Chapter I: Front Matter (1)

Statesman Edition VOL. II

Charles Sumner

HIS COMPLETE WORKS

With Introduction

BY

HON. GEORGE FRISBIE HOAR

BOSTON

LEE AND SHEPARD

MCM

COPYRIGHT, 1900,

BY

LEE AND SHEPARD.

Statesman Edition.

LIMITED TO ONE THOUSAND COPIES.
OF WHICH THIS IS

No. 565

Norwood Press:
NORWOOD, MASS., U.S.A.

CONTENTS OF VOLUME II.

PAGE

WHITE SLAVERY IN THE BARBARY STATES. A Lecture
before the Boston Mercantile Library Association, February
17, 1847 1

RIVAL SYSTEMS OF PRISON DISCIPLINE. Speech before the
Boston Prison Discipline Society, at Tremont Temple,
June 18, 1847 104

THE LATE JOSEPH LEWIS STACKPOLE, ESQ. Article in the
Boston Daily Advertiser, July 23, 1847 151

FAME AND GLORY. Oration before the Literary Societies of
Amherst College, at their Anniversary, August 11, 1847 153

NECESSITY OF POLITICAL ACTION AGAINST THE SLAVE POWER
AND THE EXTENSION OF SLAVERY. Speech in the Whig
State Convention of Massachusetts, at Springfield, September
29, 1847 207

THE LATE HENRY WHEATON. Article in the Boston Daily
Advertiser, March 16, 1848 215

UNION AMONG MEN OF ALL PARTIES AGAINST THE SLAVE
POWER AND THE EXTENSION OF SLAVERY. Speech before
a Mass Convention at Worcester, June 28, 1848 226

THE LAW OF HUMAN PROGRESS. Oration before the Phi
Beta Kappa Society of Union College, Schenectady,
July 25, 1848 241

THE PARTY OF FREEDOM. Speech on taking the Chair as
Presiding Officer of a Public Meeting to ratify the Nominations
of the Buffalo Convention, at Faneuil Hall,
August 22, 1848 291

PARTIES, AND IMPORTANCE OF A FREE-SOIL ORGANIZATION.
Letter addressed to a Committee of the Free-Soil Party
in Boston, October 20, 1848 299

APPEAL FOR THE FREE-SOIL PARTY. Address of the State
Committee to the People of Massachusetts, November 9,
1843 316

A LAST RALLY FOR FREEDOM. Letter to the Chairman of
the Free-Soil Meeting at Faneuil Hall, November 9, 1848 320

WAR SYSTEM OF THE COMMONWEALTH OF NATIONS. Address
before the American Peace Society, at its Anniversary
Meeting in the Park Street Church, Boston, May 28, 1849 323

WHITE SLAVERY IN THE BARBARY STATES.

A LECTURE BEFORE THE BOSTON MERCANTILE LIBRARY ASSOCIATION,
FEBRUARY 17, 1847.

Mutato nomine, de te
Fabula narratur.--HOR. _Sat._ I. i. 69, 70.

And thinkest thou this, O man, that judgest them which do such
things, and doest the same, that thou shall escape the judgment of
God?--_Rom._ ii. 3.

There are individuals in the United States who hold more of
their fellow-creatures in slavery than either of the Barbary
Powers.--HUMPHREYS, _Valedictory Discourse before the
Cincinnati of Connecticut_, p. 34.

This was another attempt to expose Slavery before a promiscuous
audience at a time when the subject was too delicate to be treated
directly. Mr. Sumner commenced in the course at Boston, and
afterwards gave the substance of his Lecture before many of the
Lyceums of Massachusetts. Professedly historical in character, and
carefully avoiding any discussion of slavery in our country, it
escaped "censure," although jealous defenders of compromise were
disturbed. Others were pleased to find their sentiments against
slavery represented in the lecture-room.

It was easy to see, that, under the guise of condemning the slavery
of whites, he condemned the slavery of blacks. While showing how
the first came to prevail, he naturally exposed the origin of all
slavery; nor does he for a moment lose sight of slavery among
us, which is constantly present under an _alias_. The outrage is
exhibited not only in its original wrong and oppression, but in the
constant efforts against it by all civilized nations, sometimes
by ransom, sometimes by war, ending at last in bloody overthrow.
Conspiracies and escapes are described. At that time there was
intense interest in fugitive slaves, which was gratified by the
stories here introduced, showing how human sympathies attend all
seeking freedom. Elsewhere, as well as here, the North Star had
been a guide. It was common to doubt the hardships of slavery in
our country; but there were persons who doubted the hardships
of slavery in the Barbary States. Nothing more common among
compromisers than to say that our slaves did not desire freedom,
and that they were better off than free negroes; but there were
persons, professing to know the condition of the Barbary States,
who insisted that there were white slaves who left with regret, and
that they were better off than free Christians there. Thus at each
point is this historical lecture an argument against Slavery, and
an answer to its defenders.

LECTURE.

History is sometimes called a gallery, where are exhibited scenes, events, and characters of the Past. It may also be called the world's great charnel-house, where are gathered coffins, dead men's bones, and all the uncleanness of years that have fled. Thus is it both an example and a warning to mankind. Walking among its pictures, radiant with the inspiration of virtue and of freedom, we thrill with new impulse to beneficent exertion. Groping amidst unsightly shapes without an epitaph, we may at least derive fresh aversion to all their living representatives.

In this mighty gallery, amidst angelic light, are the benefactors of mankind,--poets who have sung the praise of virtue, historians who have recorded its achievements, and the good of all time, who, by word or deed, have striven for the welfare of others. Here are those scenes where the godlike in man is made manifest in trial and danger. Here also are those grand pictures exhibiting the establishment of free institutions: the signing of Magna Charta, with its priceless privileges, by a reluctant monarch; and the signing of the Declaration of Independence, announcing the inalienable rights of man, by the fathers of our Republic.

On the other hand, in ignominious confusion, far down in this dark, dreary charnel-house, is tumbled all that now remains of the tyrants, the persecutors, the selfish men, under whom mankind have groaned. Here also, in festering, loathsome decay, are monstrous _institutions_ or _customs_, which the earth, weary of their infamy and wrong, has refused to sustain,--the Helotism of Sparta, the Serfdom of Christian Europe, the Ordeal by Battle, and Algerine Slavery.

