.S.
Author of _Flowers of the Field_

Edited, Revised, and Annotated by
J. A. OWEN
Author of _Birds in their Seasons, etc._
Collaborator in all Books by a 'SON OF THE MARSHES'

Illustrated with 64 Coloured Plates (256 Figures) by
WILLIAM FOSTER, M.B.O.U.

WITH A GLOSSARY OF COMMON AND PROVINCIAL NAMES AND
OF TECHNICAL TERMS

TWELFTH EDITION

[Logo]

LONDON

GEORGE ROUTLEDGE & SONS, LIMITED

NEW YORK: E. P. DUTTON & CO.

+-----------------------------------------------+
| |
| UNIFORM WITH THIS WORK. |
| |
| _Each with a series of Coloured Plates and |
| Text-illustrations._ |
| |
| FLOWERS OF THE FIELD. By C. A. JOHNS, |
| F.L.S., revised by CLARENCE ELLIOTT. |
| |
| BRITISH BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS. |
| By Dr. W. E. KIRBY. |
| |
| BRITISH FERNS AND THEIR ALLIES. |
| By C. T. DRUERY. |
| |
| BRITISH FUNGI. By GEORGE MASSEE, |
| of Kew Gardens. |
| |
| BRITISH TREES AND SHRUBS. |
| By C. A. JOHNS. Edited by E. T. COOK. |
| |
| ILLUSTRATED NATURAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD. |
| By ERNEST PROTHEROE, F.Z.S. |
| |
| ALPINE PLANTS OF EUROPE. By H. S. THOMPSON. |
| With 64 coloured plates. |
| |
| -------------- |
| GEORGE ROUTLEDGE & SONS, LTD. |
| |
+-----------------------------------------------+

JOHN'S BIRDS, EDITED BY OWEN.

_First Edition_, February, 1909; _Reprinted_, July, 1910;
_Reprinted_, December, 1915; _Reprinted_, November, 1917;
_Reprinted_, June, 1919; _Reprinted_, January, 1921;
_Reprinted_, October, 1922; _Reprinted_, March, 1925;
_Reprinted_, August, 1928; _Reprinted_, December, 1931;
_Reprinted_, January, 1935; _Reprinted_, January, 1938.

Printed in Great Britain by Butler & Tanner Ltd., Frome and London

EDITOR'S PREFACE

This admirable work by the late Rev. C. A. Johns, F.L.S., which is now offered in a new form, has already proved the making of many a naturalist and it will be a delight and help to many more nature lovers who wish to determine a species without recourse to bulky scientific works.

In editing the present edition I have carefully preserved all Mr. Johns' delightful personal stories and his descriptions of the birds and their daily life in their haunts, but I have brought the scientific arrangement of the species up to date, as well as altered the nomenclature, in accordance with present-day knowledge and use.

We begin with the Passeres because modern ornithologists are now nearly all agreed that this order attains the highest Avian development.

I have rectified statements as to the local distribution of various species which, with the progress of time and local changes, no longer apply, and have added facts here and there which I considered of some value.

The faithful and beautiful presentments made by Mr. William Foster for this new edition have no need of our commendation to the public.

J. A. OWEN.

SYSTEMATIC ARRANGEMENT OF THE GENERA OF BIRDS

(_Numbered in accordance with the Plates and Descriptions in this Volume._)

ORDER PASSERES
(PERCHING BIRDS)

Bill various; feet adapted for perching on trees or on the ground (not for grasping, wading, or swimming); toes four, all in the same plane, three before and one behind; claws slender, curved, and acute. Food, various; that of the nestlings, perhaps in all instances, soft insects.

FAMILY TURDIDÆ
(THRUSHES)

Bill as long as the head, compressed at the sides; upper mandible arched to the tip, which is not abruptly hooked, notch well marked, but not accompanied by a tooth; gape furnished with bristles; feet long, with curved claws. Food--insects, snails and fruits.

_SUB-FAMILY TURDIDÆ_

Young in first plumage differ from adults in having the upper and under parts spotted.

Genus 1. TURDUS (Thrush, Blackbird, etc.) Bill moderate, compressed at
the point; upper mandible notched, bending over the lower one; gape
furnished with a few bristles; nostrils basal, lateral, oval, partly
covered by a naked membrane; tarsus longer than the middle toe;
wings and tail moderate; first primary very short or almost
abortive, second shorter than the third or fourth, which are the
longest. _Page 1_

2. SAXÍCOLA (Wheatear). Bill straight, slender, the base rather
broader than high, advancing on the forehead, compressed towards the
point; upper mandible keeled, curved, and notched; gape surrounded
by a few bristles; nostrils basal, lateral, oval, half closed by a
membrane; first primary half as long as the second, which is shorter
than the third, third and fourth longest; tarsus rather long; claw
of the hind toe short, strong and curved. _Page 10_

3. PRATÍNCOLA (Chats). Bill shorter and broader than in Saxicola;
bristles at the gape strongly developed. Wings and tail rather short.
_Page 12_

4. RUTICILLA (Redstarts). Bill slender, compressed towards the point,
a little deflected and very slightly emarginate; gape with tolerably
large bristles. Nostrils basal, supernal, and nearly round. Wings
moderate; the first quill short; the second equal to the sixth; the
third, fourth and fifth, nearly equal, and one of them the longest.
Legs slender, the tarsus longer than the middle toe, and covered in
front by a single scale and three inferior scutellæ. _Page 14_

5. ERÍTHACUS (Redbreast). Bill rather strong, as broad as it is high
at the base, where it is depressed, slightly compressed towards the
tip; upper mandible bending over the lower and notched, nostrils
basal, oval, pierced in a membrane, partly hid by bristles diverging
from the gape; first primary half as long as the second, fifth the
longest; tail slightly forked. _Page 16_

6. DAULIAS (Nightingale). Bill rather stout, straight, as broad as
high at the base; upper mandible slightly bent over at the tip; gape
with a few short bristles; nostrils basal, round, pierced in a
membrane; first primary very short, second and fifth equal in
length, third and fourth longest; tail somewhat rounded; tarsus
elongated. _Page 17_

_SUB-FAMILY ACCENTORINÆ_

Bill strong and broad at base; upper mandible overlapping lower and slightly notched at tip.

7. ACCENTOR (Hedge-sparrow). Bill of moderate length, strong, straight,
tapering to a fine point; edges of both mandibles compressed and
bent inwards, the upper notched near the tip; nostrils naked, basal,
pierced in a large membrane; feet strong; claw of the hinder toe
longest, and most curved; first primary almost obsolete, the second
nearly equal to the third, which is the longest. _Page 20_

_SUB-FAMILY SYLVIINÆ_

Young on leaving nest differ slightly in colour from adults.

