Chapter I: Preface

These twenty-five short chapters on Jewish Literature open with the fall of Jerusalem in the year 70 of the current era, and end with the death of Moses Mendelssohn in 1786. Thus the period covered extends over more than seventeen centuries. Yet, long as this period is, it is too brief. To do justice to the literature of Judaism even in outline, it is clearly necessary to include the Bible, the Apocrypha, and the writings of Alexandrian Jews, such as Philo. Only by such an inclusion can the genius of the Hebrew people be traced from its early manifestations through its inspired prime to its brilliant after-glow in the centuries with which this little volume deals.

One special reason has induced me to limit this book to the scope indicated above. The Bible has been treated in England and America in a variety of excellent text-books written by and for Jews and Jewesses. It seemed to me very doubtful whether the time is, or ever will be, ripe for dealing with the Scriptures from the purely literary stand-point in teaching young students. But this is the stand-point of this volume. Thus I have refrained from including the Bible, because, on the one hand, I felt that I could not deal with it as I have tried to deal with the rest of Hebrew literature, and because, on the other hand, there was no necessity for me to attempt to add to the books already in use. The sections to which I have restricted myself are only rarely taught to young students in a consecutive manner, except in so far as they fall within the range of lessons on Jewish History. It was strongly urged on me by a friend of great experience and knowledge, that a small text-book on later Jewish Literature was likely to be found useful both for home and school use. Such a book might encourage the elementary study of Jewish literature in a wider circle than has hitherto been reached. Hence this book has been compiled with the definite aim of providing an elementary manual. It will be seen that both in the inclusions and exclusions the author has followed a line of his own, but he lays no claim to originality. The book is simply designed as a manual for those who may wish to master some of the leading characteristics of the subject, without burdening themselves with too many details and dates.

This consideration has in part determined also the method of the book. In presenting an outline of Jewish literature three plans are possible. One can divide the subject according to _Periods_. Starting with the Rabbinic Age and closing with the activity of the earlier Gaonim, or Persian Rabbis, the First Period would carry us to the eighth or the ninth century. A well-marked Second Period is that of the Arabic-Spanish writers, a period which would extend from the ninth to the fifteenth century. From the sixteenth to the eighteenth century forms a Third Period with distinct characteristics. Finally, the career of Mendelssohn marks the definite beginning of the Modern Period. Such a grouping of the facts presents many advantages, but it somewhat obscures the varying conditions prevalent at one and the same time in different countries where the Jews were settled. Hence some writers have preferred to arrange the material under the different _untries_. It is quite possible to draw a map of the world's civilization by merely marking the successive places in which Jewish literature has fixed its head-quarters. But, on the other hand, such a method of classification has the disadvantage that it leads to much overlapping. For long intervals together, it is impossible to separate Italy from Spain, France from Germany, Persia from Egypt, Constantinople from Amsterdam. This has induced other writers to propose a third method and to trace _Influences_, to indicate that, whereas Rabbinism may be termed the native product of the Jewish genius, the scientific, poetical, and philosophical tendencies of Jewish writers in the Middle Ages were due to the interaction of external and internal forces. Further, in this arrangement, the Ghetto period would have a place assigned to it as such, for it would again mark the almost complete sway of purely Jewish forces in Jewish literature. Adopting this classification, we should have a wave of Jewish impulse, swollen by the accretion of foreign waters, once more breaking on a Jewish strand, with its contents in something like the same condition in which they left the original spring. All these three methods are true, and this has impelled me to refuse to follow any one of them to the exclusion of the other two. I have tried to trace _influences_, to observe _periods_, to distinguish _countries_. I have also tried to derive color and vividness by selecting prominent personalities round which to group whole cycles of facts. Thus, some of the chapters bear the names of famous men, others are entitled from periods, others from countries, and yet others are named from the general currents of European thought. In all this my aim has been very modest. I have done little in the way of literary criticism, but I felt that a dry collection of names and dates was the very thing I had to avoid. I need not say that I have done my best to ensure accuracy in my statements by referring to the best authorities known to me on each division of the subject. To name the works to which I am indebted would need a list of many of the best-known products of recent Continental and American scholarship. At the end of every chapter I have, however, given references to some English works and essays. Graetz is cited in the English translation published by the Jewish Publication Society of America. The figures in brackets refer to the edition published in London. The American and the English editions of S. Schechter's "Studies in Judaism" are similarly referred to.