From this charnel-house let me draw forth one of these. It may not be without profit to dwell on the _origin_, _history_, and _character_ of a custom, which, after being for a long time a by-word and a hissing among the nations, is at last driven from the world. The easy, instinctive, positive reprobation which it will receive from all must necessarily direct our judgment of other institutions, yet tolerated in defiance of justice and humanity. I propose to consider the subject of _White Slavery in Algiers_, or, perhaps it may be more appropriately called, _White Slavery in the Barbary States_. As Algiers was its chief seat, it seems to have acquired a current name from that place. Nevertheless I shall proceed to speak of White Slavery, or the Slavery of Christians, throughout the Barbary States.

This subject may fail in interest, but not in novelty. I am not aware of any previous attempt to combine its scattered materials.

TERRITORY OF THE BARBARY STATES.

The territory now known as the Barbary States is memorable in history. Classical inscriptions, broken arches, and ancient tombs--the memorials of various ages--still bear interesting witness to the revolutions it has undergone.[1] Early Greek legend made it the home of terror and of happiness. Here was the retreat of the Gorgon, with snaky tresses, turning all she looked upon into stone; and here also the Garden of the Hesperides, with apples of gold. It was the scene of adventure and mythology. Here Hercules wrestled with Antæus, and Atlas sustained, with weary shoulders, the overarching sky. At an early day Phoenician fugitives transported the spirit of commerce to its coasts; and Carthage, which these wanderers planted, became mistress of the seas, explorer of distant regions, rival and victim of Rome. Here for a while the energy and subtlety of Jugurtha baffled the Roman power, till at last the whole region, from Egypt to the Pillars of Hercules, underwent the process of "annexation" to the cormorant republic of ancient times. A thriving population and fertile soil rendered it an immense granary. It was filled with ancient cities, one of which was the refuge and the grave of Cato, fleeing from the usurpations of Cæsar. At a later day Christianity was here preached by saintly bishops. The torrent of the Vandals, first wasting Italy, passed this way; and the arms of Belisarius here obtained their most signal triumphs. The Saracens, with the Koran and the sword, declared ministers of conversion, next broke from Arabia, as messengers of a new religion, and, pouring along these shores, diffused the faith and doctrines of Mohammed. Their empire was not confined even by these expansive limits, but, under Musa, entered Spain, and afterwards at Roncesvalles, in "dolorous rout," overthrew the embattled chivalry of the Christian world under Charlemagne.

[1] The classical student will be gratified and surprised by the
remains of antiquity described by Dr. Shaw, English chaplain at
Algiers in the reign of George the First, in his "Travels, or
Observations relating to Several Parts of Barbary and the Levant,"
published in 1738.

The Saracenic power did not long retain its unity or importance; and as we discern this territory in the dawn of modern history, when the countries of Europe are appearing in their new nationalities, we recognize five different communities or states, Morocco, Algiers, Tunis, Tripoli, and Barca, the last of little moment and often included in Tripoli, the whole constituting what was then, and is still, called the Barbary States. This name has sometimes been referred to the Berbers, or Berebbers, constituting part of the inhabitants; but I delight to follow the classic authority of Gibbon, who thinks that the term, first applied by Greek pride to all strangers, and finally reserved for those only who were savage or hostile, justly settled, as a local denomination, along the northern coast of Africa.[2] The Barbary States, then, bear their past character in their name.

They occupy an important space on the earth's surface: on the north washed by the Mediterranean Sea, furnishing such opportunities for prompt intercourse with Southern Europe that Cato was able to exhibit in the Roman Senate figs freshly plucked in the gardens of Carthage; bounded on the east by Egypt, on the west by the Atlantic Ocean, and on the south by the vast, mysterious, sandy, flinty waste of Sahara, separating them from Soudan or Negroland. In advantage of position they surpass every other part of Africa,--unless we except Egypt,--communicating easily with the Christian nations, and thus, as it were, touching the very hem and border of civilization.

[2] Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Chap. LI. Vol. IX. p.
465.

Climate adds attractions to this region, which is removed from the cold of the north and the burning heat of the tropics, while it is enriched with oranges, citrons, olives, figs, pomegranates, and luxuriant flowers. Its position and character invite a singular and suggestive comparison. It is placed between the twenty-fifth and thirty-seventh degrees of north latitude, occupying nearly the same parallels with the Slave States of our Union. It extends over nearly the same number of degrees of longitude with our Slave States, which seem now, alas! to stretch from the Atlantic Ocean to the Rio Grande. It is supposed to embrace about 700,000 square miles, which cannot be far from the space comprehended by what may be called the _Barbary States of America_.[3] Nor does the comparison end here. Algiers, for a long time the most obnoxious place in the Barbary States of Africa, the chief seat of Christian slavery, and once branded by an indignant chronicler as "the wall of the barbarian world," is situated near the parallel of 36° 30' north latitude, being the line of what is termed the Missouri Compromise, marking the "wall" of Christian slavery in our country, west of the Mississippi.

[3] Jefferson, without recognizing the general parallel, alludes to
Virginia as fast sinking to be "the Barbary of the Union."--Memoir,
Correspondence, etc., ed. T.J. Randolph, Vol. IV. pp. 333, 334.

Other less important points of likeness occur. They are each washed, to the same extent, by ocean and sea,--with this difference, that the two are thus exposed on directly opposite coasts: the African Barbary being water-bounded on the north and west, and our American Barbary on the south and east. But there are no two spaces on the globe, of equal extent, (and geographical testimony will verify what I am stating,) which present so many distinctive features of resemblance, whether we consider the parallels of latitude on which they lie, the nature of their boundaries, their productions, their climate, or the "peculiar domestic institution" which has sought shelter in both.

