Chapter XIV: Part 14

"In old times, a quarrel happened between the Raja of Pandya desa and the god Devendra, and things went to such lengths that the angry god commanded the clouds not to send down any rain on Pandya desa, so that the inhabitants were sorely distressed by the severe drought, and laid their complaints before the Raja, who flew into a rage, marched his army against Devendra, defeated him in battle, seized on the clouds and put them in prison, in consequence of which not a drop of rain fell on any part of the Bhuloka or earthly world, which threw the people into a great consternation, and the whole with one accord addressed their prayers to Devendra, the god of the firmament, and beseeched him to relieve them from their present distress. Devendra sent an ambassador to the Raja of Pandya desa, and requested that he would release the clouds, but he refused to do it unless they gave security for their future good behaviour, and likewise promise that they would never again withhold the rain from falling in due season on his kingdom. At this juncture, the Vellal caste of Pandya desa became security for the clouds, and, from that circumstance, were surnamed Karakava Vellal Waru, or redeemers of the clouds." [141] In an interesting account of the Karaikat Vellalas of the Palni hills by Lieutenant Ward in 1824, [142] it is recorded that "their ceremonies, it is said, are performed by Pandarams, although Brahmans usually officiate as priests in their temples. They associate freely with the Kunnavans, and can eat food dressed by them, as also the latter can eat food dressed by a Karakat Vellalan. But, if a Kunnavan is invited to the house of a Karakat Vellalan, he must not touch the cooking utensils, or enter the cooking-room. Wives are accustomed, it is supposed, to grant the last favor to their husband's relations. Adultery outside the husband's family entails expulsion from caste, but the punishment is practically not very severe, inasmuch as a Kunnavan can always be found ready to afford protection and a home to the divorcée. A man who disgraces himself by an illicit connection with a woman of a lower caste than his own is punished in a similar manner. Formerly the punishment was in either case death." It is recorded [143] that "in 1824 the Karakat Vellalas were accustomed to purchase and keep predial slaves of the Poleiya caste, giving thirty fanams for a male, and fifty for a female. The latter was held to be the more valuable, as being likely to produce children for the benefit of her owner." It is said that, among the Karaikkat Vellalas, a peculiar ceremony, called vilakkidu kalyanam, or the auspicious ceremony of lighting the light, is performed for girls in the seventh or ninth year or later, but before marriage. The ceremony consists in worshipping Ganesa and the Sun at the house of the girls' parents. Her maternal uncle gives her a necklace of gold beads and coral, and a new cloth. All the relations, who are invited to be present, make gifts to the girl. The women of this section wear this ornament, which is called kodachimani (hooked jewel), even after marriage.

4. Kondaikatti. Said [144] to consider themselves as the highest and proudest of the Vellalas, because, during the Nabob's Government, they were employed in the public service. They are extremely strict in their customs, not allowing their women to travel by any public conveyance, and punishing adultery with the utmost severity.

Kondaikatti literally means one who ties his hair in a knob on the top of his head, but the name is sometimes derived from kondai, a crown, in connection with the following legend. A quarrel arose between the Komatis and Vellalas, as to which of them should be considered Vaisyas. They appeared before the king, who, being unable to decide the point at issue, gave each party five thousand rupees, and told them to return after trading for five years. The Vellalas spent one-fifth of the sum which they received in cultivating land, while the Komatis spent the whole sum in trading. At the end of the allotted time, the Vellalas had a bumper crop of sugar-cane, and all the canes contained pearls. The Komatis showed only a small profit. The king was so pleased with the Vellalas, that he bestowed on them the right to crown kings.

5. Kumbakonam. Vellalas, who migrated from Kumbakonam in the Tanjore district to Travancore.

6. Kummidichatti. Recorded, in the Manual of the North Arcot district, as a sub-division, regarded as low in position, which carried the pot (chatti) of fire at Vellala funerals. It is said that, in default of Kummidichattis, ordinary Vellalas now have to carry their own fire at funerals.

7. Nangudi or Savalai Pillaimar. (See Nangudi.)

8. Tendisai (southern country). They are found in the Coimbatore district, and it has been suggested that they are only a branch of the Konga Vellalas.

9. Tenkanchi. Vellalas, who migrated from Tenkasi in the Tinnevelly district to Travancore. (See Todupuzha Vellala.)

10. Tuluva. Immigrants from the Tulu country, a part of the modern district of South Canara. Mr. Nelson [145] is of opinion that these are the original Vellalas, who were invited to Tondamandalam after its conquest by the Chola King Adondai Chakravarti. They are now found in all the Tamil districts, but are most numerous in North and South Arcot and Chingleput. It is noted, in Carr's "Descriptive and historical papers relating to the Seven Pagodas," that "Adondai chiefly distinguished Kanchipuram (Conjeeveram) and Tripati as his place of residence or capital. The era of Adondai is not higher up than the seventh century of our reckoning. He is said to have brought the Brahmans from Sri Sailam in Telingana, and certainly attracted a large colony of Sudra Vellalas, or agriculturists, from Tuluva or northern Canara." At Conjeeveram, there are a Nattar and a Desayi, whose authority, in olden times, extended over the whole Presidency. The Nattar must be a Tuluva Vellala, and the Desai a Ralla Balija. The two offices conjointly are known as the Nadu Desam. The authority of these officers has in great measure ceased, but some still go to the Nadu Desam for appeal. For purposes of caste organisation, Conjeeveram is regarded as the head-quarters. All sections of the Tondamandalam Vellalas are divided into twenty-four kottams and seventy-nine nadus. The latter are subject to the former.