8. SYLVIA (Whitethroats, Blackcap, Warblers). Bill rather stout,
short, not very broad at base; upper mandible decurved towards
point, which is slightly emarginate; nostrils basal, lateral, oval,
and exposed; gape with bristles. Wings moderate, first quill very
short. Tail with twelve feathers, generally rounded. Tarsus
scutellate in front and longer than middle toe; toes and claws
short. _Page 21_

9. ACROCÉPHALUS (Reed, Marsh, Sedge, and Aquatic Warblers). Bill
nearly straight, with culmen elevated, wide at base, compressed
towards tip, and slightly emarginate; edges of lower mandible
inflected; nostrils basal, oblique, oval, and exposed; moderately
developed bristles at gape. Forehead narrow, depressed. Wings rather
short, first quill minute, third usually longest. Tail rounded,
rather long. Legs long; feet large and stout, hind toe strong; claws
long and moderately curved. _Page 25_

10. LOCUSTELLA (Grasshopper Warbler). Differs from other _Sylviinæ_
chiefly in its more rounded tail and longer under tail-coverts. The
late Professor Newton found the tendons of the tibial muscles
strongly ossified in this genus. _Page 28_

11. PHYLLÓSCOPUS (Chiff-chaff, Willow and Wood-warblers). Bill slender,
rather short; upper mandible decurved from middle and compressed
towards tip, which is very slightly notched; nostrils basal,
lateral, oblong, partly operculate, membrane clothed with small
bristle-tipped feathers, internasal ridge very thin; gape beset with
hairs. Wings rather long, first quill comparatively large, third or
fourth longest. Tail slightly forked, twelve feathers. Tarsus scaled
in front, rather long. Toes long, claws curved. _Page 30_

_SUB-FAMILY REGULINÆ_

Arboreal. Each nostril covered by a single stiff feather.

12. RÉGULUS (Gold and Fire-crested Wrens). Bill very slender,
awl-shaped, straight, compressed; cutting edges bent inwards about
the middle; nostrils partly concealed by small bristly feathers,
directed forwards; first primary very short, second much shorter
than the third, fourth and fifth longest; tail moderate; tarsus
slender, rather long. _Page 33_

FAMILY PARIDÆ
(TITS)

Bill short, straight, conical, sharp-pointed, destitute of a notch; nostrils basal, concealed by reflected bristly hairs. Small birds, remarkable for their activity, not highly gifted with musical power, constantly flitting and climbing about trees and bushes, which they examine for small insects, suspending themselves in all attitudes, feeding also on grains and fruits, and not sparing small birds when they are able to overpower them.

13. ACRÉDULA (Long-tailed Tit). Bill much compressed, both mandibles
curved, upper considerably longer than lower. Eyelids with wide bare
margins. Length of wing quills increases to fourth and fifth, which
are longest. Tail very long, narrow, graduated, outer feathers
one-third length of middle pair. Tarsus long, feet moderate. _Page 35_

14. PARUS (Great, Blue, Cole, Marsh, and Crested Tits). Bill slightly
compressed, upper mandible hardly longer than lower. First wing
quill short, fourth or fifth longest. Tail moderate, even or
slightly rounded. Tarsus moderate, feet strong. _Page 37_

FAMILY PANURIDÆ
(Reedlings)

15. PANÚRUS (Bearded Tit or Reedling). Bill short, subconical; upper
mandible curved at tip and bending over lower one, which is nearly
straight; the edges of both somewhat inflected and not notched.
Nostrils basal, oval, pointed in front and partly covered by reflected
bristly feathers. Wing with ten quills, first almost obsolete, third
longest, fourth and fifth nearly equal to it. Tail very long and, much
graduated. Tarsus long and scutellate in front; feet stout; claws not
much hooked. _Page 42_

FAMILY SITTIDÆ
(NUTHATCHES)

16. SITTA (Nuthatch). Bill moderate, strong, and slightly conical;
lower mandible ascending from angle to point. Tongue short, horny tip
abrupt and furnished with strong bristles. Nostrils basal, rounded, in
deep hollow, covered by short feathers and hairs. Wings rather long;
first quill much shorter than second, fourth or fifth longest. Tail
short, flexible, broad, nearly square. Legs short, stout, tarsi
scutellate; toes long, strong, hind toe especially, outer toe joined
at base to middle toe; claws large, much hooked. _Page 44_

FAMILY CERTHIIDÆ
(CREEPERS)

Bill either straight and subulate or slender, long, and curved; nostrils basal; tail never emarginate; fourth toe coalesced at first phalanx with middle toe. Principally insectivorous.

17. CERTHIA (Creeper). Bill rather long, slender, compressed,
decurved, pointed; nostrils basal, lateral, elongate, partly covered
by membrane. Wings moderate, rounded, first feather short, fourth
and fifth longest. Tail of twelve feathers, long, stiff, pointed,
slightly decurved. Feet large, tarsus slender; fore toes long,
united at base as far as first joint; claws moderate, but much
curved; hind toe short, but with long curved claw. Plumage soft and
thick, especially above. _Page 47_

FAMILY TROGLODYTIDÆ

18. TRÓGLODYTES (Wren). Bill moderate, compressed, slightly curved,
not notched, pointed. Nostrils basal, oval, partly covered by
membrane. Wings short, concave, rounded; first quill rather short,
fourth or fifth longest. Tail generally short; its feathers soft and
rounded. Tarsus rather long and strong, middle toe united at base to
outer but not to inner toe; hind toe as long or longer than middle
toe; claws long, stout and curved. Plumage long and soft. _Page 48_

FAMILY CINCLIDÆ

19. CINCLUS (Dipper). Bill moderate, slightly ascending, angular,
higher than broad at base, straight, compressed, and rounded near
tip; upper mandible slightly decurving at point. Nostrils basal,
lateral; in depression, cleft longitudinally, partly covered by
membrane. Gape very narrow, without bristles. Wings short, broad,
convex; first quill very short, second not so long as third or
fourth, which are nearly equal. Tail short. Legs feathered to
tibio-tarsal joint; tarsus longer than middle toe; lateral toes
equal in length, outer toe slightly connected with middle. Whole
body closely covered with down. _Page 51_

FAMILY ORIOLIDÆ

Bill with notch in upper mandible; nostrils placed well in front of base of bill and quite bare.

20. ORIÓLUS (Oriole). Bill an elongated cone, depressed at the base;
upper mandible keeled above, notched near the point, bending over
the lower one; nostrils basal, lateral, naked, pierced horizontally
in a large membrane; tarsus not longer than the middle toe; wings
moderate; first primary very short, second shorter than the third,
which is the longest. _Page 53_

FAMILY STURNIDÆ
(STARLINGS)

Bill nearly straight, short at the base, diminishing regularly to a sharp point, which is not distinctly notched; the ridge of the upper mandible; ascends upon the forehead, dividing the plumage of that part; nostrils placed low in the bill; planta tarsi entire; wings moderate, not reaching to end of tail. An extensive and widely diffused family, comprising species for the most part above the average size of Passerine birds, yet inferior to the Crows. They are in general social, feeding much on the ground; their legs and feet are robust, their gait stately, their plumage, though commonly of dark colours, is lustrous, with reflections of steel-blue, purple, or green.

21. STURNUS (Starling). Bill straight, forming an elongated cone,
depressed broad at the base, bluntish; upper mandible broader than
the lower; nostrils at the base of the bill, partly closed by an
arched membrane; first primary very short, second longest. _Page 54_

22. PASTOR (Rose-coloured Starling). Bill slightly arched, forming an
elongated cone, compressed; nostrils at the base of the bill partly
covered by a feathery membrane; wings with the first primary very
short, second and third longest. _Page 56_

FAMILY CORVIDÆ
(CROWS)

Bill powerful, more or less compressed at the sides; upper mandible more or less arched to the point without distinct notch; gape nearly straight; nostrils concealed by stiff bristles. Hallux very strong, but with its claw not as long as the middle toe and claw. Birds of firm and compact structure; their wings long, pointed, and powerful; their feet and claws robust. In disposition bold and daring, extremely sagacious, easily tamed and made familiar. Most of them have the power of imitating various sounds, but their natural voices are harsh. They evince a remarkable propensity for thieving and hiding brilliant and gaudy substances. In appetite they are omnivorous.