I introduce these comparisons that I may bring home to your minds, as nearly as possible, the precise position and character of the territory which was the seat of the evil I am about to describe. It might be worthy of inquiry, why Christian slavery, banished at last from Europe, banished also from that part of this hemisphere which corresponds in latitude to Europe, should have intrenched itself in both hemispheres between the same parallels of latitude, so that Virginia, Carolina, Mississippi, and Texas should be the American complement to Morocco, Algiers, Tripoli, and Tunis. Perhaps common peculiarities of climate, breeding lassitude, indolence, and selfishness, may account for that insensibility to the claims of justice and humanity which have characterized both regions.

Illustrations Of White Slavery.

The revolting custom of White Slavery in the Barbary States was for many years the shame of modern civilization. The nations of Europe made constant efforts, continued through successive centuries, to procure its _abolition_, and also to rescue their subjects from its fearful doom. These may be traced in diversified pages of history, and in authentic memoirs. Literature affords illustrations which must not be neglected. At one period, the French, the Italians, and the Spaniards borrowed the plots of their stories from this source.[4]

[4] Sismondi, Literature of the South of Europe, Chap. XXIX. Vol.
III. p. 402.

The adventures of Robinson Crusoe make our childhood familiar with one of its forms. Among his early trials was his piratical capture by a rover from Sallee, a port of Morocco on the Atlantic Ocean, and reduction to slavery. "At this surprising change of my circumstances," says Crusoe, "from a merchant to a miserable slave, I was perfectly overwhelmed; and now I looked back upon my father's prophetic discourse to me, that I should be miserable and have none to relieve me, which I thought was now so effectually brought to pass that it could not be worse." And Cervantes, in the story of Don Quixote, over which so many generations have shaken with laughter, turns aside from its genial current to give the narrative of a Spanish captive who had escaped from Algiers. The author is supposed to have drawn from his own experience; for during five years and a half he endured the horrors of Algerine slavery, from which he was finally liberated by a ransom of less than seven hundred dollars.[5] This inconsiderable sum of money--scarcely the price of an ordinary African slave in our own Southern States--gave to freedom, to his country, and to mankind the author of Don Quixote.

[5] The exact amount in our money is left uncertain both by
Smollett and Roscoe, in their lives of Cervantes. It appears that
it was five hundred gold crowns of Spain, which, according to his
Spanish biographer, Navarrete, is equal to 6,770 reals, in the
currency of the present day. (Vida de Cervantes, p. 371). The real
is reckoned at ten cents.

In Cervantes freedom gained a champion whose efforts entitle him to grateful mention on this threshold of our inquiry. Taught in the school of slavery, he knew how to commiserate the slave. The unhappy condition of his fellow-Christians in chains was ever uppermost in his mind. He lost no opportunity of inciting attempts for their emancipation, and for the overthrow of the "peculiar institution"--pardon the recurring phrase!--under which they groaned. He became in Spain what, in our day and country, is sometimes called an "anti-slavery agitator,"--not by public meetings and addresses, but, according to the genius of the age, mainly through the theatre. Not from the platform, but from the stage, did this liberated slave speak to the world. In a play entitled _El Trato de Argel_, or Life in Algiers--which, though not composed according to rules of art, found much favor, probably from its subject--he pictured, shortly after his return to Spain, the manifold humiliations, pains, and torments of slavery. This was followed by two other plays in the same spirit,--_La Gran Sultana Doña Cathalina de Oviedo_, and _Los Baños de Argel_, or, The Galleys of Algiers. The last act of the latter closes with the statement, calculated to enlist the sympathies of an audience, that "this play is not drawn from the imagination, but was born far from the regions of fiction, in the very heart of truth." More could not be said of a tale of Slavery in our day. Not content with this appeal through the theatre, Cervantes, with constant zeal, takes up the same theme in the tale of "The Captive" which he introduces into Don Quixote, and also in that of _El Amante Liberal_, and in some parts of _La Española Inglesa_. All these may be regarded not merely as literary labors, but as charitable efforts in behalf of human freedom.

This same cause enlisted a contemporary genius, prolific beyond precedent, called by Cervantes "that great prodigy of Nature," Lope de Vega, who freely borrowed from it in a play entitled _Los Cautivos de Argel_. At a later day, Calderon, sometimes exalted as the Shakespeare of the Spanish stage, in one of his most remarkable dramas, _El Principe Constante_, cast a poet's glance at Christian slavery in Morocco. To these works, belonging to what may be called the literature of Anti-Slavery, and shedding upon our subject a grateful light, must be added a curious and learned volume on the Topography and History of Algiers (_Topographia e Historia de Argel_), by Haedo, a Spanish father of the Catholic Church, published in 1612, and containing also two copious Dialogues,--one on Captivity (_de la Captividad_), and the other on the Martyrs of Algiers (_de los Martyres de Argel_). These Dialogues, besides embodying authentic sketches of suffering in Algiers, form a mine of classical and patristic learning on the origin and character of slavery, with arguments and protestations against its iniquity, which may be explored with profit even in our day. In view of this gigantic evil, particularly in Algiers, and in the hope of arousing his countrymen to the generous work of emancipation, the good father exclaims, in words which must thrill the soul so long as a single fetter binds a single slave: "Where is charity? Where is the love of God? Where is the zeal for his glory? Where is desire for his service? Where is human pity, and the compassion of man for man? Certainly, to redeem a captive, to liberate him from wretched slavery, is the highest work of charity, of all that can be done in this world."[6] The reports of the good fathers who visited this land of bondage for the redemption of captives testify likewise. One of these thus speaks from the depths of the heart: "The charity of Jesus Christ obliges us; and I question not but that whosoever had seen those miseries I have been a witness to, and the deplorable condition I left our captives in, would have no less ardent a desire to relieve them."[7]

[6] Pp. 140, 141.

[7] Busnot, History of the Reign of Muley Ismael: Preface.

Not long after the bitter experience of Cervantes, another person, of another country and language, and of a higher character, St. Vincent de Paul, one of the saintly glories of France, encountered the same cruel lot. Happily for the world, he escaped from slavery, to commence at home that long career of charity--nobler than any fame of literature--signalized by various Christian efforts against duels, for peace, for the poor, and in every field of humanity, by which he is enrolled among the great names of Christendom. Princes and orators have lavished panegyrics upon this fugitive slave; and the Catholic Church, in homage to his extraordinary virtues, has numbered him with the saints. Nor is he the only illustrious Frenchman who has felt the yoke of slavery. Arago, astronomer and philosopher,--devoted republican also,--while on the coast of the Mediterranean, engaged in those scientific labors which made the beginning of his fame, came within the clutch of Algerine slave-dealers. What science and the world gained by his liberation I need not say.