The following legendary account of the Tondamandalam Vellalas is given in the Baramahal Records. "During the reign of a certain Raja of Choladesa, a kingdom supposed to have comprised the present provinces south of the river Kaveri, the countries between the Kistna and Kaveri were quite a wilderness, in which many families of the Kurbavar caste or shepherds resided here and there in villages surrounded by mud walls. On a time, the Raja came forth into the wilds to take the diversion of hunting, and, in traversing the woods, he came to a place in the vicinity of the present town of Conjeeveram in the Kingdom of Arcot, where he met with a Naga Kanya or celestial nymph, fell in love with her, and asked her to yield to his embraces. She replied, 'If I consent to your proposal, and bear you a son, will you make him your successor in the kingdom?' He rejoined 'I will,' and she asked him who should witness his promise. He answered 'the earth and sky,' but she said that two witnesses were not sufficient, and that there must be a third. There happened to be a tree called adhonda near them, and the Raja replied 'Let the fruit of this adhonda tree be the third witness.' When she was satisfied respecting the witnesses, she granted the Raja his desires, and, after he had remained with her a short time, he took his leave, and returned to his metropolis, and, in a little while, abdicated his throne in favour of his eldest son, who managed the affairs of the kingdom. To return to the Naga Kanya, she conceived and brought forth a son, who remained with her three or four years, and then visited the different Rishis or hermits who resided in the forest, and learnt from them to use the sword, the bow and arrow, and the art of war, and obtained from them a knowledge of the whole circle of sciences. By this time he had attained the age of sixteen years, and, coming to his mother, he requested her to tell him who was his father. She answered 'Thy father is the Chola Raja.' He replied 'I will go to him, but who is to bear witness to the truth of your assertion?' She rejoined 'The earth, sky, and the fruit of the adhonda tree are witness to what I have told you.' The son plucked one of the berries of the adhonda tree, hung it by a string to his neck, took his sword and other weapons, and set out for his father's capital. He one day took an opportunity of accompanying some of the nobles to the darbar, and called out to the old Raja 'Behold your son.' The Raja replied 'I know nothing of thee;' upon which the young man repeated everything which his mother had told him, but it had no effect on the Raja. When the son found that his father was determined not to acknowledge him he challenged him to single combat, but the Raja, not thinking it proper to accept a challenge from a rash youth, demanded if he had any witnesses to prove his claim. He answered 'The earth and sky, and the fruit of the adhonda tree, which I wear suspended from my neck, are witnesses to the truth of my assertion.' This circumstance brought the old occurrence to the Raja's recollection, and he owned his son, and told him that, as he had already abdicated the throne, he trusted he would not insist upon the fulfilling of the promise which had been made to his mother, but consent to live in a private station under the dominion of his elder half-brother. The young man nobly replied 'I with pleasure waive the performance of your promise, but point out to me your enemy, and assist me with some troops, and I will conquer a kingdom for myself.' The Raja gave him an army, and directed him to subdue the Kurubavaru or shepherds, to clear the woods, and to form himself a kingdom between the rivers Kistna and Kaveri. He accordingly advanced into the wilderness, and, without meeting much opposition, soon subjected the Kurubavaru, who, knowing nothing of cultivation or sinking of tanks or watering the country from the rivers, and the conqueror wishing to introduce agriculture among them, he was obliged to repair to his father, and make known his difficulties. The Raja was much pleased with the enterprising spirit of his son, conferred on him the title of Adhonda Chakra, wrote and permitted him to take with him such of the Vellala caste as chose to emigrate. The young Raja held out great encouragement, and got a number of adventurers of that caste to accompany him back, to whom he gave large grants of waste land, and told them to pitch upon such spots of ground as met with their approbation, and they fixed upon the forts, districts, and villages belonging to the Kurubavaru caste, which consisted of twenty-four forts, eighty-one districts, and one thousand and nine hundred villages. This country was formerly named Dandaka Aranya. Dandaka is the name of a famous Rakshasa or Giant, who is mentioned in the Ramayana, and Aranya signifies a wilderness. It was also called Dhuntra Nadu, or the middle country, and the new Raja named it Dhanda Mandalam, or country of the tree dhonda, alluding to the fruit of the adhonda or dhonda tree, which bore testimony to his descent. The emigrants of the Vellala caste surnamed themselves Dhonda Mandala Vellala varu, and are now corruptly called Tondamandala Vellala varu."

