Chapter XXVI: The Future of Chemical Warfare

The pioneer, no matter what the line of endeavor, encounters difficulties caused by his fellow-men just in proportion as the thing pioneered promises results. If the promise be small, the difficulties usually encountered are only those necessary to make the venture a success. If, however, the results promise to be great, and especially if the rewards to the inventor and those working with him promise to be considerable, the difficulties thrown in the way of the venture become greater and greater. Indeed whenever great results are promised, envy is engendered in those in other lines whose importance may be diminished, or who are so short-sighted as to be always opposed to progress.

Chemical warfare has had, and is still having, its full share of these difficulties. From the very day when chlorine, known to the world as a benign substance highly useful in sanitation, water purification, gold mining and bleaching was put into use as a poisonous gas, chemical warfare has loomed larger and larger as a factor to be considered in all future wars. Chlorine was first used in the cylinders designed for shipping it. These cylinders were poorly adapted for warfare, and made methods of preparing gas attacks extremely laborious, cumbersome and time-consuming.

It was not many months, however, until different gases began to appear in large quantities in shells and bombs, while the close of the war, 3½ years later, saw the development of gas in solid form whereby it could be carried with the utmost safety under all conditions—a solid which could become dangerous only when the heating mixture, that freed the gas, was properly ignited.

While some of the chemicals developed for use in war prior to the Armistice have been made known to the world, a number of others have not. More than this, every nation of first class importance has continued to pursue more or less energetically studies into chemical warfare. These studies will continue, and we must expect that new gases, new methods of turning them loose, and new tactical uses will be developed.

Already it is clearly foreseen that these gases will be used by every branch of the Army and the Navy. While chemicals were not used by the Air Service in the last war, it was even then realized that there was no material reason why they should not have been so used. That they will be used in the future by the Air Service, and probably on a large scale, is certain. The Navy, too, will use gases, and probably on a considerable scale. Thus chemical materials as such become the most universal of all weapons of war.

Some of the poisonous gases are so powerful in minute quantities and evaporate so slowly that their liberation does not produce sufficient condensation to cause a cloud. Consequently, we have gases that cannot be seen. Others form clouds by themselves, such, for instance, as the toxic smoke candle, where the solid is driven off by heating, while still others cause clouds of condensed vapor. This brings the discussion into the realm of ordinary smokes that have no irritating and no poisonous effects.

These smokes are extremely valuable where the purpose is to form a screen, whether it be to hide the advance of troops or to cut off the view of observers. These smokes are equally useful on land and on sea. So great is the decrease in efficiency of the rifle or machine gun, and of artillery even when firing at troops that cannot be seen, that smoke for screening purposes will be used on every future field of battle. When firing through a screen of smoke, a man has certainly less than one-quarter the chance to hit his target that he would have were the target in plain view. Since smoke clouds may or may not be poisonous and since smoke will be used in every battle, there is opened up an unlimited field for the exercise of ingenuity in making these smoke clouds poisonous or non-poisonous at will. It also opens up an unlimited field for the well-trained chemical warfare officer who can tell in any smoke cloud whether gas be present and whether, if present, it is in sufficient concentration to be dangerous.

At the risk of repetition, it is again stated that there is no gas that will kill or even permanently injure in any quantity that cannot be detected. For every gas, there is a certain minimum amount in each cubic foot of air that is necessary to cause any injury. In nearly all gases, this minimum amount is sufficient to be readily noticeable by a trained chemical warfare officer through the sense of smell.

It would be idle to attempt to enumerate the ways and means by which chemicals will be used in the future. In fact, one can hardly conceive of a situation where gas or smoke will not be employed, for these materials may be liquids or solids that either automatically, upon exposure to the air, turn into gas, or which are pulverized by high explosive, or driven off by heat. This varied character of the materials enables them to be used in every sort of artillery shell, bomb or other container carried to the field of battle.

Some of the gases are extremely powerful as irritants to the nose and throat in very minute quantities, while at the same time being highly poisonous in high concentrations. Diphenylchloroarsine, used extensively by the Germans in high explosive shell, is more poisonous than phosgene, the most deadly gas in general use in the past war. In addition, it has the quality of causing an intolerable burning sensation in the nose, throat, and lungs, in extremely minute quantities. This material can be kept out of masks only by filters, whereas true gases are taken out by charcoal and chemical granules.