Thus Science, Literature, Freedom, Philanthropy, the Catholic Church, each and all, owe a debt to the liberated Barbary slave. Let them, on this occasion, as beneficent heralds, commend the story of his wrongs, his struggles, and his triumphs!

I.

ORIGIN OF SLAVERY.

These preliminary remarks prepare the way for the subject to which I invite attention. Here I am naturally led to touch upon the _origin of slavery_, and the principles which lie at its foundation, before proceeding to exhibit the efforts for its abolition, and their final success in the Barbary States.

The word _Slave_, suggesting now so much of human abasement, has an origin which speaks of human grandeur. Its parent term, _Slava_, signifying _glory_, in the Slavonian dialect, where it first appears, was proudly assumed as the national designation of races in the northeastern part of the European continent, who, in the vicissitudes of war, were afterwards degraded from the condition of conquerors to that of servitude. The Slavonian bondman, retaining his national name, was known as _Slave_; and this term, passing from a _race_ to a _class_, was afterwards applied, in the languages of modern Europe, to all in his unhappy lot, without distinction of country or color.[8] It would be difficult to mention any word which has played such opposite parts in history,--beneath the garb of servitude concealing its early robe of pride. And yet, startling as it seems, this word may be received in its primitive character, by those among us who consider slavery essential to democratic institutions, and therefore part of the true _glory_ of the country. Lexicography, going beyond this historical illustration, announces that "most probably the original meaning was _independent_, _free_,"[9] thus making the slave distinctively the freeman. In the revolutions of society, and among the compensations of Providence for long-continued degradation, the slave might yet regain this original ascendency, if, in an era of justice, the highest condition were not where all are equal in rights.

[8] Gibbon, Roman Empire, Chap. LV. Vol. X. p. 190.

[9] Webster, Dictionary, word _Slave_.

SLAVERY IN ANTIQUITY.

Slavery was universally recognized by the nations of antiquity. It is said by Pliny, in bold phrase, that the Lacedæmonians "invented slavery."[10] If this were so, the glory of Lycurgus and Leonidas would not compensate for such a blot. It is true that they recognized it, and gave it a shape of peculiar hardship. But slavery is older than Sparta. It existed in the tents of Abraham; for the three hundred and eighteen servants born to him were slaves. We behold it in the story of Joseph, who was sold by his brothers to the Midianites for twenty pieces of silver.[11] We find it in the poetry of Homer, who stamps it with a reprobation which even the Christian Cowper has hardly surpassed, when he says,--

"Jove fixed it certain that whatever day
Makes man a slave takes half his worth away."[12]

[10] "_Servitium invenere Lacedæmonii._" Nat. Hist., Lib. VII. c.
57.

[11] Genesis xiv. 14; Ibid. xxxvii. 28. By these and other texts
of the Scriptures, slavery, and even the _slave-trade_, have been
vindicated. See Bruce's Travels in Africa, Book II. Ch. 2. Vol. II.
p. 319. After quoting these texts, the complacent traveller says he
"cannot think that purchasing slaves is in itself either cruel or
unnatural."

[12] Odyssey, tr. Pope, Book XVII., 392, 393.

In later days it prevailed extensively in Greece, whose haughty people deemed themselves justified in enslaving all who were strangers to their manners and institutions. "It is right for Greeks to rule barbarians," was the sentiment of Euripides, one of the first of her poets, echoed by Aristotle, the greatest of her intellects.[13] And even Plato, in his imaginary Republic, the Utopia of his beautiful genius, sanctions slavery. But notwithstanding these high names, we learn from Aristotle himself that there were persons in his day--pestilent Abolitionists of ancient Athens--who did not hesitate to maintain that liberty was the great law of Nature, and to deny any difference between master and slave,--declaring at the same time that slavery was founded upon violence, and not upon right, and that the authority of the master was unnatural and unjust.[14] "God sent forth all persons free; Nature has made no man a slave,"[15] was the protest of one of these agitating Athenians against this great wrong. I am not in any way authorized to speak for any Anti-Slavery Society, even if this were the proper occasion; but I presume that this ancient Greek morality embodies substantially the principles maintained at their public meetings,--so far, at least, as they relate to slavery.

[13] Euripid., Iphig. in Taurid., 1400; Aristot., Polit., Lib. I.
c. 1.

[14] Polit., Lib. I. c. 3. In like spirit are the words of the good
Las Casas, when pleading before Charles the Fifth for the Indian
races of America. "The Christian religion," he said, "is equal in
its operation, and is accommodated to every nation on the globe.
_It robs no one of his freedom, violates none of his inherent
rights, on the ground that he is a slave by nature, as pretended_;
and it well becomes your Majesty _to banish_ so monstrous an
oppression from your kingdoms in the beginning of your reign, that
the Almighty may make it long and glorious."--Prescott, Conquest of
Mexico, Vol. I. p. 379.

[15] A saying attributed by the Scholiast on Aristotle's Rhetoric
to Alcidamas, a disciple of Gorgias of Leontini. See Aristotle's
Ethics and Politics, tr. Gillies, Vol. II. p. 26.

It is true, most true, that slavery stands on force and not on right. It is a hideous result of war, or of that barbarism in which savage war plays its conspicuous part. To the victor belonged the lives of his captives, and, by consequence, he might bind them in perpetual servitude. This principle, which has been the foundation of slavery in all ages, is adapted only to the rudest conditions of society, and is wholly inconsistent with a period of refinement, humanity, and justice. It is sad to confess that it was recognized by Greece; but the civilization of this famed land, though brilliant to the external view as the immortal sculptures of the Parthenon, was, like that stately temple, dark and cheerless within.