In connection with the sub-divisions of the Vellalas, Mr. Hemingway, in a note on the Vellalas of the Trichinopoly district, gives some still further information. "The Kondaikattis are so-called from the peculiar way in which they used to wear their hair--a custom no longer observed. They are split into two sections, called Melnadu and Kilnadu (westerns and easterns). The Dakshinattans (south country men) are immigrants from Tinnevelly. The members of the Karaikkattar sub-division in the Udaiyarpalaiyam taluk are rather looked down on by other Vellalans as being a mixed race, and are also somewhat contemptuously called Yeruttu-mattu (pack-bullocks), because, in their professional calling, they formerly used pack-bullocks. They have a curious custom by which a girl's maternal uncle ties a tali (marriage badge) round her neck when she is seven or eight years old. The Panjukkara Chettis live in the Udaiyarpalaiyam taluk. The name is an occupational one, and denotes cotton-men, but they are not at the present day connected with the cotton trade. The Solapuram (or Cholapuram) Chettis are apparently called after the village of that name in the Kumbakonam taluk of Tanjore. The Solias (or Cholias) are numerous and ubiquitous. They are generally regarded as of doubtful descent, since parvenus, who wish to be considered Vellalans, usually claim to belong to this sub-division. The more respectable Pandarams, the Thambirans who own temples and matams, and the Oduvar or Adi Saival, belong to the Sozhia section. The Uttunattu sub-division is local in origin. Its head-quarters is the country round Uttatur. The members thereof are the special devotees of the Siva of that place. The Arunattus (six nadus) are also called Mottai (shaved) Vellalans, apparently because they always shave their moustache, and wear only a very small kudumi (hair-knot). Some of their customs are unlike those of the rest of the caste. They have exogamous septs, their widows always dress in white and wear no ornaments (a rule not universally observed in any other sub-division), they never marry their sister's daughter, and their wives wear the tali (marriage badge), like the Panta Reddis, on a golden thread. Of their six nadus, three of which are supposed to have been located on each side of the Aiyar river, only two are now recognised. These are the Serkudi nadu in Namakkal taluk and the Omandur nadu of Musiri. The Yelur (seven villages) Vellalas are very few and far between. There is a small colony of Tuluvas, engaged in dyeing, at Illuppur. The Malaikandas are only found near the Ratnagiri hill in the Kulittalai taluk. They take their name from the fact that they are required to look at the Ratnagiri hill when they get up in the morning. They are devotees of the god there. The Kaniyalans (landowners) are scarce, but widely distributed, since the man who carries the pot of blood, when animals are sacrificed at festivals to the village goddesses, must belong to this sub-division. The Kodikkal Vellalans are so-called from their occupation of betel cultivation, which they still pursue largely."

The Konga Vellalas differ so strikingly from the rest in many of their customs that a separate account of them is given. (See Konga Vellala.)

It is noted by Mr. Hemingway that some Vellalas "observe a curious custom (derived from Brahmans) with regard to marriage, which is not unknown among other communities. A man marrying a second wife after the death of his first has to marry a plantain tree, and cut it down before tying the tali, and, in the case of a third marriage, a man has to tie a tali first to the erukkan (arka: Calotropis gigantea) plant. The idea is that second and fourth wives do not prosper, and the tree and the plant are accordingly made to take their places."

A peculiar ceremony, called Sevvai (Tuesday) Pillayar, is performed by some Vellala women. It is also called Avvai Nonbu, because the Tamil poetess observed it. The ceremony takes place twice in the year, on a Tuesday in the months of Thai (February-March) and Audi (August-September). It is held at midnight, and no males, even babies in arms, may be present at it, or eat the cakes which are offered. A certain number of women club together, and provide the necessary rice, which is measured on the back of the hand, or in a measure similar to those used by Madras milk-sellers, in which the bottom is fixed high up in the cylinder. At the house where the ceremony is to be performed the rice is pounded into flour, and mixed with leaves of Pongamia glabra and margosa (Melia Azadirachta). The mixture is then made into cakes, some flat, and some conical, to represent Pillayar (Ganesa). Flowers, fruits, betel, turmeric, combs, kunkumam (red powder), and other articles required in connection with the Pillayar worship, are also taken to the room in which the rites are performed. Of these it has been impossible to gather an account, as the women refused to describe them, lest ruin should fall on their families. Some say that, during the ceremony, the women are stark-naked.

In an account of an annual ceremony at Trichinopoly in connection with the festival of Kulumai Amman, who is the guardian deity against epidemics, Bishop Whitehead records [146] that "a very fat pujari (priest) of the Vellala caste is lifted up above the vast crowd on the arms of two men. Some two thousand kids are then sacrificed, one after the other. The blood of the first eight or nine is collected in a large silver vessel holding about a quart, and handed up to the pujari, who drinks it. Then, as the throat of each kid is cut, the animal is handed up to him, and he sucks, or pretends to suck the blood out of the carcase."

Of proverbs relating to the Vellalas, the following may be cited:--

Agriculture is no agriculture, unless it is performed by the Vellalas.

The Vellala ruined himself by gaudy dress; the courtesan ruined herself by coquetry and affectation.

Of all the sections of the Sudras, the Vellala is foremost; and, of all the thefts committed in the world, those of the Kallans are most notorious.

Though you may face an evil star, never oppose a Vellala.

Though apparently the Vellala will not ruin you, the palm leaf, on which he writes about you, will certainly ruin you for ever.

In the Madras Census Report, 1891, Vellala is recorded as a caste of Jains. In this connection, it is noted by Mr. Hemingway that the Nainans or Nayinars (q.v.) and the Karaikkattans of the Udaiyarpalaiyam taluk are thought to be descended from Jains who were converted to the Hindu faith.

Vellan Chetti.--A name, denoting Vellala merchant, taken by some Vellalas.

Velli (silver).--See Belli.

Velnati.--A sub-division of Kapu, named after the old Velnadu division of the Telugu country.

Veloma.--Defined as "one of the two classes of Sudras, viz., Anuloma and Veloma. The term Veloma is applied to those born of a lower caste male and higher caste female."