23. PYRRHÓCORAX (Chough). Bill longer than the head, rather slender,
arched from the base, and pointed; nostrils oval; feet strong,
tarsus longer than the middle toe; wings rounded, first primary
short, fourth and fifth the longest; tail even at the end. _Page 56_

24. NUCÍFRAGA (Nutcracker). Bill about as long as the head, straight,
conical, the base dilated, and dividing the feathers of the
forehead; mandibles blunt, the upper somewhat the longer; nostrils
round; wings rather long and pointed; first primary shorter than the
second and third, fourth longest; tail nearly even. _Page 57_

25. GÁRRULUS (Jay). Bill shorter than the head, conical; both
mandibles equally curved, the upper notched near the tip; crown
feathers forming a crest; wings rounded, fourth, fifth, and sixth
primaries nearly equal, and the longest; tarsus longer than the
middle toe; tail moderate, slightly rounded. _Page 58_

26. PICA (Magpie). Bill, nostrils, and feet as in Corvus; wings short
and rounded; tail long, graduated. _Page 59_

27. CORVUS (Raven, Crows, Rook). Bill not longer than the head,
strong, straight at the base, cutting at the edges, and curved
towards the point; nostrils oval; feet strong, tarsus longer than
the middle toe; wings pointed, first primary moderate, second and
third shorter than the fourth, which is the longest; tail moderate,
rounded. _Page 61_

FAMILY LANIIDÆ
(SHRIKES)

Bill strong, arched, and hooked, the upper mandible strongly notched after the manner of the FALCONIDÆ; claws adapted for capturing insects and even small birds. Sylvan. Young barred below.

28. LÁNIUS (Shrike, or Butcher Bird). Bill short, flattened vertically
(compressed) at the sides; gape furnished with bristly feathers
directed forwards; wings with the first three primaries graduated,
the third and fourth being the longest. _Page 73_

FAMILY AMPELIDÆ
(CHATTERERS)

Bill stoat, approaching, especially in the form of the lower mandible, to that of the Corvidæ; the upper mandible is however somewhat broad at the base, flat, with the upper edge more or less angular and ridged, and the tip distinctly notched. Feet usually stout, with the outer toe united to the middle one as far as, or beyond, the first joint. They feed principally on berries and other soft fruits, occasionally also on insects.

29. ÁMPELIS (Waxwing). Bill as above; nostrils oval, concealed by
small feathers directed forwards; wings long and pointed; first and
second primaries longest, some of the secondaries and tertials
terminating in wax-like prolongations of their shafts. _Page 76_

FAMILY MUSCICAPIDÆ
(FLYCATCHERS)

Bill broad, flattened horizontally (depressed), slightly toothed and adapted for catching small flying insects; nostrils more or less covered by bristly hairs; feet generally feeble.

30. MUSCÍCAPA (Flycatcher). Bill moderate, somewhat triangular,
depressed at the base, compressed towards the tip, which is slightly
curved downwards; gape armed with stiff bristles; tarsus equal to or
longer than the middle toe; side toes of equal length; wings with
the first primary very short, and the third and fourth longest.
_Page 77_

FAMILY HIRUNDINIDÆ
(SWALLOWS AND MARTINS)

Beak short but broad, and more or less flattened horizontally; mouth very deeply cleft; feet small and weak; wings with nine visible primaries, long and powerful, and thus adapted for sustaining a protracted flight in pursuit of winged insects, which form the sole sustenance of these birds; tail long and usually forked; plumage close, smooth, often burnished with a metallic gloss. Migratory birds, spending the summer in temperate climates, but being impatient of cold, withdrawing in winter to equatorial regions.

31. HIRUNDO (Swallow). Bill short, depressed, very wide at base,
commissure straight. Nostrils basal, oval, partly closed by
membrane. Tail deeply forked, of twelve feathers, the outermost
greatly elongated and abruptly attenuated. Legs and feet slender and
bare; toes rather long, three in front, one behind; claws moderate.
_Page 80_

32. CHELÍDON (Martin). Bill short, depressed, very wide at base,
commissure slightly decurved. Nostrils basal, oval, partly closed by
membrane and opening laterally. Tail forked, of twelve feathers,
outermost not abruptly attenuated. Legs and feet slender, closely
feathered above; toes rather long, three in front, one behind; claws
moderate, sharp. _Page 83_

33. CÓTILE (Sand-martin). Bill short, depressed, very wide at base,
commissure straight. Nostrils, wings and tail as in Chelidon. Legs
and feet slender, and bare except for tuft of feathers on tarsus
just above hallux; toes moderate, three in front, one behind; claws
strong. _Page 84_

FAMILY FRINGILLIDÆ
(FINCHES)

Remarkable for the shortness, thickness, and powerful structure of the bill; the upper and lower mandibles are usually equally thick, and their height and breadth are nearly alike, so that the bill when closed presents the appearance of a short cone, divided in the middle by the gape. By its aid they break open the hard woody capsules and fruit-stones containing the seeds and kernels which form their chief food. At nesting-time many species live on insect larvæ, with which the young are almost exclusively fed. The wings have nine visible primaries. This family is one of immense extent, consisting of relatively small birds.

34. LIGURINUS (Greenfinch). Bill compressed towards tip, with scarcely
perceptible notch at point; nostrils basal, concealed by stiff
feathers directed forwards; wings rather pointed, first quill
obsolete, second, third and fourth nearly equal and longest. Tail
rather short, slightly forked. Tarsus scutellate in front; toes
moderate; claws arched and laterally grooved. _Page 86_

35. COCCOTHRAUSTES (Hawfinch). Bill tapering rapidly to point, culmen
rounded; mandibles nearly equal, edges inflected and slightly
indented. Nostrils basal, lateral, oval, nearly hidden by projecting
and recurved frontal plumes. Wings with first quill obsolete, third
and fourth primaries nearly equal, sixth, seventh, and eighth curved
outwards. Tail short, and nearly square. Tarsus scutellate in front,
covered at sides with single plate, stout and short; claws
moderately curved, rather short and strong. _Page 87_

36. CARDUÊLIS (Goldfinch and Siskin). Bill a rather elongated cone,
compressed at the tip, and finely pointed; wings long, pointed;
first three primaries nearly equal and the longest; tail slightly
forked. _Page 88_

37. PASSER (Sparrows). Bill somewhat arched above; lower mandible
rather smaller than the upper; first three primaries longest.
_Page 92_

38. FRINGILLA (Chaffinch and Brambling). Bill straight, sharp,
pointed; mandibles nearly equal; first primary a little shorter than
the second, much shorter than the third and fourth, which are nearly
equal and the longest. _Page 95_

39. ACANTHIS (Linnet, Redpolls, Twite). Bill a short straight cone,
compressed at the tip; wings long, pointed; third primary somewhat
shorter than the first and second, which are equal and the longest;
tail forked. _Page 98_

40. PÝRRHULA (Bullfinch). Bill short and thick, the sides tumid; upper
mandible much arched and bending over the lower one; first primary
nearly equal to the fifth, second a little shorter than the third
and fourth, which are the longest. _Page 101_