Slavery extended, with new rigors, under the military dominion of Rome. The spirit of freedom which animated the Republic was of that selfish and intolerant character which accumulated privileges upon the Roman citizen, while it heeded little the rights of others. But, unlike the Greeks, the Romans admitted in theory that all men are originally free by the Law of Nature; and they ascribed the power of masters over slaves, not to any alleged diversities in the races of men, but to the will of society.[16] The constant triumphs of their arms were signalized by reducing to servitude large bodies of subjugated people. Paulus Æmilius returned from Macedonia with an uncounted train of slaves, composed of persons in every sphere of life; and the camp of Lucullus in Pontus witnessed the sale of slaves for four drachmæ, or seventy-five cents, a head.

[16] Institut., Lib. I. Tit. 2.

Terence and Phædrus, Roman slaves, teach us that genius is not always quenched even by degrading bondage; while the writings of Cato the Censor, one of the most virtuous slave-masters in history, show the hardening influence of a system which treats human beings as cattle. "Let the husbandman," says Cato, "sell his old oxen, his sickly cattle, his sickly sheep, his wool, his hides, his old wagon, his old implements, _his old slave, and his diseased slave_; and if there is anything else not wanted, let him sell it. _He should be seller, rather than buyer._"[17]

[17] De Re Rustica, Cap. II.

The cruelty and inhumanity which flourished in the Republic professing freedom enjoyed a natural home under Emperors who were the high-priests of despotism. Wealth increased, and with it the multitude of slaves. Some masters are said to have owned as many as ten thousand, while extravagant prices were often paid for them, according to fancy or caprice. Martial mentions handsome boys sold for as much as two hundred thousand sesterces each, or more than eight thousand dollars.[18] On the assassination of Pedanius Secundus by one of his slaves, no less than four hundred were put to death,--an orator in the Senate arguing that these hecatombs were in accordance with ancient custom.[19]

[18] Epig. III. 62.

[19] Tacitus, Ann., XIV. 43.

It is easy to believe that slavery, which prevailed so largely in Greece and Rome, must have existed in Africa. Here, indeed, it found a peculiar home. If we trace the progress of this unfortunate continent from those distant days of fable when Jupiter did not

"disdain to grace
The feasts of Æthiopia's blameless race,"[20]

the merchandise in slaves will be found to have contributed to the abolition of two hateful customs, once universal in Africa,--the eating of captives, and their sacrifice to idols. Thus, in the march of civilization, even the barbarism of slavery is an important stage of Human Progress. It is a point in the ascending scale from cannibalism.

[20] Iliad. tr. Pope, Book I., 556, 557.

SLAVERY IN MODERN TIMES.

In the early periods of modern Europe slavery was a general custom, which yielded only gradually to the humane influences of Christianity. It prevailed in all the countries of which we have any records. Fair-haired Saxon slaves from distant England arrested the attention of Pope Gregory in the markets of Rome, and were by him hailed as _Angels_. A law of so virtuous a king as Alfred ranks slaves with horses and oxen; and the Chronicles of William of Malmesbury show that in our mother country there was once a cruel slave-trade in whites. As we listen to this story, we shall be grateful again to that civilization which renders such outrage more and more impossible. "Directly opposite to the Irish coast," he says, "there is a seaport called Bristol, the inhabitants of which frequently sent into Ireland to sell those people whom they had bought up throughout England. They exposed to sale girls in a state of pregnancy, with whom they made a sort of mock marriage. There you might see with grief, fastened together by ropes, whole rows of wretched beings of both sexes, of elegant forms, and in the very bloom of youth,--a sight sufficient to excite pity even in barbarians,--daily offered for sale to the first purchaser. Accursed deed! infamous disgrace! that men, acting in a manner which brute instinct alone would have forbidden, should sell into slavery their relations, nay, even their own offspring!"[21] From still another chronicler we learn, that, in 1172, when Ireland was afflicted with public calamities, there was a great assembly of the principal men, _chiefly of the clergy_, who concluded, as well they might, that these evils were sent upon their country for the reason that they had formerly purchased English boys as slaves, contrary to the right of Christian liberty,--the poor English, to supply their wants, being "accustomed to sell even their own children, not to bring them up": wherefore, it is said, the English slaves were allowed to depart in freedom.[22] Earlier in Irish history a boy was stolen from Scotland, who, after six years of bondage, succeeded in reaching his home, when, entering the Church, he returned to Ireland, preached Christianity, and, as St. Patrick, became the patron saint of that beautiful land.[23]

[21] Life of St. Wulstan, Book II. Chap. 20.

[22] Chronica Hiberniæ, or the Annals of Philip Flatsbury (in the
Cottonian Library, Domitianus XVIII. 10); quoted in Stephen on West
India Slavery, Vol. I. p. 6.

[23] Biographie Générale (Hoefer), Art. _Patrice_.

On the Continent of Europe, as late as the thirteenth century, the custom prevailed of treating all captives in war as slaves. Here poetry, as well as history, bears its testimony. Old Michael Drayton, in his story of the Battle of Agincourt, says of the French:--

"For knots of cord to every town they send,
The captived English that they caught to bind;
_For to perpetual slavery they intend
Those that alive they on the field should find_."[24]

[24] Battle of Agincourt, st. 144.

And Othello, in recounting his perils, exposes this custom, when he speaks

"Of being taken by the insolent foe
_And sold to slavery_; of my redemption thence."

It was also held lawful to enslave an infidel, or person who did not receive the Christian faith. The early Common Law of England doomed heretics to the stake; the Catholic Inquisition did the same; and the laws of Oléron, the maritime code of the Middle Ages, treated them "as dogs," to be attacked and despoiled by all true believers. Philip le Bel of France, grandson of St. Louis, in 1296 presented his brother Charles, Count of Valois, with a Jew, and paid three hundred livres for another Jew,--as if Jews were at the time chattels, to be given away or bought.[25] The statutes of Florence, boastful of freedom, as late as 1415 allowed republican citizens to hold slaves not of the Catholic Christian faith,--_Qui non sunt Catholicæ fidei et Christianæ_.[26] Besides captive Moors, there were African slaves in Spain, before Christopher Columbus; and at Venice Marco Polo for some time held a slave he had brought from the Orient in the age of Dante. The comedies of Molière, _L'Étourdi_ and _Le Sicilien_, depicting Italian usages not remote from his day, show that at Messina even Christian women continued to be sold as slaves.