Veluttedan.--The Veluttedan is defined in the Madras Census Report, 1891, as "the washerman of the Nayars and higher castes in Malabar. He calls himself a Nayar, and, in many cases, was returned as of that main caste, but these have been separated in abstraction. The caste is called Vannattan in North Malabar. The Veluttedans follow the marumakkatayam law of inheritance in the north, and makkatayam in the south. They have tali-kettu and sambandham separately. Their dress and habits are the same as those of Nayars." In the Madras Census Report, 1901, Bannata is given as a Canarese synonym for the caste name. In the Travancore and Cochin Census Reports, 1901, Veluttetan and Veluthedan are given respectively as an occupational title and sub-division of Nayars.

For the following note on the Veluttedans of Travancore, I am indebted to Mr. N. Subramani Aiyar. The name is believed to signify a place where clothes are bleached. In the early Settlement Records the designation recorded is Ayavu, in all probability an old synonym for washing. The South Travancore Veluttedans are said to be divided into two endogamous septs, Paravur and Attingal, with four exogamous septs in each; but these distinctions may be said to have now lost their vigour and force. There is a current tradition that once upon a time a Brahman was washing cloths for a friend, and was on that account thrown out of caste by Parasurama. The occupation of the Veluttedans is washing cloths for all high-caste Hindus down to the Sudras, in which profession, for neatness and purity at any rate, if not for promptitude, they stand above the Vannans and Chayakkarans of the east coast, both of whom have now entered the field in competition with them, and, at least in the most civilised parts of the State, not entirely without success. In no case do the castemen receive cloths from classes lower in social rank than the Sudras, and this is pointed to with pride as one of the causes which keep them in their present elevated scale. It need hardly be said that, in their traditional occupation, the Veluttedans are largely and materially assisted by their females, the Veluttedathis. They do not live in a group together, but are conveniently scattered about, so as to avoid competition one with another. Their main profession is, in many cases, supplemented by agriculture. There are absolutely no educated men among them, and, as long as machine-laundries are not introduced into the country, they have no reason to abandon the profession of their forefathers in pursuit of alien ones. In the matter of food and drink, as also in their dress and ornaments, they resemble the Nayars. Clothes, it may be mentioned, are never bought by Veluttedans, as they are always in possession, though temporarily, of other peoples' apparel. Tattooing prevails only in South Travancore. They cannot enter Brahmanical shrines, but are permitted to stand outside the talakkal or stone-paved walk round the inner sanctuary, by which the image is taken in daily procession. Besides standing here and worshipping the higher Hindu deities, they also engage in the propitiation of the minor village deities. There are two headmen in each village, who punish social delinquents, and preside over caste ceremonials. On the twenty-eighth day after the birth of a child, the name-giving ceremony is performed, and a thread is tied round the infant's neck. Those who can afford it celebrate the first food-giving. The tali-tying and sambandham ceremonies are performed separately, just like Nayars. The former is known as muhurtham or auspicious occasion. The marriage badge is called unta minnu or puliyilla minnu. The details of the marriage ceremony do not differ from those of the Nayars. The ayani unu, bhutakkalam, appam poli, and avaltitti are all important items, and, at least in South Travancore, seldom failed to be gone through. In poor families the mother, without any formal ceremonial, ties the tali of the girl before she is twelve years old, after an oblation of cooked food to the rising sun. This is called Bhagavan tali, or god's marriage ornament. Freedom of divorce and remarriage exist. The pulikuti (tamarind) is an indispensable ceremonial, to be gone through by a pregnant woman. Inheritance devolves in the female line (marumakkattayam). The clothes washed by Veluttedans are used by Nambutiri Brahmans, without previous washing as on the east coast, for all religious purposes; and clothes polluted by a member of a low caste are purified by the Veluttedan sprinkling ashes and water over them.

Vemu (margosa or nim: Melia Azadirachta).--An exogamous sept of Muka Dora.

Vengai Puli (cruel-handed tiger).--An exogamous section of Kallan.

Veralu Iche Kapulu or Velu Iche Kapulu (those who dedicate their fingers).--See Morasu.

Veshya (Sansk: Beshya).--A name denoting prostitute, applied to dancing-girls.

Vetagiri.--A Tamil class found in the Chingleput district. The members thereof are employed in hunting, cultivation, and the manufacture of wild date baskets. Their title is Nayakan.

Vettaikaran (hunter).--An occupational name of Boyas, Irulas, and Koravas, returned at times of census.

Vettile (betel vine: Piper Betle).--A kothu or tree of Kondaiyamkotti Maravans.

Vettiyan.--Vettiyan is the name applied to one of the officials of a Tamil Paraiyan settlement, who is also called Toti or Thotti. The former title is said to be more respectful as an appellation than the latter, but this is a distinction without a difference. [147] The name Vettiyan is said to be equivalent to Bittiyan (bitti, for nothing), or one who does service, e.g., collecting grass, firewood, etc., without remuneration. Toti is derived from thott, to go round, as he is the purveyor of news, and has to summon people to appear before the village tribunal, or from tondu, to dig.