41. LOXIA (Crossbill). Bill thick at the base; both mandibles equally
curved, hooked at the tips, and crossing each other at the points.
_Page 103_

42. EMBERIZA (Buntings, Yellow-hammer). Bill with upper mandible not
wider than lower, edges of both inflected and those of latter
gradually cut away (sinuated); the palate generally furnished with a
hard bony knob; wings moderate, first primary obsolete, second,
third and fourth nearly equal. Tail rather long and slightly forked.
Claws considerably curved, that of hind toe of moderate length.
_Page 106_

43. PLECTROPHENAX (Snow Bunting). Bill with upper mandible narrower
than lower, otherwise as in Emberiza. Wings long and pointed, first
primary obsolete, second and third nearly equal and longest in wing,
fourth considerably longer than fifth. Tail moderate and slightly
forked. Front claws rather long and curved; hind claw considerably
curved and elongated. _Page 110_

44. CALCARIUS (Lapland Bunting). Bill with considerably inflected
cutting edges (tomia); claws of front toes short and slightly
curved; hind claw nearly straight and elongated; other characters
much as in Plectrophenax. _Page 111_

FAMILY MOTACILLIDÆ
(WAGTAILS AND PIPITS)

Wings with nine visible primaries. Inner secondaries nearly as long as primaries.

45. MOTACILLA (Wagtail). Cutting edges of both mandibles slightly
compressed inwards; nostrils basal, oval, partly concealed by a
naked membrane; first primary acuminate and nearly obsolete, second
and third nearly equal and longest; one of the scapulars as long as
the quills; tail long, nearly even at the end; tarsus much longer
than the middle toe. _Page 111_

46. ANTHUS (Pipit). Bill and nostrils very much as in Motacilla; two
of the scapulars as long as the closed wing; first primary acuminate
and nearly obsolete, second shorter than the third and fourth, which
are the longest; hind claw very long. _Page 116_

FAMILY ALAUDIDÆ
(LARKS)

Wings with nine or more visible primaries. Planta tarsi scutellate. Granivorous birds, frequenting open spaces, and singing during their flight; nesting on ground and seeking their food there by running; they are 'pulverators', i. e. they shake dust or sand into their feathers instead of bathing.

47. ALAUDA (Lark). Bill moderate, slightly compressed at edges; upper
mandible more or less arched from middle. Nostrils basal, oval,
covered by bristly feathers directed forward. Gape straight. Wings
long; first primary short but unmistakably developed; second, third
and fourth nearly equal, but third longest. Tail moderate, slightly
forked. Tarsus longer than middle toe; claws slightly curved and
moderate, except that of hind toe, which is generally elongate and
nearly straight. _Page 119_

48. OTÓCORYS (Shore-lark). Bill rather short, subconic; upper mandible
slightly arched. Head--in adult male--with tuft of long, erectile
feathers on either side of occiput. Wings long; first primary so
small as at first sight to seem wanting, second longest but third
nearly its equal, fourth decidedly shorter, outer secondaries short
and emarginate at tip. Tail rather long, slightly forked. Tarsus
shorter than middle toe; claws moderate and very slightly curved,
that of hind toe being comparatively straight. _Page 122_

ORDER PICARIÆ

Opposed to the Passeres. The feet are relatively weaker and smaller.

FAMILY CYPSELIDÆ
(SWIFTS)

Tail of ten feathers (swallows have twelve). Gape very wide.

49. CÝPSELUS (Swift). Bill very short, flattened horizontally,
triangular; upper mandible curved downwards at the point; gape
extending beyond the eyes; legs very short; toes all directed
forwards; wings extremely long; first primary a little shorter than
the second. _Page 123_

FAMILY CAPRIMULGIDÆ
(GOATSUCKERS)

The bill in this family resembles that of the Swallows, but is shorter and weaker; the gape is enormous and its sides are, for the most part, furnished with long and stiff bristles, which point forwards; the wings are long, and formed for powerful flight; the feet are small, and feathered to the toes; plumage soft and downy, and beautifully mottled with black, brown, grey, and white, varying in colour with the soil of their habitat; the claw of the middle toe is dilated on one side and toothed like a comb. Tail of ten feathers. Nocturnal birds, feeding on large insects, which they capture in their flight.

50. CAPRIMÚLGUS (Goatsucker or Nightjar). Bill very short, somewhat
curved, broad and flattened at the base; upper mandible curved
downwards at the tip; gape extending beyond the eyes, and armed with
strong bristles; wings long; first primary shorter than the second,
which is the longest. _Page 125_

FAMILY PICIDÆ
(WOODPECKERS)

Feet short, but of unusual strength; the rigid toes diverge from a centre, two pointing forwards, and two backwards; claws large, much curved, and very hard and sharp; breast-bone shallow; flight weak and undulating.

_SUB-FAMILY PICINÆ_

Tail feathers stiff and pointed: nostrils covered with bristles.

51. DENDROCOPUS (Spotted Woodpeckers). Bill about as long as the head,
robust, straight, irregular, compressed, pyramidal, laterally
bevelled at the tip; tongue long and extensile, the tip barbed;
nostrils basal, oval, concealed by reflected bristly feathers; wings
with the first primary very short, fourth and fifth longest;
tail-feathers graduated, stiff and pointed. Fourth toe much longer
than third. Prevailing colours of the plumage black and white, or
black and red. _Page 127_

52. GÉCINUS (Green Woodpecker). Bill hard, broad at base, compressed
at tip; upper mandible slightly arched, ending abruptly with shallow
groove on each side running parallel to and near the culmen, and
longer than lower mandible, which is pointed and has the gonys
nearer the tip than the base and the tomia rounded. The fourth toe
equal to the third. Prevailing colour greenish, otherwise much as in
Dendrocopus. _Page 129_

_SUB-FAMILY IYNGINÆ_

Nostrils partly covered by a membrane.

53. IYNX (Wryneck). Bill shorter than the head, straight, conical;
tongue long and extensile; nostrils without bristles, partly closed
by a membrane; wings with the second primary somewhat the longest;
tail-feathers soft and flexible. _Page 131_

FAMILY ALCEDINIDÆ
(KINGFISHERS)

Bill long, stout, and pointed, with angular sides, not serrated; feet small and feeble, the outer and middle toes united to the last joint; wings rounded and hollow, ill adapted for protracted flight; form robust, with a large head and usually a short tail. Predatory birds, feeding on fish, insects, and even reptiles, birds, and small quadrupeds. Scattered over the world, but Australia and South America contain the greatest number of species.

54. ALCÉDO (Kingfisher). Bill long, straight, quadrangular, sharp;
wings short with the third primary the longest; tail very short.
_Page 132_

FAMILY CORACIIDÆ
(ROLLERS)

Bill corvine in shape; culmen rounded; nostrils near base of upper mandible and hidden by bristly feathers; tail feathers twelve.

54. CORÁCIAS (Roller). Bill compressed, straight, with cutting edges;
upper mandible slightly hooked at the point; sides of the gape
bristled; tarsus short; wings long; first primary a little shorter
than the second, which is the longest. _Page 134_

FAMILY MEROPIDÆ
(BEE-EATERS)

Bill long; culmen with sharply defined ridge; toes joined for part of length.