[25] Encyclopédie Méthodique (Jurisprudence), Art. _Esclavage_.

[26] Biot, De l'Abolition de l'Esclavage Ancien en Occident, p.
440,--a work crowned with a gold medal by the Institute of France,
which will be read with some disappointment.

This rapid sketch, which brings us down to the period when Algiers became a terror to the Christian nations, renders it no longer astonishing that the barbarous States of Barbary--a part of Africa, the great womb of slavery, professing Mahometanism, which not only recognizes slavery, but expressly ordains "chains and collars" to infidels[27]--should maintain the traffic in slaves, particularly in Christians, denying the faith of the Prophet. In the duty of constant war upon unbelievers, and in the assertion of right to the service or ransom of their captives, they followed the lessons of Christians themselves.

[27] Koran, Chap. LXXVI.

It is not difficult, then, to account for the origin of this cruel custom. Its _history_ forms our next topic.

II.

HISTORY OF WHITE SLAVERY.

The Barbary States, after the decline of the Arabian power, were enveloped in darkness, rendered more palpable by increasing light among the Christian nations. At the twilight of European civilization they appear to be little more than scattered bands of robbers and pirates, "land-rats and water-rats" of Shylock, leading the lives of Ishmaelites. Algiers is described by an early writer as "a den of sturdy thieves formed into a body, by which, after a tumultuary sort, they govern,"[28]--and by still another writer, contemporary with the monstrosity which he exposes, as the "theatre of all crueltie and sanctuarie of iniquitie, holding captive, in miserable servitude, one hundred and twentie thousand Christians, almost all subjects of the king of Spaine."[29] Their habit of enslaving prisoners captured in war and piracy arousing at last the sacred animosities of Christendom, Ferdinand the Catholic, after the conquest of Granada, and while the boundless discoveries of Columbus, giving to Castile and Leon a new world, still occupied his mind, found time to direct an expedition into Africa, under the military command of that great ecclesiastic, Cardinal Ximenes. It is recorded that this valiant soldier of the Church, on effecting the conquest of Oran, in 1509, had the inexpressible satisfaction of liberating three hundred Christian slaves.[30]

[28] A Discourse concerning Tangier: Harleian Miscellany, Vol. V.
p. 522.

[29] Purchas's Pilgrims, Vol. II. p. 1565.

[30] Prescott, History of Ferdinand and Isabella, Vol. III. p. 308.
Purchas's Pilgrims, Vol. II. p. 813.

To stay the progress of the Spanish arms the government of Algiers invoked assistance from abroad. Two brothers, Horuc and Hayradin, sons of a potter in the island of Lesbos, had become famous as corsairs. In an age when the sword of the adventurer often carved a higher fortune than could be earned by lawful exertion, they were dreaded for abilities, hardihood, and power. To them Algiers turned for aid. The corsairs left the sea to sway the land,--or rather, with amphibious robbery, took possession of Algiers and Tunis, while they continued to prey upon the sea. The name of Barbarossa, by which they are known to Christians, is terrible in modern history.[31]

[31] Robertson, History of Charles the Fifth, Book V. Haedo,
Historia de Argel, Epitome de los Reyes de Argel.

MILITARY EXPEDITIONS AGAINST WHITE SLAVERY.

With pirate ships they infested the seas, and spread their ravages along the coasts of Spain and Italy, until Charles the Fifth was aroused to undertake their overthrow. The various strength of his broad dominions was rallied in this new crusade. "If the enthusiasm," says Sismondi, "which had armed the Christians in the old Crusades was nearly extinct, a new sentiment, more rational and legitimate, united the vows of Europe with the efforts of Charles against the infidels. The object was no longer to reconquer the tomb of Christ, but to defend the civilization, the liberty, the lives of Christians."[32] A stanch body of infantry from Germany, veterans of Spain and Italy, the flower of the Spanish nobility, knights of Malta, with a fleet of near five hundred vessels, contributed by Italy, Portugal, and even distant Holland, commanded by Andrew Doria, the great sea-officer of the age,--the whole under the immediate eye of the Emperor himself, with the countenance and benediction of the Pope, and composing one of the most complete armaments which the world had hitherto seen,--were directed upon Tunis. Barbarossa opposed them bravely, but with unequal forces. While slowly yielding to attack from without, his defeat was hastened by unexpected uprising within. Confined in the citadel were many Christian slaves, who, asserting the rights of freedom, obtained a bloody emancipation, and turned its artillery against their former masters. The place yielded to the Emperor, whose soldiers soon surrendered to the inhuman excesses of war. The blood of thirty thousand innocent inhabitants reddened his victory. Amidst these scenes of horror there was but one spectacle that afforded any satisfaction to the imperial conqueror. It was that of ten thousand Christian slaves rejoicing in emancipation, who met him as he entered the town, and, falling on their knees, thanked him as their deliverer.[33]

[32] Histoire des Français, Tom. XVII. pp. 101, 102.

[33] Robertson, History of Charles the Fifth, Book V.

In the treaty of peace which ensued, it was expressly stipulated on the part of Tunis, that all Christian slaves, of whatever nation, should be set at liberty without ransom, and that no subject of the Emperor should for the future be detained in slavery.[34]

[34] Robertson, History of Charles the Fifth. Book V.

The apparent generosity of this undertaking, the magnificence with which it was conducted, and the success with which it was crowned drew to the Emperor the homage of his age beyond any other event of his reign. Twenty thousand slaves freed by treaty or by arms diffused through Europe the praise of his name. It is probable that in this expedition the Emperor was governed by motives little higher than vulgar ambition and fame; but the results by which it was emblazoned, in the emancipation of so many fellow-Christians from cruel chains, place him, with Cardinal Ximenes, among the earliest Abolitionists of modern times.