The duties of the Vettiyan are multifarious. He it is who goes round the rice fields, and diverts the water-courses to the various fields, according to the rights of the ryots (agriculturists). The Vettiyan beats the drum for public notices and ceremonies. As a servant of Government, he has to carry the revenue which has been collected to the treasury. He is sometimes entrusted with large sums of money, and has never been known to abscond with it. It is said that the Village Munsiff will trust the Vettiyan, but not the Taliari, who is never sent alone with money. The Vettiyan is in charge of the burial ground, and those who repair thither have to pay him for his services. He is also the grave-digger, and officiates when a Paraiyan corpse is burnt or buried. Hence the Tamil proverb against meddling in what ought to be left to some one else:--"Let the Vettiyan and corpse struggle together." At a Paraiyan funeral, the Vettiyan, in some places, carries the pot of fire to the grave. To bring down rain, some of the lower classes, instead of addressing their prayers to the rain-god Varuna, try to induce a spirit or devata named Kodumpavi (wicked one) to send her paramour Sukra to the affected area. The belief seems to be that Sukra goes away to his concubine for about six months, and, if he does not return, drought ensues. The ceremony consists in making a huge figure of Kodumpavi in clay, which is placed on a cart, and dragged through the streets for seven to ten days. On the last day, the final death ceremonies of the figure are celebrated. It is disfigured, especially in those parts which are usually concealed. Vettiyans, who have been shaved, accompany the figure, and perform the funeral ceremonies. This procedure is believed to put Kodumpavi to shame, and to get her to induce Sukra to return and stay the drought.

At Paraiyan marriages certain pots are worshipped, and it is, in some places, the Vettiyan who says "The sun, the moon, the pots, and the owner of the girl have come to the marriage booth. So make haste, and fill the pots with water."

The office of the Vettiyan village official is hereditary, and the holder of it is entitled to some respect among his brethren, and to certain emoluments in kind, e.g., grain at the harvest season. There is a proverb that "whatever may be the wealth of the lord who comes to rule over him, his duty of supplying him with a bundle of grass is not to cease." This relates to the demands which were, and perhaps are still, made on him in rural parts of the country. In some places, lands, called Vettiyan Maniyam, are given rent-free to Vettiyans.

The Vettiyan is said to possess the right of removing dead cattle from villages, and in return to supply leather for agricultural purposes. He is further said to make drum heads and tom-toms from raw hides. [148]

The Vettiyans belong to the right-hand section during disputes between the right and left hand factions.

Vettuvan.--The Tamil Vettuvans are described, in the Madras Census Report, 1901, as "an agricultural and hunting caste, found mainly in Salem, Coimbatore, and Madura. The name means 'a hunter.' They are probably of the same stock as the Vedans, though the exact connection is not clear, but they now consider themselves superior to that caste, and are even taking to calling themselves Vettuva Vellalas. Tradition says that the Konga kings invited Vettuvans from the Chola and Pandya countries to assist them against the Keralas. Another story says that the caste helped the Chola king Aditya Varma to conquer the Kongu country during the latter part of the ninth century. In paragraph 538 of the Census Report, 1891, reference is made to the belief that the Vedans are identical with the Veddahs of Ceylon. In connection with this supposition, it is reported that the Vettuvans worship a goddess called Kandi-Amman, which may possibly mean 'the goddess of Kandy' (in Ceylon). Of the endogamous sections into which the caste is divided, the most numerically important are Venganchi, Kilangu (root), Pasari, Viragu (firewood), Pannadai (sheath of the cocoanut leaf), and Villi (bow). They have their own barbers, who seem also to form a separate sub-division, and are called Vettuva Ambattans or Navidans, both of which words mean barber. They are said to refuse to serve any one lower than a Konga Vellala. Nominally they are Hindus, but they are said to worship the seven Kannimars, or aboriginal goddesses, to whom the Irulas also pay homage. They eat meat and drink alcohol, though some of those who are endeavouring to increase their social repute are taking to vegetarianism. Widow marriage is forbidden. They either burn or bury the dead, but no ceremonies are performed for deceased ancestors. Their customs are thus a curious mixture of those followed by high castes and low ones. Their ordinary title is Kavandan."

Of the Malayalam Vettuvans, who live in Malabar and the southern portion of the South Canara district, it is recorded, in the Madras Census Report, 1901, that they are "agricultural serfs, shikaris (hunters), and collectors of forest produce, who live in the Malabar jungles. They have two endogamous sub-divisions, called Kodi and Peringala. The former keep their hair long, and their women wear a cloth. The latter have top-knots, and their women dress in leaves, which they wear only round their waists, and renew daily. The latter are an unclean set of people, who live in rude bamboo and reed huts, and will eat anything down to carrion. Yet they consider themselves superior to Cherumans and Pulaiyans, and are careful not to be polluted by them. This same name is also borne by a class of masons and salt-workers in the low country in Malabar."