55. MÊROPS (Bee-eater). Bill long, compressed, slightly curved,
slender, with cutting edges, broad at the base; upper mandible
keeled, the tip not hooked; tarsus very short; wings long, pointed,
second primary the longest; centre tail feathers elongated. _Page 135_

FAMILY UPUPIDÆ
(HOOPOES)

56. UPUPA (Hoopoe). Bill longer than the head, slender, slightly
arched, compressed; feathers of the head long, forming a two-ranked
crest; tail even at the extremity. _Page 136_

FAMILY CUCULIDÆ
(CUCKOOS)

Bill moderate, rather deeply cleft, both mandibles compressed, and more or less curved downwards; nostrils exposed; wings for the most part short; tail of ten feathers lengthened; toes four, two pointing backwards and two forwards, but the outer hind toe of each foot is capable of being placed at right angles with either the inner or outer front toe. A tropical family of birds, many of which migrate to the temperate regions in summer. Not so decidedly climbers as the Woodpeckers and Creepers, yet having great power of clinging. Their flight is feeble, their food soft-bodied insects, varied in many cases with berries and other fruits, and some of the larger species will occasionally prey on mice, reptiles, and the eggs and young of birds. Most, perhaps all of the migratory species, lay their eggs in the nests of other birds.

57. CÚCULUS (Cuckoo). Bill shorter than the head, broad, depressed at
the base, with the ridge curved and the sides compressed towards the
tip, which is entire and acute; nostrils in a membranous groove, the
opening rounded and exposed; wings pointed, third primary longest;
tail long, graduated; tarsi very short, feathered below the heel.
_Page 137_

ORDER STRIGES
(OWLS)

Head large, feathered; eyes large, dilated and projecting, each surrounded by a concave disc formed of stiff diverging feathers, concealing the cere and nostrils; ears large, and of elaborate construction; plumage lax and downy, adapted for slow and quiet flight; outer toe reversible; tibia more than double the length of tarsus. Food, small quadrupeds, birds, and insects.

FAMILY STRIGIDÆ

_SUB-FAMILY STRIGINÆ_

Bill somewhat elongated, bending at the tip only; head-tufts wanting nostrils oval, oblique; facial disc large and complete; ears large, covered by an operculum; wings long, the second primary longest; tarsi long, feathered to the toes, which are strangely furnished with hair-like feathers; claws long, the middle one serrated beneath.

58. STRIX (White Owl). Characters given above. _Page 142_

_SUB-FAMILY SYRNIINÆ_

Bill bending from the base; tufts more or less conspicuous or wanting; facial disc complete; ears large, covered by an operculum; legs feathered to the claws.

59. ASIO (Eared Owls). Nostrils oval, oblique; tufts more or less
elongated; wings long, second primary the longest. _Page 144_

60. SYRNIUM (Tawny Owl). Nostrils round; egrets wanting; wings short
and rounded; fourth primary longest. _Page 146_

ORDER ACCIPITRES
(EAGLES, HAWKS, ETC.)

Bill short, strong, stout at base, culmen strongly curved. Feet strong, armed with powerful talons which are capable of being bent under the feet, inner one stronger and more curved than others. Outer toe usually not reversible.

FAMILY FALCONIDÆ

Head covered with feathers, though sides of face are more or less bare.

_SUB-FAMILY BUTEONINÆ_

Bill rather small and weak, bending from the base; cutting edge of the upper mandible nearly straight, or but slightly festooned; cere large; nostrils oval; wings long; the first four feathers deeply notched on their inner webs; tail not forked. Hinder aspect of tarsus scutellate.

61. CIRCUS (Harriers). Head surrounded by a circle of feathers; tarsi,
long and slender, feathered a little below the joint; wings long
third and fourth primaries the longest; tail long, somewhat rounded.
_Page 147_

62. BUTEO (Buzzard). Lore without feathers; tarsi short and strong,
naked or feathered; wings large, the fourth primary the longest.
_Page 150_

63. PERNIS (Honey Buzzard). Lore with feathers; tarsi short and
strong, naked or feathered; wings large, the fourth primary the
longest. _Page 151_

_SUB-FAMILY AQUILINÆ_

Bill stout, convex or slightly angular above, straight at the base, much hooked at the tip, commissure simply festooned; cere bristly; nostrils rounded or oval; wings long. Hinder aspect of tarsus reticulate.

64. AQUILA (Eagles). Upper mandible with the cutting edge nearly
straight; tarsi feathered to the toes; claws unequal, grooved
beneath; wings with the fourth primary longest. _Page 152_

65. HALIAËTUS (Sea-eagle). Bill very long; edges of the upper mandible
slightly prominent near the hook; tarsi half-feathered; claws
unequal, grooved beneath; wings with the fourth primary longest;
nostrils transverse, with bony margin all round. _Page 153_

66. PANDÍON (Osprey). Bill short, cutting edges of the upper mandible
nearly straight; tarsi naked; outer toe reversible; claws equal,
rounded beneath; wings with the second primary longest. _Page 154_

_SUB-FAMILY ACCIPITRINÆ_
(LONG-LEGGED HAWKS)

Bill short, strong, curved from the base; edge of the upper mandible with a prominent festoon beyond the middle; nostrils oval; wings rounded, short, reaching only to the middle of the tail; middle toe much the longest.

67. ACCÍPITER (Sparrow-hawk). Tarsi long and slender; fourth and fifth
primaries equal in length and the longest. Ridge of bill measured
from margin of cere is less than half middle toe (without claw).
_Page 156_

_SUB-FAMILY MILVINÆ_

Bill of moderate length, slightly curved from the base, upper mandible with a slight festoon; nostrils oval, oblique; wings long; tail long and forked.

68. MILVUS (Kites). Tarsi feathered a little below the knee; fourth
primary the longest. _Page 158_

_SUB-FAMILY FALCONINÆ_

Bill short, strong, curved from the base, upper mandible strongly toothed, lower notched; nostrils round; tarsi strong and short; hinder aspect reticulate; wings long and pointed, with the second primary longest, the first and third equal in length and having the inner web notched near the extremity.

69. FALCO (Falcons, Merlin, Hobby and Kestrel). Characters given
above. _Page 159_

ORDER STEGANOPODES

Hind toe articulated on the inner surface of the tarsus, united to other toes by a web.

FAMILY PELECANIDÆ

Bill strong, edges of the mandibles minutely toothed; wings long; legs short; toes four, all connected by a membrane.

70. PHALACRÓCORAX (Cormorant). Bill straight, longer than the head,
compressed; upper mandible much hooked at the point; face and throat
naked; inner edge of the middle claw serrated; tail rounded, rigid.
_Page 165_

71. SULA (Gannet). Bill straight, longer than the head, compressed,
tapering to a point, which is but slightly curved; face and throat
naked; inner edge of the middle claw serrated; tail graduated.
_Page 168_

ORDER HERODIONES

Hallux free, not united to other toes by a web.

FAMILY ARDEIDÆ
(HERONS)

Hind toe on same plane as others. Bill rounded or ridged; notched, with no hook at end. Outer toe with broad basal web, obsolete at base of inner toe; middle claw pectinated, loral space bare; powder down patches present.