Of one thing I am confident. No presentation of the facts, however bald and inadequate it be, can obscure the truth that this little book deals with a great and an inspiring literature. It is possible to question whether the books of great Jews always belonged to the great books of the world. There may have been, and there were, greater legalists than Rashi, greater poets than Jehuda Halevi, greater philosophers than Maimonides, greater moralists than Bachya. But there has been no greater literature than that which these and numerous other Jews represent.

Rabbinism was a sequel to the Bible, and if like all sequels it was unequal to its original, it nevertheless shared its greatness. The works of all Jews up to the modern period were the sequel to this sequel. Through them all may be detected the unifying principle that literature in its truest sense includes life itself; that intellect is the handmaid to conscience; and that the best books are those which best teach men how to live. This underlying unity gave more harmony to Jewish literature than is possessed by many literatures more distinctively national. The maxim, "Righteousness delivers from death," applies to books as well as to men. A literature whose consistent theme is Righteousness is immortal. On the very day on which Jerusalem fell, this theory of the interconnection between literature and life became the fixed principle of Jewish thought, and it ceased to hold undisputed sway only in the age of Mendelssohn. It was in the "Vineyard" of Jamnia that the theory received its firm foundation. A starting-point for this volume will therefore be sought in the meeting-place in which the Rabbis, exiled from the Holy City, found a new fatherland in the Book of books.

CONTENTS

PAGE
PREFACE 5

CHAPTER

I THE "VINEYARD" AT JAMNIA 19

Schools at Jamnia, Lydda, Usha, and Sepphoris.--The
Tannaim compile the Mishnah.--Jochanan, Akiba, Meir,
Judah.--Aquila.

II FLAVIUS JOSEPHUS AND THE JEWISH SIBYL 33

III THE TALMUD 43

The Amoraim compile the Palestinian Talmud and the
Babylonian Talmud.--Representative Amoraim:

I (220-280) Palestine--Jochanan, Simon,
Joshua, Simlai; Babylonia--Rab and Samuel.
II (280-320) Palestine--Ami, Assi, Abbahu,
Chiya; Babylonia--Huna and Zeira.
III (320-380) Babylonia--Rabba, Abayi, Rava.
IV (380-430) Babylonia--Ashi (first compilation
of the Babylonian Talmud).
V and VI (430-500) Babylonia--Rabina
(completion of the Babylonian Talmud).

IV THE MIDRASH AND ITS POETRY 55

Mechilta, Sifra, Sifre, Pesikta, Tanchuma,
Midrash Rabbah, Yalkut.--Proverbs.--Parables.--Fables.

V THE LETTERS OF THE GAONIM 68

Representative Gaonim:
Achai, Amram, Zemach, Saadiah, Sherira, Samuel, Hai.

VI THE KARAITIC LITERATURE 75

Anan, Nahavendi, Abul-Faraj, Salman, Sahal, al-Bazir,
Hassan, Japhet, Kirkisani, Judah Hadassi, Isaac Troki.

VII THE NEW-HEBREW PIYUT 83

Kalirian and Spanish Piyutim (Poems).--Jannai.--Kalir.

VIII SAADIAH OF FAYUM 91

Translation of the Bible into Arabic.--Foundation of
a Jewish Philosophy of Religion.

IX DAWN OF THE SPANISH ERA 99

Chasdai Ibn Shaprut.--Menachem and Dunash, Chayuj
and Janach.--Samuel the Nagid.

X THE SPANISH-JEWISH POETS (I) 107

Solomon Ibn Gebirol.--"The Royal Crown."--Moses
Ibn Ezra.--Abraham Ibn Ezra.--The Biblical
Commentaries of Ibn Ezra and the Kimchis.