This was in 1535. Only a few short years before, in 1517, he conceded to a Flemish courtier the exclusive privilege of importing into the West Indies four thousand blacks from Africa. It is said that Charles lived long enough to repent what he had thus inconsiderately done.[35] Certain it is, no single concession of king or emperor recorded in history has produced such disastrous far-reaching consequences. The Fleming sold his monopoly to a company of Genoese merchants, who organized a systematic traffic in slaves between Africa and America. Thus, while levying a mighty force to check the piracies of Barbarossa, and to procure the abolition of Christian slavery in Tunis, the Emperor, with criminal inconsistency, laid the corner-stone of a new slavery, in comparison with which the enormity he warred against was trivial and fugitive.

[35] Clarkson, History of the Abolition of the Slave-Trade, Vol. I.
p. 33.

Elated by the conquest of Tunis, filled also with the ambition of subduing all the Barbary States, and of extirpating Christian slavery, the Emperor in 1541 directed an expedition of singular grandeur against Algiers. The Pope tardily joined his influence to the martial array. But Nature proved stronger than Pope and Emperor. Within sight of Algiers a sudden storm shattered his proud fleet, and he was driven back to Spain, discomfited, with none of those trophies of emancipation with which his former expedition was crowned.[36]

[36] Robertson's Charles the Fifth, Book VI. A lamentable and
piteous Treatise, verye necessarye for euerie Christen Manne to
reade, wherin is contayned, not onely the high Entreprise and
Valeauntnes of Themperour Charles the v. and his Army (in his
Voyage made to the Towne of Argier in Affrique, etc.) Truly and
dylygently translated out of Latyn into Frenche, and out of Frenche
into English, 1542: Harleian Miscellany, Vol. IV. p. 504.

The power of the Barbary States was now at its height. Their corsairs became the scourge of Christendom, while their much dreaded system of slavery assumed a front of new terror. Their ravages were not confined to the Mediterranean. They entered the ocean, and penetrated even to the Straits of Dover and St. George's Channel. From the chalky cliffs of England, and from the remote western coasts of Ireland, unsuspecting inhabitants were swept into cruel captivity.[37] The English government was aroused against these atrocities. In 1620, a fleet of eighteen ships, under the command of Sir Robert Mansel, Vice-Admiral, was despatched to punish Algiers. It returned without being able, in the language of the times, to "destroy those hellish pirates," though it obtained the liberation of "some forty poore captives, which they pretended was all they had in the towne." Purchas records, that the English fleet was indebted for information to "a Christian captive, which did swimme from the towne to the ships."[38] Not in this respect only does this expedition recall that of Charles the Fifth, which received important assistance from rebel slaves; we observe also a similar inconsistency in the government which directed it. It was in the year 1620,--dear to all the descendants of the Pilgrims of Plymouth Rock as an epoch of freedom,--while an English fleet was seeking the emancipation of Englishmen held in bondage by Algiers, that African slaves were first introduced into the English colonies of North America,[39] thus beginning that dreadful system whose long catalogue of humiliation and woes is not yet complete.

[37] Guizot, Histoire de la Révolution d'Angleterre, Liv. II. Tom.
I. p. 78. Strafford's Letters and Dispatches, Vol. I. p. 68. Sir
George Radcliffe, the friend and biographer of the Earl, boasts
that the latter "secured the seas from piracies, so as only one
ship was lost at his first coming [as Lord Lieutenant to Ireland],
and no more all his time; whereas every year before, not only
several ships and goods were lost by robbery at sea, but also
Turkish men-of-war usually landed and _took prey of men to be made
slaves_."--Ibid., Vol. II. p. 434.

[38] Purchas's Pilgrims, Vol. II. pp. 881-886. Southey, Naval
History of England, Vol. V. pp. 60-63. There was a publication
specially relating to this expedition, entitled "Algiers Voyage, in
a Journall, or briefe Reportary of all Occurrents hapning in the
Fleet of Ships sent out by the Kinge his most excellent Majestie,
as well against the Pirates of Algiers as others," London, 1621,
4to.

[39] Bancroft, History of the United States, Vol. I. p. 189.

The expedition against Algiers was followed, in 1637, by another against Sallee, in Morocco. Terrified by its approach, the Moors desperately transferred a thousand captives, British subjects, to Tunis and Algiers. "Some Christians that were slaves ashore, who stole away out of the town and came swimming aboard," together with intestine feud, aided the fleet, and the cause of emancipation speedily triumphed.[40] Two hundred and ninety Britons were released, and a promise was extorted from the enemy to redeem the wretched captives sold away to Tunis and Algiers. Shortly afterwards an ambassador from the King of Morocco visited England, and on his way through the streets of London to his audience at court was attended by "four Barbary horses led along in rich caparisons, and richer saddles, with bridles set with stones; also some hawks; _many of the captives whom he brought over going along afoot clad in white_."[41] Every emancipated slave was a grateful witness to English prowess.

[40] Journal of the Sallee Fleet: Osborne's Voyages, Vol. II. p.
493. See also Mrs. Macaulay's History of England, Chap. IV. Vol.
II. p. 219.

[41] Strafford's Letters and Despatches, Vol. II. pp. 86, 116, 129.

The importance attached to this achievement is inferred from the singular joy with which it was hailed in England. Though on a limited scale, it was nothing less than _a war of liberation_. Poet, ecclesiastic, and statesman now joined in congratulation. It inspired the Muse of Waller to a poem called "The Taking of Sallee," where the submission of the slaveholder is thus described:--

"Hither he sends the chief among his peers,
Who in his bark proportioned presents bears
To the renowned for piety and force,
_Poor captives manumised_, and matchless horse."

It gladdened Laud, and lighted with exultation the dark mind of Strafford. "For Sallee, the town is taken," said the Archbishop in a letter to the Earl, then in Ireland, "and all the captives at Sallee and Morocco delivered,--_as many, our merchants say, as, according to the price_ _of the market, come to ten thousand pounds at least_."[42] Strafford saw in the popularity of this triumph fresh opportunity to commend the tyrannical designs of Charles the First. "This action of Sallee," he wrote in reply to the Archbishop, "I assure you, is full of honor, will bring great content to the subject, and should, methinks, _help much towards the ready, cheerful payment of the shipping moneys_."[43] Thus was this act of emancipation linked with one of the most memorable events of English history.