72. ÁRDEA (Herons). Edges of mandibles distinctly serrated; head
crested; nape feathers elongated and ornamented; plumes of fore-neck
not disintegrated; no dorsal train. _Page 173_

73. NYCTÍCORAX (Night Heron). Bill scarcely longer than the head, much
compressed; neck rather thick and short; crest of three very long
tapering feathers. In other respects resembling Árdea. _Page 173_

74. BOTAURUS (Bittern). Bill scarcely longer than the head, much
compressed; neck thick, clothed in front with long and loose
feathers. In other respects resembling Árdea. _Page 173_

FAMILY CICONIIDÆ
(STORKS)

Hind toe elevated above plane of others; no powder down patches; bill not hooked at tip.

75. CICÓNIA (Stork). Bill much longer than the head, stout, tapering
to a point; nostrils near the base, pierced in the horny substance
of the bill; tarsi very long; claws not pectinated; wings moderate,
third, fourth, and fifth primaries longest. _Page 175_

FAMILY PLATALEIDÆ
(SPOONBILLS)

Bill flattened, narrow in middle, and widening out into a spoon-shaped end.

76. PLATALÉA (Spoonbill). Head partly bare, auricular orifice covered
with plumes. Nostrils elongated and in a shallow depression.
_Page 176_

ORDER ANSERES

Tarsus about length of femur, reticulate at back and generally in front. Bill straight, always with distinct nail at tip of upper mandible. Young covered with down, and able to run or swim in a few hours after hatching.

FAMILY ANATIDÆ
(DUCKS, GEESE, SWANS, ETC.)

Bill thick, broad, high at the base, covered with a thin membranous skin and ending in a nail-like horny tip; edges of the mandibles cut into thin parallel ridges, or toothed; wings moderate; legs placed not very far behind; feet, four-toed, palmated; hind toe free, placed high on the tarsus. Food, grass and aquatic weeds, worms, insects, molluscs, and small fish.

_SUB-FAMILY ANSERINÆ_

77. ANSER (Geese). Bill nearly long as head, elevated and covered with
cere or skin at base; conspicuous nail at tip; under mandible
smaller than upper; nostrils lateral, near middle of bill; tail of
sixteen feathers; legs under centre of body; hind toe free,
articulated upon tarsus. _Page 176_

78. BERNICLA (Brent and Bernicle Geese). Bill shorter than head,
higher than broad at base; culmen slightly convex, outline of lower
mandible decidedly so, leaving elliptical space displaying lamellæ;
nostrils sub-basal; neck feathers less furrowed than in Anser_;
tail short, rounded; tibia feathered to joint; hind toe short and
elevated. _Page 180_

79. CYGNUS (Swans). Bill of equal length throughout, furnished with
knob at base; nostrils medial; legs short; neck exceedingly long.
_Page 181_

_SUB-FAMILY ANATIDÆ_

Bill of equal width throughout, or broader at the top than at the base, of about the same width as the head; legs short, placed rather behind the middle of the body; hind toe without a pendent membrane; tarsi somewhat round.

80. TADORNA (Sheldrake). Bill with an elevated tubercle at the base,
depressed in the middle; nostrils large, pervious; lower portion of
tarsus in front with a row of transverse scutellæ. _Page 184_

81. ANAS (Mallard, Gadwall). Bill long as head, broad, depressed,
sides parallel, sometimes partially dilated, both mandibles with
transverse lamellæ on inner edges; nostrils small, oval, lateral,
anterior to base of bill; wings rather long, pointed; tail
wedge-shaped; legs rather short; hind toe without lobe. Sexes differ
in plumage. _Page 185_

82. SPATULA (Shoveller). Bill much longer than head, widening towards
end, lamellæ projecting conspicuously; no soft membrane on sides of
bill towards tip; wing pointed, first and second quills longest;
tail short, graduated; legs very short. _Page 189_

83. DAFILA (Pintail). Bill long as head, edges nearly parallel,
widening a little to end, lamellæ not strongly defined; neck long,
slender; tail sharply pointed, central rectrices considerably
elongated in male; margin of web to anterior toes slightly
emarginate. _Page 190_

84. QUERQUÉDULA (Teal). Bill long as head, lamellæ exposed along
projecting edge of upper mandible; tail of sixteen feathers, short
and rounded; hind toe very small, outer shorter than third, centre
rather long; interdigital membrane emarginate. _Page 191_

85. MARÉCA (Wigeon). Bill shorter than head, higher than broad at
base, depressed and narrowed towards point; tail short, pointed;
tibia bare for short distance; hind toe with very narrow lobe.
_Page 192_

_SUB-FAMILY FULIGULINÆ_

Hind toe with lobated membrane; tarsi compressed.

86. FULÍGULA (Pochard, Tufted Duck, Scaup). Bill not longer than head,
slightly elevated at base, broader towards tip; edges of upper
mandible enclosing edges of lower; nostrils near base. _Page 193_

87. CLANGÚLA (Goldeneye). Bill much shorter than head, depressed
towards nail, which is elliptical and decurved at tip; lamellæ
hidden; nostrils near middle of bill. _Page 195_

88. HARELDA (Long-tailed Duck). Bill much shorter than head, tapering
rapidly to broad, decurved nail at tip. Lamellæ slightly exposed;
nostrils sub-basal. Feathering at base of bill forming oblique line,
advancing furthest forward on forehead. Wings rather short, pointed;
scapulars elongate and lanceolate in adult male; tail short,
graduated except for two central feathers, which are long and
tapering in adult male. _Page 196_

89. SOMATERIA (Eider Duck). Bill swollen and elevated at base,
extending up the forehead, there divided by angular projection of
feathers; nostrils medial. _Page 197_

90. OEDEMIA (Scoters). Bill short, broad, with an elevated knob at
the base, the tip much flattened; nail large, flat, obtuse, slightly
deflected; lamellæ coarse, widely set; nostrils oval, medial; tail
short, graduated, acute. _Page 199_

_SUB-FAMILY MERGANINÆ_

91. MERGUS (Smew, Merganser, Goosander). Bill straight, slender,
narrow, approaching to cylindrical; upper mandible hooked; edges of
both mandibles armed with sharp teeth directed backwards; legs
short, placed far backward. _Page 201_

ORDER COLUMBÆ
(PIGEONS AND DOVES)

Bill swollen at tip, convex; the upper mandible covered at the base with a soft membrane in which lie the nostrils, with a valve over them; tarsi covered fore and rear with hexagonal scales.

The birds of this order have considerable powers of flight, and perch freely on trees or rocks. Their food consists principally of grain, seeds, and the leaves of herbaceous plants. The young are fed on a milky fluid secreted in the crop of the old birds.

FAMILY COLUMBIDÆ

Tail with twelve feathers; hind toe with the skin prominently expanded on the sides.

92. COLUMBA (Wood-pigeon, Stock-dove, Rock-dove). Bill moderate,
straight at base, compressed, point deflected; tail nearly even;
first primary much larger than _sixth_. _Page 203_

93. TURTUR (Turtle-dove). Bill rather slender, tip of upper mandible
gently deflected, that of lower scarcely exhibiting the appearance
of an angle; tail rather long, graduated. _Page 209_

ORDER PTEROCLETES

FAMILY PTEROCLIDÆ

94. SYRRHAPTES (Sand-grouse). Bill small, gradually decurved; nostrils
basal, hidden; wings long, pointed, first primary largest; tail of
sixteen feathers, cuneate, central pair long; tarsi short, strong;
feathered to toes; three toes, all in front; hallux obsolete; soles
rugose; claws broad and obtuse. _Page 211_

ORDER GALLINÆ

Bill short and stout; culmen arched, and overhanging the mandible.