There is still another quality which helps make chemical warfare the most powerful weapon of war. Gas is the only substance used in war which can be counted on to do its work as efficiently at night as in the daytime. Indeed, it is often more effective at night than in the daytime, because the man who goes to sleep without his mask on, who is careless, who loses his mask, or who becomes excited in the darkness of night, becomes a casualty, and the past war showed that these casualties were decidedly numerous even when the troops knew almost to the minute the time the gas would arrive.

Accordingly, chemical warfare is an agency that must not only be reckoned with by every civilized nation in the future, but is one which civilized nations should not hesitate to use. When properly safe-guarded with masks and other safety devices, it gives to the most scientific and most ingenious people a great advantage over the less scientific and less ingenious. Then why should the United States or any other highly civilized country consider giving up chemical warfare? To say that its use against savages is not a fair method of fighting, because the savages are not equipped with it, is arrant nonsense. No nation considers such things today. If they had, our American troops, when fighting the Moros in the Philippine Islands, would have had to wear the breechclout and use only swords and spears.

Notwithstanding the opposition of certain people who, through ignorance or for other reasons, have fought it, chemical warfare has come to stay, and just in proportion as the United States gives chemical warfare its proper place in its military establishment, just in that proportion will the United States be ready to meet any or all comers in the future, for the United States has incomparable resources in the shape of the crude materials—power, salt, sulfur and the like—that are necessary in the manufacture of gases.

If, then, there be developed industries for manufacturing these gases in time of war, and if the training of the army in chemical warfare be thorough and extensive, the United States will have more than an equal chance with any other nation or combination of nations in any future war.

It is just as sportsman-like to fight with chemical warfare materials as it is to fight with machine guns. The enemy will know more or less accurately our chemical warfare materials and our methods, and we will have the same information about the enemy. It is thus a matching of wits just as much as in the days when the Knights of the Round Table fought with swords or with spears on horseback. The American is a pure sportsman and asks odds of no man. He does ask, though, that he be given a square deal. He is unwilling to agree not to use a powerful weapon of war when he knows that an outlaw nation would use it against him if that outlaw nation could achieve success by so doing. How much better it is to say to the world that we are going to use chemical warfare to the greatest extent possible in any future struggle. In announcing that we would repeat as always that we are making these preparations only for defense, and who is there who dares question our right to do so?

INDEX

Absorbents, Requirements of, 237
Testing, 259
Absorptive activity, 237
Absorptive capacity, 238
Aeroplane, Smoke screen, 309
American Tissot mask, 224
Ammonia canister, 230
Ammonium chloride smoke, 327
Animals, Susceptibility to mustard gas, 173
Anthracite coal, Activation of, 249
A. R. S. mask, 203
Arsenic derivatives, 180
Arsenic trichloride, Manufacture, 180
Arsenic trifluoride, Manufacture, 180
Arsine, proposed use of, 180
Artillery, Gas, use of, by, 396
Aviation, Gas, use of, by, 380, 399

Baby Incendiary bomb, 340
Barrages, Gas, use of, in, 376
Benzyl bromide, 16, 141
Benzyl chloride, 16
Berger mixture, 290
Black signal smokes, 331
Black veiling respirator, 195
Blue cross. _See_ Diphenylchloroarsine
Blue pencil, German, 346
Bombs, incendiary, 337
Box respirator, American, 209
English, 198
Break point of canisters, 262
Bromoacetone, 16, 138
German manufacture, 140
Bromobenzyl cyanide, 16, 142
Bromomethylethyl ketone, German manufacture, 140
Bullets, incendiary, 344

Camouflage gases, 23, 416
Canister, life of, Gas concentration and, 132
Temperature, effect of, 132
Testing, 260
Carbon dioxide, Manufacture, 129
Carbonite, 250
Carbon monoxide, 190
Canister, 191
Manufacture, 128
Cavalry, Gas, use of, by, 378
Cement, Soda-lime, function in, 257
Charcoal, 239
Active, 242
German, 251
Inactive, 242
Manufacture, 242
Raw material, 239
Substitutes, 249
Tests of, 253
Theory of action, 241
Chemical Service Section, Organization, 34
Chemical Warfare, Future of, 435
Gases used in, 24
Historical, 1
Officers, duties of, 369
Strategy, relation to, 363
Chemical Warfare Service, Administrative division, 36
A. E. F., organization, 72
Development division, 61
Edgewood arsenal, 53
Gas defense division, 48
Liaison officers, 70
Medical division, 68
Organization, 35
Proving division, 63
Research division, 38
Training division, 65
Chemical Warfare troops, 92
Chenard bomb, 340
Chlorine, 116
Manufacture, 117
Properties, 123
Chloroacetone, 16
Chloroacetophenone, 16
Chloromethyl chloroformate, 21
Chloropicrin, 21
Manufacture, 145
Physiological test, 146
Properties, 146
Protection, 147
Tactical use, 148
Chlorovinyldichloroarsine, 188
Chlorosulfonic acid, Smoke material, use as, 286
Cloud gas, 10, 116, 390
Coalite, 250
Cocoanut shell charcoal, 239
Cohune nut charcoal, 240
Complexene, 201
Horse masks, use in, 278
Cottrell Precipitation Tube, 299