The Malabar Vettuvans are said to have a fantastic legend, showing that they were not originally as low as they are at the present day in the social scale. "It is related that one of their tribe went and asked a high-caste Nayar to give him a daughter in marriage. The Nayar offered to do so on condition that the whole tribe would come to his place and dance on berries, each one who fell to be shot with arrows. The tribe foolishly agreed to the condition, and went and danced, with the result that, as each one tripped and fell, he or she was mercilessly shot dead with arrows. A little girl who survived this treatment was secretly rescued, and taken away by a compassionate Nayar, who married her into his family. From this union, the present day Vettuvans affirm their origin is to be traced. Up to this day they hold the caste of that particular Nayar in very great veneration." [149] The costume of these Vettuvans has been described as follows. [150] "The men wear a short loin-cloth, secured round the waist by a belt which is also used as a sling during hunting expeditions. They also wear brass ear-rings, and grow a bit of moustache, and a little stumpy beard. The dress of the women consists of three clusters of long leaves, suspended from the waist and tied on by a cheap girdle. According to a tribal legend, when, in the morning of time, costumes were being distributed by the deity to the various races of the earth, the Vettuva women, being asked to choose between a costume which needed to be changed daily, and one which needed to be changed only yearly, readily expressed a preference for the former, and the deity, considering this an unpardonable piece of vanity, decreed that thenceforth the women should dress in leaves gathered fresh every morning. Whenever it is suggested to them that they should adopt some more lasting apparel, the Vettuva women answer that they are carrying out the mandate of the deity, and can abandon their present dress only if the deity appears in person, and sanctions a change."

On the occasion of a recent visit of the Governor of Madras to South Canara, a party of Vettuvans was paraded before him. One of the men was wearing an aluminium coronation medal, and, on being asked by the Collector who had given it to him, he folded his arms obsequiously, and replied 'My Tamburan' (landlord).

In a recent note on the leaf-wearing Vettuvans, it is stated that "they believe that the sun travels, after it has set, through a hole in the bowels of the earth, and emerges at morning in the east. The way they calculate time is interesting. A Vettuvan says that his children were born when his master sowed paddy (rice) on such and such hills. They are a very truthful lot, of good moral character, the chastity of their womankind being held very sacred."

The Malabar Vettuvans are summed up by Mr. T. K. Gopal Panikkar [151] as being "not exactly slaves, but their social position justifies their classification amongst the slave races. They live on the cocoanut plantations of the Nairs, and other well-to-do classes. They lead a hand-to-hand existence on the wages which they obtain for hedging and fencing cocoanut plantations, plucking cocoanuts, tilling, and other allied work. They live, with their wives and children, and sometimes other relations as well, in houses small but more decent-looking than the mere huts of the other lower classes. In point of caste restrictions they are certainly better circumstanced; and their daily contact with the higher classes in the ordinary concerns of life affords them greater facilities for increased knowledge and civilisation than their brother citizens of the slave races enjoy. They are much addicted to toddy-drinking, but their principal food is rice. Their condition is never so intolerably wretched as that of the other classes. They are sometimes employed by cultivators for agricultural purposes. Their females occupy themselves in the fields during the harvest season, but they also make thatch for houses of cocoanut leaves woven after a set model during the thatching season about December or January. Their males wear ear-rings of brass, and their females adorn themselves with nose, finger, and neck ornaments of brass or beads. The one piece of cloth supplied annually by the masters, to whose plantations they are attached, forms the dress both for males and females, which they tie round their waists. They do not eat carrion, but are exceedingly fond of fish, the flesh of the civet, and the rat, and of some other animals not generally eaten by other classes. They observe death pollution like the higher classes of Malabar, and the period of observance varies according to the particular class or caste, to which their masters belong. For instance, if they belong to a Nair's plantation, such period is fifteen days, and, if to a Brahmin's, it is ten days; Nairs and Brahmins observing pollution for these periods respectively. The priests who officiate at their ceremonials are selected from among their own tribesmen or Enangers, whose express recognition is necessary to give validity to the performance of the ceremony. Their marriage customs are very like those of the Tiyyars, excepting that the feasting and revelry are not so pompous in their case. Like the Nairs, they retain the front knot. The only offences of general occurrence among them are petty cases of theft of cocoanuts, plantains, areca nuts, and roots of common occurrence. The Vettuvans believe in a Supreme Creator, whom they name and invoke as Paduchathampuram, i.e., the king who created us. Likewise, they believe in certain evil deities, to whom they make offerings at particular times of the year. They are not, like the other classes, distinguished by loyalty to their masters, but are a very ungrateful sect, and their very name, viz., Nambu Vettuvan, has passed into a bye-word for ingratitude of all kinds."

It is recorded, in the Gazetteer of Malabar, that "the Vettuvans of Chirakkal taluk are a low caste of jungle cultivators and basket makers, distinguished by the survival amongst their women of the custom of dressing in leaves, their only clothing being a kind of double fan-shaped apron of leaves tied round the waist with a rolled cloth. They live in huts made of split bamboo and thatched with elephant grass, called kudumbus. The Vettuvans are divided into fourteen illams, which seem to be named after the house names of the janmis (landlords) whom they serve. Their headmen, who are appointed by their janmis, are called Kiran, or sometimes Parakutti (drummer). Amongst the Vettuvans, when labour begins, the woman is put in a hole dug in a corner of the hut, and left there alone with some water till the cry of the child is heard." For the following note on the Vettuvans of the Cochin State, I am indebted to Mr. L. K. Anantha Krishna Aiyar. [152]

"The Vettuvans are also called Vettuva Pulayas. They are pure agricultural labourers, taking part in every kind of work connected with agriculture, such as ploughing, sowing, weeding, transplanting, pumping water, and reaping. They are more day labourers. The males get two edangazhis of paddy (hardly worth 2 annas), and the females an edangazhi and a half. In times of scarcity, they find it difficult to support themselves.