FAMILY TETRAONIDÆ

95. TETRAO (Black Grouse, Capercaillie). Bill strong; eyebrows naked,
adorned with scarlet papillæ; tarsi feathered, without spurs; front
toes naked, with pectinated margins; hind toe larger than the nail.
_Page 212_

96. LAGÓPUS (Red Grouse, Ptarmigan). Front toes feathered, nearly
smooth at the margins; hind toe shorter than the nail; in other
respects like the last. _Page 215_

FAMILY PHASIANIDÆ

Nostrils never hidden by feathers; toes never pectinated.

97. PHASIÁNUS (Pheasant). Cheeks naked, adorned with scarlet papillæ;
tail very long, of eighteen feathers. _Page 219_

98. PERDIX (Partridge). Bill strong; orbits naked; tarsus naked, male
with a knob on the tarsus behind; tail of sixteen feathers, short,
bent down. _Page 222_

99. CÁCCABIS (Red-legged Partridge). Tail of fourteen feathers; tarsi
armed with blunt spurs in male. _Page 225_

100. COTÚRNIX (Quail). Bill slender; orbits feathered; wings with the
first primary longest; tail very short; almost concealed by the
tail-coverts. _Page 226_

ORDER FULICARIÆ
(RAILS AND COOTS)

FAMILY RALLIDÆ
(RAILS)

101. CREX (Corn-crake). Bill shorter than the head, thick at the base,
compressed, pointed; front toes entirely divided, not margined;
second and third primaries longest. Tail pointed, rectrices narrow.
_Page 228_

102. PORZANA (Spotted and Little Crakes). Bill shorter than head;
wings shorter than in Crex; second quill longest; secondaries
shorter than primaries by length of hind toe and claw. _Page 229_

103. RALLUS (Water-rail). Bill longer than head; wings moderate, third
and fourth quills longest. _Page 230_

104. GALLÍNULA (Moor-hen). Bill shorter than the head, stout,
straight, compressed; upper mandible expanding at the base and
forming a disc on the forehead; toes entirely divided, bordered by a
narrow entire membrane, middle toe longer than tarsus. _Page 231_

105. FÚLICA (Coot). Bill shorter than the head, straight, robust,
convex above, much compressed; upper mandible dilated at the base,
and forming a naked patch on the forehead; all the toes united at
the base, and bordered by a scalloped membrane. _Page 233_

ORDER ALECTORIDES

Angle of the mandible always truncated, hind toe generally raised above level of others.

FAMILY GRUIDÆ

Nasal depression more than half as long as maxilla; rectrices twelve.

106. GRUS (Crane). Upper mandible deeply channelled; nostrils medial;
wings moderate; third primary longest. _Page 234_

FAMILY OTIDIDÆ
(BUSTARDS)

Bill flattened and obtuse; no hind toe; tarsi unarmed; wings very short; rectrices sixteen to twenty.

107. OTIS (Bustard). Legs long, naked above the knee; wings moderate,
hind quill longest. _Page 236_

ORDER LIMICOLÆ
(WADERS)

Leg and tarsus long, the lower portion of the former generally destitute of feathers; bill long or moderate; toes three or four, more or less connected by a membrane at the base, sometimes lobated. Primaries eleven; fifth secondary wanting; after shaft to contour feathers present.

Adapted by structure for feeding in marshes, on the muddy or sandy sea-shore, or on the banks of lakes and rivers. Some, which feed on fish, have unusually long legs and powerful bills; others, owing to their length of bill and legs, are able to search muddy places for worms and insects, without clogging their feathers; and others, again, are decidedly aquatic, and have considerable swimming powers, thus approaching the next order; the majority have great power of flight, and lay their eggs on the ground.

FAMILY GLAREOLIDÆ

108. GLARÉOLA (Pratincole). Bill short, convex, compressed towards the
point; upper mandible curved throughout half its length; nostrils
basal, oblique; legs feathered nearly to the knee; tarsus long;
three toes in front, one behind, the latter joined on the tarsus;
wings very long; first primary longest. _Page 238_

FAMILY CHARADRIIDÆ

Hind toe absent in most species; tarsus usually reticulate, sometimes scutellate.

109. OEDICNÉMUS (Thick-knee). Bill stout, straight, longer than the
head, slightly compressed towards the end; nostrils in the middle of
the bill, narrow, with the aperture in front, pervious; toes three,
united by a membrane as far as the first joint; wings as in the
last. _Page 239_

110. CURSORIUS (Courser). Bill shorter than the head, depressed at the
base, slightly curved, pointed; nostrils basal, oval, covered by a
little protuberance. Legs long, slender; toes three, very short,
divided nearly to the base, inner toe half the length of the middle
one; its claw serrated; claws very short; wings moderate; first
primary nearly as long as the second, which is the longest in the
wing. _Page 240_

111. CHARÁDRIUS (Plover). Bill shorter than the head, slender,
straight, compressed, somewhat swollen towards the tip; nasal
channel reaching from the base through two-thirds of the bill,
covered by a membrane; nostrils basal, very narrow; tarsi moderate,
slender; toes three, the outer and middle connected by a short
membrane; wings moderate; first primary longest. _Page 240_

112. SQUATÁROLA (Grey Plover). Bill shorter than the head, straight,
swollen and hard towards the tip; nostrils basal, narrow, pierced in
the membrane of a long groove; legs slender; outer and middle toe
connected by a short membrane, hind toe rudimentary, jointed on the
tarsus, not touching the ground; wings long, pointed; first primary
longest. _Page 242_

113. EUDROMIAS (Dotterel). Bill shorter than head, slender,
compressed; nasal channel reaching about half length of bill. Wings
moderate; inner secondaries much longer than in Charádrius.
_Page 244_

114. ÆGIALITIS (Ringed and Kentish Plovers). Bill much shorter than
head, slender, straight to end of nasal channel, which extends
beyond middle of bill, then slightly raised, but decurved at tip;
wings long, pointed. _Page 245_

115. VANELLUS (Lapwing). Wings large, quills broad and rounded, the
fourth and fifth primaries longest. In other respects resembling
Squatárola. _Page 247_

116. HÆMÁTOPUS (Oyster Catcher). Bill longer than the head, stout,
straight, forming a wedge; legs moderate, stout; toes three,
bordered by a narrow membrane; wings long; first primary longest.
_Page 248_

117. STRÉPSILAS (Turnstone). Bill short, thickest at the base and
tapering; nostrils basal, narrow, pervious; legs moderate; three
front toes connected at the base by a membrane, fourth rudimentary,
jointed on the tarsus, touching the ground with its tip. _Page 250_

FAMILY SCOLOPACIDÆ
(SNIPES, ETC.)

Bill long and slender; toes four, the hind one weak and elevated, very rarely wanting.