XI RASHI AND ALFASSI 119

Nathan of Rome.--Alfassi.--Rashi.--Rashbam.

XII THE SPANISH-JEWISH POETS (II) 126

Jehuda Halevi.--Charizi.

XIII MOSES MAIMONIDES 134

Maimon, Rambam--R. Moses, the son of Maimon,
Maimonides.--His Yad Hachazaka and Moreh
Nebuchim.--Gersonides.--Crescas.--Albo.

XIV THE DIFFUSION OF SCIENCE 144

Provençal Translators.--The Ibn Tibbons.--Italian
Translators.--Jacob Anatoli.--Kalonymos.--Scientific
Literature.

XV THE DIFFUSION OF FOLK-TALES 153

Barlaam and Joshaphat.--The Fables of Bidpai.--Abraham
Ibn Chisdai.--Berachya ha-Nakdan.--Joseph Zabara.

XVI MOSES NACHMANIDES 160

French and Spanish Talmudists.--The Tossafists,
Asher of Speyer, Tam, Isaac of Dompaire, Baruch
of Ratisbon, Perez of Corbeil.--Nachmanides'
Commentary on the Pentateuch.--Public controversies
between Jews and Christians.

XVII THE ZOHAR AND LATER MYSTICISM 169

Kabbala.--The Bahir.--Abulafia.--Moses of Leon.--The
Zohar.--Isaac Lurya.--Isaiah Hurwitz.--Christian
Kabbalists.--The Chassidim.

XVIII ITALIAN JEWISH POETRY 178

Immanuel and Dante.--The Machberoth.--Judah
Romano.--Kalonymos.--The Eben Bochan.--Moses
Rieti.--Messer Leon.

XIX ETHICAL LITERATURE 189

Bachya Ibn Pekuda.--Choboth ha-Lebaboth.--Sefer
ha-Chassidim.--Rokeach.--Yedaiah Bedaressi's
Bechinath Olam.--Isaac Aboab's Menorath ha-Maor.--Ibn
Chabib's "Eye of Jacob."--Zevaoth, or Ethical
Wills.--Joseph Ibn Caspi.--Solomon Alami.

XX TRAVELLERS' TALES 200

Eldad the Danite.--Benjamin of Tudela.--Petachiah
of Ratisbon.--Esthori Parchi.--Abraham
Farissol.--David Reubeni and Molcho.--Antonio de
Montesinos and Manasseh ben Israel.--Tobiah
Cohen.--Wessely.

XXI HISTORIANS AND CHRONICLERS 211

Order of the Tannaim and Amoraim.--Achimaaz.--Abraham
Ibn Daud.--Josippon.--Historical Elegies, or
Selichoth.--Memorial Books.--Abraham Zacuto.--Elijah
Kapsali.--Usque.--Ibn Verga.--Joseph Cohen.--David
Gans.--Gedaliah Ibn Yachya.--Azariah di Rossi.

XXII ISAAC ABARBANEL 225

Abarbanel's Philosophy and Biblical
Commentaries.--Elias Levita.--Zeëna u-Reëna.--Moses
Alshech.--The Biur.

XXIII THE SHULCHAN ARUCH 232

Asheri's Arba Turim.--Chiddushim and
Teshuboth.--Solomon ben Adereth.--Meir of
Rothenburg.--Sheshet and Duran.--Moses and Judah
Minz.--Jacob Weil, Israel Isserlein, Maharil.--David
Abi Zimra.--Joseph Karo.--Jair Bacharach.--Chacham
Zevi.--Jacob Emden.--Ezekiel Landau.

XXIV AMSTERDAM IN THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY 243

Manasseh ben Israel.--Baruch Spinoza.--The Drama
in Hebrew.--Moses Zacut, Joseph Felix Penso, Moses
Chayim Luzzatto.

XXV MOSES MENDELSSOHN 253

Mendelssohn's German Translation of the
Bible.--Phædo.--Jerusalem.--Lessing's Nathan the
Wise.

INDEX 263

CHAPTERS ON JEWISH LITERATURE