"When an unmarried woman becomes pregnant, her parents, as soon as they become aware of the fact, inform their local headman (Kanakkan or Kuruppan), who convenes a meeting of the elderly members of the community for the purpose of summoning the secret lover, and prosecuting the necessary enquiries. In the event of the confession of the charge, he is asked to marry her. The matter does not end there. They go to the local Thandan, and relate to him the incident, who thereupon gives him water in a vessel (kindi vellam). The woman is asked to drink this as well as some cow-dunged water, and is then made to let flow a few drops of blood from the body. After this he says 'dhosham thirnu' (free from guilt). Should, however, the lover be unwilling to marry her, he is thrashed and placed under a ban. If they are related to each other, they are both turned out of caste. The woman who is freed from guilt can marry again. The Thandan gets as his perquisite four annas out of the fine imposed, four packets of betel leaf, eight areca nuts, and three tobacco leaves. Their headman also has a share of the fine, etc. The balance which then remains is spent on toddy, and beaten rice for those assembled.

"The Vettuvans profess the lower forms of Hinduism. Their chief gods are Chevva, Chathan, Karinkutti, Parakutti, Kappiri and Kandakaranan, and also Namburi Thamburan. They give regular offerings to them, lest the gods should become angry, and cause serious calamities to the members of their families. Images of gods are made of bell-metal, and worshipped in their huts. The deceased ancestors are also worshipped as gods, to whom are given a different kind of offerings. Toddy is an indispensable item in their offerings to them. In Ooragam and its neighbourhood, when I took my notes on the Vettuvans, I was told that there was no tree-tapping, and that toddy brought to them for sale was largely adulterated with water, and very costly. Their gods were very angry, for they were not satisfied with it. They caused fever, deafness, blindness, and other disorders. They worship Kali also. Kumbhom Bharani is an important festival to them. On the morning of this day, tunes are played in honour of the goddess. There are special songs called Thottampattu. Sacrifices are offered to the deity very early. A puja (worship) is also performed for the sword, anklets, and bells worn round the loins, all placed in front of the deity, and songs are again sung. One of them turns a Velichchapad (oracle), who speaks as if by inspiration. Wearing the above ornaments, they go to a temple, in front of which they empty out on a mat a few paras of paddy, and again play and sing.

"The funeral ceremonies of the Vettuvans are somewhat elaborate. When a member of the caste breathes his last, his relations, friends, and other castemen of the kara (settlement) are all informed of the event. They attend, and take part in the obsequies. The dead body is bathed, and dressed in a piece of new cloth. Some gold, rubbed on a stone in water, is poured into his mouth by his sons and daughters. Karuvanguka, or Gurutvam Vanguka, is an important ceremony performed by his sons and daughters. It consists in taking sixteen small bits of plantain leaves, with some rice on each, and placing them on the forehead, neck, chest, loins, thighs, hands, legs, feet, etc., washing the last two, and collecting the water, which is taken in by the members junior to him in the family. After this, the dead body is placed on the bier, which is carried by four persons to the grave. The nearest relatives of the family, four in number, called Bhedakars, with a mundu (cloth) tied round their heads, walk in front of the procession. The grave is dug, and a new cloth is spread, and the corpse laid on it. It is filled in with layers of earth and stones, to prevent dogs and jackals from disturbing the dead body. All those who have accompanied the chief mourner bathe, and return home. The members of the family fast for the night. The eldest son, who is the chief mourner, bathes in the early morning, and offers the pinda bali (offering of rice) to the spirit of the departed for fifteen days. On the seventh day, the chief mourner, and the Enangan, go to the graveyard, and level the slightly raised part of the grave. A piece of stone, kept near the foot, is taken, and placed on a leaf. Some toddy, arrack (alcoholic liquor) and water of the tender cocoanut, are poured over it as offerings. By some magic, the spirit is supposed to be living in it. It is brought home, and placed in a cocoanut shell containing oil mixed with turmeric, and kept outside the hut until the pollution is over. The pollution lasts for fifteen days, and on the night of the fifteenth day they fast. On the morning of the sixteenth day, all the castemen of the kara who are invited bring with them rice, curry-stuffs, and toddy. Rubbing themselves with oil, they all go to bathe, after which the Enangan sprinkles cowdunged water, to show that they are freed from pollution. The stone is also purified by a dip in water, and then brought home. Those who have assembled are fed, and then depart. The chief mourner, who has to perform the diksha, does not shave for a year, bathes in the early morning, and offers the bali before going to work. This he continues for a year, at the end of which he gets himself shaved, and celebrates a feast called masam in honour of the departed. The stone, representing the deceased, is placed on a seat in a conspicuous part of the hut. An image of wood or copper sometimes takes its place. It is thenceforward worshipped, and believed to watch over the welfare of the family. Regular offerings are given to it on Karkadagom and Thulam Sankranthi, Onam, Vishu, and the festival day of the local temple.

"The castes below the Vettuvans are Pulayan, Nayadi, and Ullatan. They consider themselves superior to Pulayas, and are careful not to be polluted by them. A Vettuvan who is polluted by a Nayadi or Ulladan fasts for seven days, subsisting on water, tender cocoanuts, and toddy. On the eighth day he bathes, and takes his regular meals. As the Vettuvans are Chandalars, any distance less than sixty-four feet will pollute the higher castes. They stand at a distance of twenty-four feet from Kammalar. Nayadis and Ullatans stand far from them. Owing to their disabilities and low wages, many turn either Christians or Muhammadans, and work for wages of two and a half to three annas a day."