Darts, incendiary, 343
Density of smoke clouds, 295
Development Division, C. W. S., 61
Dichloroethyl sulfide, 22, 80, 105
Detection, 166
Historical, 151
Manufacture, 152, 161
Mixtures, melting point of, 164
Properties, 163
Tactical use, 175, 417
Toxicity, 168
Vesicant action, 171
β, β′-Dichlorodivinylchloroarsine, 189
Dihydroxyethyl sulfide, 160
Diphenylchloroarsine, 22, 182
Manufacture, 183
Diphenylcyanoarsine, 185
Diphosgene. _See_ Trichloromethyl chloroformate
Dog mask, 280
Doughnut filter, 324
Dressler tunnel kiln, 248
D-Shell, 134
Dugout blankets, 283
Dyes for signal smokes, 333

Edgewood arsenal, C. W. S., 53
Efficiency test, Absorbents, 259
Canisters, 262
Ethyldichloroarsine, 185
Ethylene, Manufacture of, 155, 158
Ethylene chlorhydrin, 158
Ethyl iodoacetate, 16, 141
Explosive dispersion, 314

“First gas attack,” 10
First gas regiment, 93
Flammenwerfer, 349
Flaming gun, 347, 401
Food, protection of, against mustard gas, 422
French artillery mask, 202

Gas, Defense against, 405
Effectiveness of, 375, 385
Humanity of, 13, 370, 387
Offensive use of, 385
Permanency of, 378
Requirements of, 116, 395
Gas alarms, 422
Gas cloud, height and spread, 394
Smoke in, 311, 403
Gas cylinder, Mobile, 17
Gas defense division, C. W. S., 48
Gases, Detection of, 415
Peace uses of, 427
Pharmacology, 353
Gas and Flame Regiment, 34
Gas mask, Development, 195
Physiological features, 232
Testing, 259
_See also_ names of various masks
Gas shell, Markings, 28, 404
Value, 18, 396
Gassing chamber, 354
Gas training, 413
In France, 81
Value in peace, 373, 383
Gas warfare, Fundamentals, 388
Humanity, 13, 370, 387
German mask, 205
Greasene, 201
Green Cross shell, 148
Green T-Stoff, 142

Hand grenade, incendiary, 345
Hanlon field, 111
Hardness, Absorbents, test of, 259
Hague conference, Poison gases, action on, 6
Homomartonite, 16, 138
Hopcalite, Carbon monoxide absorbent, 193
Horse boots, 280
Horse mask, 277
Humanity, Gas warfare, 13, 370, 387
Hypo helmet, 196

Incendiary materials, 336
Tactical use of, 402
Infantry, Gas, use of, by, 377, 400
Intelligence section, 113
Inter-allied gas conference, 79
Irritants, Efficiency of, 389
Testing, 359
Ivory nut charcoal, 241

Kieselguhr, Soda-lime, function in, 257
Kupramite, 230

Lachrymators, 15, 137
Comparative value, 143
Protection, 143
Testing, 356

Lachrymatory shell, Tactical value, 15
Lamp-black, Charcoal from, 250
Lantern test, Mustard gas, 166
Leak detecting apparatus, 266
Leakage, Canister, testing of, 261
Levinstein reactor, 158
Lewisite, 23, 187
Liaison officers, 70
Lime, Soda-lime, function in, 257
Livens’ projector, 18, 391
Livens’ smoke drum, 304

M-2 Mask, 201
Man test, 262
Martonite, 16, 138
Mask, Development, 405
Disinfection, 269
Field tests, 270
Issuance, 423
_See also_ Gas mask
_See also_ Names of masks
Mechanical dispersion, 313
Medical division, C. W. S., 68
Medical section, A. E. F., 114
Methyldichloroarsine, 181
Moisture, Absorbents, tests of, 259
Mustard gas. _See_ Dichloroethyl sulfide.