[42] Strafford's Letters and Despatches, Vol. II. p. 131.

[43] Ibid., p. 138.

The coasts of England were now protected; but her subjects at sea continued the prey of Algerine corsairs, who, according to the historian Carte, now "carried their English captives to France, _drove them in chains overland to Marseille, to ship them thence with greater safety for slaves to Algiers_."[44] The increasing troubles which distracted the reign of Charles the First, and finally brought his head to the block, could not divert attention from the sorrows of Englishmen, victims to Mahometan slave-drivers. At the height of the struggle between King and Parliament, an earnest voice was raised in behalf of these fellow-Christians in bonds. Edmund Waller, who was orator as well as poet, speaking in Parliament in 1641, said, "By the many petitions which we receive from the wives of those miserable captives at Algiers (being between four or five thousand of our countrymen) it does too evidently appear that to make us slaves at home is not the way to keep us from being made slaves abroad."[45]

[44] History of England, Book XXII. Vol. IV. p. 231.

[45] Works, p. 270.

Publications pleading their cause are yet extant, bearing date 1637, 1640, 1642, and 1647.[46] The overthrow of an oppression so justly odious formed a worthy object for the imperial energies of Cromwell; and in 1655, when, amidst the amazement of Europe, the English sovereignty settled upon his Atlantean shoulders, he directed into the Mediterranean a navy of thirty ships, under the command of Admiral Blake. This was the most powerful English force which had sailed into that sea since the Crusades.[47] Its success was complete. "General Blak," said one of the foreign agents of Government, "has ratifyed the articles of peace at Argier, and included therein Scotch, Irish, Jarnsey and Garnsey-men, and all others the Protector's subjects. He has lykewys redeemed from thence al such as wer captives ther. _Several Duch captives swam aboard the fleet, and so escape theyr captivity._"[48] Tunis, as well as Algiers, was humbled; all British captives were set at liberty; and the Protector, in his remarkable speech at the opening of Parliament, announced peace with the "profane" nations in that region.[49] To my mind no single circumstance gives higher impression of that vigilance with which the Protector guarded his subjects than this effort, to which may be applied the "smooth" line of Waller,--

"telling dreadful news
To all that piracy and rapine use."[50]

[46] Compassion towards Captives: urged and pressed in Three
Sermons on Heb. xiii. 3, by Charles Fitz-Geffry, Oxford, 1637.
Libertas, or Reliefe to the English Captives in Algier, by Henry
Robinson, London, 1642. Letters relating to the Redemption of
the Captives in Argier and Tunis, by Edmond Cason, London, 1647.
A Relation of Seven Years Slavery under the Turks of Algier,
suffered by an English Captive Merchant, etc., together with a
Description of the Sufferings of the Miserable Captives under that
Merciless Tyranny, etc., by Francis Knight, London, 1640. The last
publication is preserved in the Collection of Voyages and Travels
by Osborne, Vol. II. pp. 465-489.

[47] Hume says, "No English fleet, except during the Crusades, _had
ever before sailed in those seas_." (History of England, Chap. LXI.
Vol. VII. p. 529.) He forgot the expedition of Sir Robert Mansel,
already mentioned (_ante_, p. 408), which was elaborately debated
in the Privy Council as early as 1617, three years before it was
finally undertaken, and was the subject of a special work. See
Southey's Naval History of England, Vol. V. pp. 149-157.

[48] Thurloe's State Papers, Vol. III. p. 527.

[49] Carlyle's Letters and Speeches of Cromwell, Part IX. Speech V.
Vol. II. p. 235.

[50] Panegyric to my Lord Protector, st. 9.

His vigorous sway was succeeded by the voluptuous tyranny of Charles the Second, inaugurated by an unsuccessful expedition against Algiers under Lord Sandwich. This was soon followed by another, with more favorable result, under Admiral Lawson.[51] Then came a treaty, bearing date May 3, 1662, by which the piratical government stipulated, "that all subjects of the king of Great Britain, now slaves in Algiers, or any of the territories thereof, shall be set at liberty, and released, upon paying the price they were first sold for in the market; and for the time to come no subjects of His Majesty shall be bought or sold, or made slaves of, in Algiers or its territories."[52] This seems to have been short-lived. Other expeditions ensued, and other treaties in 1664, 1672, 1682, and 1686,--showing, by their constant iteration, the little impression produced upon these barbarians.[53] Insensible to justice and freedom, how could they be faithful to stipulations in restraint of robbery and slaveholding?

[51] Rapin, History of England, Book XXIII. Vol. II. pp. 858, 864.

[52] Recueil des Traitez de Paix, Tom. IV. p. 43.

[53] Ibid., pp. 307, 476, 703, 756.

Legislation turned aside in behalf of these captives. The famous statute of the forty-third year of Queen Elizabeth for charitable uses designates among proper objects the "relief or redemption of prisoners or captives," meaning especially, according to recent judicial decision, those suffering in the Barbary States. A bequest by Lady Mico, in 1670, "to redeem poor slaves in what manner the executors should think convenient," came under review as late as 1835, when slavery in the Barbary States was already dead, and the British Act of Emancipation had commenced its operation in the West Indies; but the court sanctioned the application of the fund to the education of the Africans whose freedom was then beginning.[54] Thus was a charity originally inspired by sympathy for white slaves applied to the benefit of black.

[54] Attorney-General _v._ Gibson, 2 Beav. R. 317, note.

During a long succession of years, complaints of English captives continued. In 1748 an indignant soul found expression in these words:--

"O, how can Britain's sons regardless hear
The prayers, sighs, groans (immortal infamy!)
Of fellow-Britons, with oppression sunk,
In bitterness of soul demanding aid,
Calling on Britain, their dear native land,
The land of liberty?"[55]

But during all this time the slavery of blacks, transported to the colonies under British colors, continued also!

Meanwhile France plied Algiers with embassies and bombardments. In 1635 three hundred and forty-seven Frenchmen were captives there. M. de Samson was dispatched on an unsuccessful mission for their liberation. They were offered to him "for the price they were sold for in the market"; but this he refused to pay.[56]

[55] The Gentleman's Magazine, Vol. XVIII. p. 531.