There is a class of people in Malabar called Vettan or Vettuvan, which must not be confused with the jungle Vettuvan. These people were, it is said, [153] "once salt-makers, and are now masons, earth-workers, and quarrymen. They are said to be divided into two classes, the marumakkattayam (with inheritance in the female line) regarded as indigenous to Malabar, and the makkattayam (with inheritance from father to son), said to be immigrants from the south."

Vibhaka Gunta.--Recorded in the Madras Census Report as "a low class of wandering beggars; clubbed with Mala." Some Malas in the Vizagapatam district possess gunta manyams, or petty fields, and supplement their income by begging.

Vignesvara.--A synonym for the elephant god Ganesa, which occurs as a gotra of Nagaralu. The equivalent Vinayaka is a gotra of Medara.

Vilkurup.--The Vilkuruppu or Vilkollakuruppu are the priests and barbers of the Malayalam Kammalans, and also makers of umbrellas and bows (vil) and arrows. In former times they supplied the latter articles for the Malabar Infantry. Malabar and Travancore are, par excellence, the home of the palm-leaf umbrella, which still holds its own against umbrellas of European manufacture, which were, in 1904-1905, imported into India to the value of Rs. 18,95,064. A native policeman, protecting himself from the sun with a long-handled palm umbrella, is a common object in towns and villages on the west coast.

Concerning the Vilkurups of the Cochin State, Mr. L. K. Anantha Krishna Aiyar writes as follows. [154] "In former times, their occupations were training low caste men to arms and athletic feats, to use sticks in fighting, and also to the use of bows and arrows, and pial school teaching. In these days of civilisation, their services are no longer required for these purposes, and they are employed in shampooing, umbrella making, and quarrying laterite stones for building purposes. In Nayar families, during tali-tying ceremonies, they have to give a bow and a few arrows. During the Onam festival also, they have to give a bow and arrows to every Nayar house, for which they get some paddy (rice), curry stuffs, a cocoanut, and some oil. When they are called in for shampooing, three oils are well boiled, and cooled. The patient lies on a plank, oil is poured over him, and every part of his body is well shampooed, and afterwards he is bathed in water boiled with medicinal herbs. The Vilkurups eat at the hands of Brahmans, Nayars, Izhuvans, and Kammalans, but abstain from taking the food of barbers, washermen, Panans, Kaniyans, and other low castes. They have to stand at a distance of thirty-two feet from Brahmans and Nayars. Pulayans and Parayans have to stand at a great distance. They live in localities occupied by the Izhuvans. They cannot approach the Brahman temples, but have to stand far away from the outer wall. They are their own barbers and washermen."

Villasan (bowmen).--A synonym of Malayalam Kammalans, who formerly had to supply bows and arrows for the Travancore army.

Villi.--Villi (bow) or Villiyan (bowmen) has been recorded as a synonym of the Irulas of Chingleput. Villi also occurs as a sub-division of Vettuvan, a hunting caste of the Tamil country.

Villu Vedan (huntsmen using bows).--A synonym of Eravallar.

Vilyakara.--Recorded, in the Madras Census Report, 1901, as "a sub-caste of Servegara or Kotegara." Vilyakara, Valekara and Olekara are names indicating the occupation of a servant under Government or a private individual.

Vinka (white-ant: Termites).--An exogamous sept of Jatapu.

Vipravinodi.--In a note on the Vipravinodis, Mr. C. Hayavadana Rao writes that they are said to be the descendants of a Brahman by a Lingayat woman. They are Lingayats, and are called Vipravinodi because they perform acrobatic feats before Vipras, or Brahmans. They generally travel about the country with their wives and children. One of their favourite feats is throwing up three stone or wooden balls in the air, and catching them, or rolling them over various parts of the body. When they perform before a mixed audience, they call themselves Naravidya varu, which is said to be an abbreviated form of Narulu Mechche Vidyalu Chese varu, or those who perform feats which men praise. The dead are buried in a sitting posture.

Virabhadra.--A synonym of the Tamil washermen (Vannan), whose patron deity is Virabhadra, from whom they claim descent.

Viragu (firewood).--A sub-division of Vettuvan.

Virakudiyan.--A synonym of Panisavans, who are engaged in blowing the conch shell on ceremonial occasions.

Virala (heroes).--An exogamous sept of Golla and Kapu.

Vira Magali (a god).--An exogamous section of Kallan.

Viramushti.--For the following account of the Viramushtis in the Vizagapatam district, I am indebted to Mr. C. Hayavadana Rao.

They are Lingayats, but do not, as a rule, wear the lingam, as it is the custom to postpone initiation until death, when the linga is tied on the corpse by a Jangam before it is buried. Those who are initiated during life wear the linga suspended from the neck. The Viramushtis seem to have several sub-divisions, e.g., Naga Mallika (Rhinacanthus communis), the roots of which are believed to cure snake-bite, Puccha Kaya (Citrullus Colocynthis), Triputa (Ipomoea Turpethum), and Ramadosa (Cucumis Melo).

Girls are married before or after puberty. The menarikam custom, according to which a man should marry his maternal uncle's daughter, is observed. A voli (bride-price) of sixteen rupees, or half a tola of gold, in the form of jewelry, is given to the bride.