Navy, Canister, 230
Gas, use of, by, 381
Smoke funnel, 305
Nelson cell, 117
“Nineteen nineteen” canister, 325
“Nineteen nineteen” Model American Mask, 225

Odors, Testing of, 358
Oleum, Smoke material, use as, 286
Overall suit, 273

Palite. _See_ Chloromethyl chloroformate
Penetration apparatus, Toxic smoke, measurement of, 315
P-Helmet, 197
PH Helmet, 197
Phosgene, 14, 126
Manufacture, 127
Properties, 130
Protection, 131
Shell filling, 132
Tactical use, 134
Phosphorus, Smoke material, 286, 382
Stokes’ mortar, use in, 393
_See also_ Smoke
Physiological action, Phosgene, 135
Mustard gas, 168
Toxic Smokes, 316
Pressure drop apparatus, 266
Protective clothing, 272
Protective gloves, 274
Protective ointments, 275
Proving division, C. W. S., 63
Pumice stone, Phosgene shell, use in, 130, 135

Research division, C. W. S., 38
Resistance, Canister, test of, 261
Decreased, 410
Respirator, _See_ Gas mask, Mask

Sag paste, 277
Screening smokes, 285
_See also_ Smoke
Screening power, Smoke cloud, 285
Selenious acid, Mustard gas detector, 166
Shell, Gas, Filling of, 132
Value, 18, 396
Incendiary, 344
Markings, 28, 404
Pumice stone and phosgene in, 130, 135
Smoke, 303
Ships, Screening Smoke, 299, 305
Shrapnel, Gas in connection with, 379
Signal smokes, 330
Tactics, 333
Silicon tetrachloride, Smoke material, use as, 290
Smoke, Intensity, measurement of, 296
Tactical value, 310, 402
Use in offense, 401
_See also_, Screening, Signal and Toxic Smokes
Smoke box, 299
Smoke candle, 301, 372
Toxic, 318
Smoke cloud, Properties, 116, 285, 395
Smoke drum, 304
Smoke filters, 322
Felt, 324
Paper, 323
Testing, 327
Theory, 326
Smoke funnel, 305
Smoke grenade, 302
Smoke knapsack, 306
Smoke particles, Measurement of, 292
Size of, 291
Smoke screen, Purpose of, 309
Smoke shell, 303, 307
Smoke signals, 333
Sneezing gas. _See_ Diphenylchloroarsine
Soda-lime, Composition, 256
Requirements, 255
Sodium hydroxide, Soda-lime, function in, 257
Sodium permanganate, Soda-lime, function in, 257
“Solid oil”, 336
Spray nozzles, 357
Staff troops, C. W. S., 92
Standard Box respirator, 198
Stokes’ mortar, 20, 392
Sulfur chloride, Manufacture, 157
Sulfuric acid smoke, 328
Sulfur trioxide, Smoke material, use as, 289
Superpalite. _See_ Trichloromethyl chloroformate

Tactical use, Chloropicrin, 148
Dichloroethyl sulfide, 175, 417
Gases in offense, 385
Incendiary materials, 402
Lachrymatory shell, 15
Phosgene, 134
Screening smokes, 310, 402
Signal smokes, 333
Tactics, Chemical Warfare and, 363
Tanks, Smoke screen for, 309
Thermal dispersion, 313
Thermit, Uses, 393
Tin tetrachloride, Smoke material, use as, 289
Tissot mask, 202
Titanium tetrachloride, Smoke material, use as, 290
Tobacco smoke, 328
Total obscuring power of smoke, 295
Touch method, Irritants, testing of, 362
Toxicity, Gases, testing of, for, 353
Toxic smoke, 313
Candle, B. M., 319
Candle, Dispersoid, 320
Penetration, 314
Quantitative relationship, 316
Training division, C. W. S., 65
Trench mortar, 20, 392
Trichloromethyl chloroformate, 20
Trichloronitromethane. _See_ Chloropicrin
β, β′, β″-Trichlorotrivinylarsine, 189
T-Stoff, 141
Tyndall meter, 299

Ultramicroscope, Smoke particles, measurements of, 292

Vapor tests, Irritants, testing of, 359
Versatility of absorbents, 238
Vincennite, 15, 180
Vision chart, 271
“Vomiting gas.” _See_ Chloropicrin

War gas. _See_ Gases
War, humanity of, 6
Wave attack, Disadvantages, 16

Xylyl bromide, 16, 141

Yellow cross. _See_ Dichloroethyl sulfide
Yellow smoke, 331
Yperite. _See_ Dichloroethyl sulfide