118. RECURVIROSTRA (Avocet). Bill very long, slender, weak, much
curved upwards, pointed; legs long, slender; front toes connected
as far as the second joint; hind toe very small. _Page 252_

119. PHALÁROPUS (Phalarope). Bill as long as the head, slender, weak,
depressed and blunt; front toes connected as far as the first joint,
and bordered by a lobed and slightly serrated membrane; hind toe not
bordered. _Page 253_

120. SCÓLOPAX (Woodcock). Bill long, compressed, superior ridge
elevated at base of mandible, prominent. Legs rather short, anterior
toes almost entirely divided. _Page 254_

121. GALLINÁGO (Snipe). Bill very long; legs rather long and slender;
anterior toes divided to the base. _Page 256_

122. CALIDRIS (Sanderling). Bill as long as the head, slender,
straight, soft, and flexible, dilated towards the end; nostrils
basal, narrow, pierced in the long nasal groove which reaches to the
tip; legs slender; toes three, scarcely connected by a membrane;
wings moderate; first primary longest. _Page 260_

123. TRINGA (Sandpiper, Knot, Dunlin, Stint). Bill as long as the head
or a little longer, straight or slightly curved, soft and flexible,
dilated, and blunt towards point; both mandibles grooved along
sides; nostrils lateral wings moderately long, pointed, first quill
longest; legs moderately long; three toes in front, divided to
origin; one behind, small, articulated upon tarsus. _Page 361_

124. MACHÉTES (Ruff). Bill straight, as long as the head, dilated and
smooth at the tip; nasal channel reaching to nearly the end of the
bill; nostrils basal; first and second primaries longest; toes four,
the outer and middle connected as far as the first joint; neck of
the male in spring furnished with a ruff. _Page 266_

125. TÓTANUS (Redshank, Sandpiper). Bill moderate, slender, soft at
the base, solid at the end; both mandibles grooved at the base,
upper channelled through half its length; nostrils pierced in the
groove; legs long, slender; toes four. _Page 267_

126. LIMÓSA (Godwit). Bill very long, slender, curved upwards, soft
and flexible throughout, dilated towards the tip, and blunt; upper
mandible channelled throughout its whole length; nostrils linear,
pierced in the groove, pervious; legs long and slender; toes four,
the outer and middle connected as far as the first joint; wings
moderate; first primary longest. _Page 272_

127. NUMENIUS (Curlew, Whimbrel). Bill much larger than the head,
slender, curved downwards. _Page 273_

ORDER GAVIÆ

Front toes entirely connected by webs. Primaries, ten large and visible, one minute and concealed.

FAMILY LARIDÆ
(GULLS, TERNS, SKUAS)

_SUB-FAMILY STERNINÆ_

Bill straight, rather slender; mandibles of about equal length.

128. HYDROCHELIDON (Black, White-winged, and Whiskered Terns). Tail
feathers rounded or slightly pointed; tail short, less than half
length of wing. _Page 275_

129. STERNA (Other Terns). Outer tail feathers longest, pointed;
tarsus short; tail at least half length of wing; bill compressed
and slender; tarsus never exceeds length of middle toe with claw.
_Page 276_

_SUB-FAMILY LARINÆ_

Bill with upper mandible longer and bent over tip of under one.

130. LARUS (Gull). Bill moderate, strong, sharp-edged above,
compressed, slightly decurved; hind toe high on the tarsus; first
primary nearly equal to the second, which is longest; tail even, or
but slightly forked. _Page 281_

131. RISSA (Kittiwake). Bill rather short and stout, considerably
decurved; hind toe minute and usually obsolete; first primary
slightly exceeding second; tail perceptibly forked in young, nearly
square in adult. _Page 287_

_SUB-FAMILY STERCORARIINÆ_

Bill with a cere; claws large, strong, hooked.

132. STERCORARIUS (Skua). Bill moderate, strong, rounded above,
compressed towards the tip, which is decurved; nostrils far forward,
diagonal, pervious; hind toe very small, scarcely elevated; the
middle tail-feathers more or less elongated. _Page 288_

ORDER PYGOPODES

Wings short

FAMILY ALCIDÆ
(AUKS)

Bill much flattened vertically (compressed); wings short; legs placed at the extremity of the body; feet three-toed, palmated; tail short. Food, mostly fish, and captured by diving.

133. ALCA (Razor-bill). Bill large, sharp-edged, the basal half
feathered, the terminal part grooved laterally; upper mandible much
curved towards the point; nostrils nearly concealed by a feathered
membrane; tail pointed. _Page 291_

134. ÚRIA (Guillemot). Bill strong, nearly straight, sharp-pointed, of
moderate length; nostrils basal, partly covered by a feathered
membrane; first primary longest. _Page 292_

135. MÉRGULUS. (Little Auk). Bill strong, conical, slightly curved,
shorter than the head; nostrils basal, partly covered by a feathered
membrane; first and second primaries equal. _Page 294_

136. FRATERCULA (Puffin). Bill shorter than head, higher than long,
ridge of upper mandible higher than crown; both mandibles much
curved throughout, transversely furrowed, notched at tip; nostrils
basal, almost closed by a naked membrane. _Page 295_

FAMILY COLYMBIDÆ
(DIVERS)

Bill slightly compressed, not covered with a membranous skin; edges of the mandibles unarmed, or but slightly toothed; wings short; legs placed far behind; tarsi very much compressed; toes four. Food, fish and other aquatic animal substances obtained by diving. Females smaller than males.

137. COLYMBUS (Diver). Bill forming a pointed cylindrical cone; front
toes entirely palmated; tail very short. _Page 297_

FAMILY PODICIPEDIDÆ
(GREBES)

Hallux raised above level of other toes; toes with wide lateral lobes, united at base. Tail vestigial.

138. PÓDICIPES (Grebe). Bill forming pointed cylindrical cone;
secondaries, if any, very little shorter than primaries. _Page 300_

ORDER TUBINARES

External nostrils are produced into tubes; anterior toes fully webbed; hallux small or absent.

FAMILY PROCELLARIIDÆ

Nostrils united exteriorly above culmen.

139. FULMARUS (Fulmar). Bill not so long as head; upper mandible of
four portions divided by indentations, the whole large, strong,
curving suddenly to point; under mandible grooved along sides, bent
at end; edges of mandibles sharp; nostrils prominent, united,
enclosed, somewhat hidden in tube with single external orifice;
wings rather long, first quill longest; tarsi compressed, feet
moderate. _Page 304_

140. PUFFINUS (Shearwaters). Bill rather longer than head, slender;
mandibles compressed, decurved; nasal tube low, both nostrils
visible from above, directed forwards and slightly upwards; wings
long, pointed, first quill slightly the longest; tail graduated;
tarsi compressed laterally. _Page 305_

141. PROCELLARIA (Storm and Fork-tailed Petrels). Bill small, robust,
much shorter than head, straight to nail, which is decurved; wings
long, narrow, second quill longest, slightly exceeding third, first
shorter than fourth; tail moderate, slightly rounded; legs moderate,
claws rather short. _Page 307_

* * * * * * *

ORDER PASSERES

FAMILY TURDIDÆ

SUB-FAMILY TURDINÆ

THE MISTLE (OR MISSEL) THRUSH
TURDUS VISCIVORUS

Upper plumage ash brown; space between the bill and eye
greyish white; wing-coverts edged and tipped with greyish
white; under parts white, faintly tinged here and there with
reddish yellow, marked all over with deep brown spots, which
on the throat and breast are triangular, in other parts oval,
broader on the flanks; under wing-coverts white; three lateral
tail feathers tipped with greyish white. Length eleven inches;
breadth eighteen inches. Eggs greenish or reddish white,
spotted with brownish red. Young spotted on the head and back
with buff and black.