Chapter VIII: Conclusion

This brief survey has shown how the distinctive features of China's artistic activity were distributed. Though subjected to varying influences, this evolution possesses a unity which is quite as complete as is that of our Western art. In the beginning there were studies, of which we know only through written records. But the relationship existing between writing and painting from the dawn of historic time, permits us to carry our studies of primitive periods very far back, even earlier than the times of the sculptured works. We thus witness the gradual development of that philosophical ideal which has dominated the entire history of Chinese painting, forcing it to search for abstract form, and which averted for so long the advent of triviality and decadence.

The goal sought by Chinese thought had already been reached in painting when, in the third and fourth centuries, we are vouchsafed a glimpse of it. It is a vision of a high order, in which the subtle intellectuality corresponds to a society of refinement whose desires have already assumed extreme proportions. Like Byzantium, heir to Hellenistic art, the China of the Han dynasty and of Ku K'ai-chih was already progressing toward bold conventions and soft harmonies, in which could be felt both the pride of an intelligence which imposed its will upon Nature, and the weariness following its sustained effort.

This refinement, arising from the exhaustion of a world which even thus retained a certain primitive ruggedness, was succeeded by a stupendous movement which followed in the wake of the preaching of Buddhism. With the new gods we see the first appearance of definite and long-continued foreign influences. Civilization was transformed and took on new life. Then, as in the days of the great forerunners of the Florentine Renaissance, there appeared a whole group of artists, prepared by the art, at once crude and refined, of an earlier people. This group set resolutely to work at the close study of forms, ascertaining the laws of their structure and the conditions of the environment which produced them. The period in which the work of Li Ss[)u]-hsuen, Li Chao-tao and Wang Wei was produced may be likened to the fifteenth century in Florence with Pisanello, Verocchio, Ghirlandajo and Masaccio. Similar conditions gave birth to a movement that is directly comparable with the Italian movement for, no matter how varied the outward appearances due to differences of race and civilization, the fundamentals of art are the same everywhere and pertain to the same mental attitudes.

The great leaders in periods preceding the T'ang dynasty paved the way to the culmination which took place in the Sung period, and thus the fruit of that prolonged activity is seen ripening between the tenth and the thirteenth centuries. Through the gropings of the primitive period, the heterodox philosophies and the mystic stirrings of Buddhism, Eastern thought had arrived at an unquestionably noble comprehension of existence. The impersonal mystery of the universe, its mighty principle, its manifold manifestations and the secret which unveils itself in the innermost soul of things are the conceptions which form the inspiration of Chinese painting. These lofty thoughts are the source of that spirituality which declares itself therein with such nobility. The religion to which they are due will seem perhaps, to certain people, to be broader and less trammeled than our own. There is no doubt that the entire Far East was under the spell of its grandeur.

Up to this point art had sounded every depth and attained the highest summits of human achievement. Thenceforward it concerned itself with varying manifestations which were only the different modes of a formula that was still flexible, until the time when--the great inspirations of the past forgotten--there appear signs of a spirit on the quest for realism, emerging from the ancient tradition. This is the distinctive note in the evolution of Chinese painting under the last two dynasties. It would seem as if, even in this guise, a universal need of the mind is being satisfied, a need which we, too, have known after experiencing a chilling academicism, and when modern culture had overthrown the ancient idols. Chinese painters have thus completed a round analogous to that traveled by our own artists.

For the Far East as for Europe, the problem now presented is that of a revival. Bent beneath the weight of the prestige of the past, too learned in the last word of culture, modern art is seeking to find itself, groping blindly, full of promising but unfinished works. The time has come when there are signs throughout the world of a desire for a universal civilization, by the reconciling of ancient divergencies. Europe and the Far East bring into contrast the most vigorous traditions in history. Henceforward there is interest for both civilizations in studying and in coming to understand a foreign ideal. Though incomplete, these pages will perhaps help to show that such a mutual comprehension is not impossible and that, if egotistic prejudices are overcome, apparent dissimilarities will be resolved into a profound identity. Thus will arise the elements of a new culture. In coming to understand a mood which so fully reflects an unknown world, the European mind will discover principles which will make it rise superior to itself. May this broad comprehension of human thought lead Europe to estimate with greater justice a civilization numbering its years by thousands, and to refrain from thwarting the fulfillment of its destiny.

* * * * *

BIBLIOGRAPHY

An Introduction to the Study of Chinese Pictorial Art. Herbert A.
Giles, M.A., LL.D., Professor of Chinese in the University of
Cambridge. Second Edition, revised and enlarged. London, Bernard
Quaritch. 1918.

Painting in the Far East. Laurence Binyon. Second Edition, revised.
London, Edward Arnold. 1913.

The Flight of the Dragon. Laurence Binyon. Wisdom of the East Series.
London, John Murray. 1911.

Epochs of Chinese and Japanese Art. Ernest F. Fenollosa. 2 volumes. F.
A. Stokes and Co., New York. 1912.

Scraps from a Collector's Note Book. F. Hirth. Leiden, New York. 1905.

Chinese Art. Stephen W. Bushell, C.M.G., B.Sc., M.D. Victoria and
Albert Museum Handbook. 2 volumes. London. 1910.

Chinese Painting. Mrs. Francis Ayscough. The _Mentor_ of Dec. 2, 1918,
Serial No. 168. New York.

* * * * *

INDEX OF PAINTERS AND PERIODS

The following summary furnishes additional information regarding the painters to whom reference has been made. Those to whom the subject is not familiar will find this of assistance in placing in their proper historical order the different trends which have been indicated elsewhere. They will also find dates useful in comparing, if so desired, the artistic evolution of China with that of Europe. This, however, is only an outline. The names of some great masters are omitted, for I have no wish to overload the margin of a statement which should be kept clear and convenient of access. I trust nevertheless that these few notes in concise form will be of use in connection with the preceding text.

I. BEFORE THE INTERVENTION OF BUDDHISM

The _Bas-reliefs_ of the second Han dynasty belong to the second and
third centuries of the Christian era.

_Ku K'ai-chih_, also called _Chang-k'ang_ and _Hu-tou_, was born in
Wu-hsi in the province of Kiang-su. He lived at the end of the
fourth and beginning of the fifth century. His style, resembling
that of the Han period, informs us as to the character of painting
from the second to the fifth century. It is such as to indicate a
long antecedent period of cultivation and development.

_Hsieh Ho_ (479-502), painter of the figure. He wrote a small book
setting forth the Six Canons or Requirements of painting. This work
informs us regarding the philosophy of art in China of the fifth
century.

II. THE INTERVENTION OF BUDDHISM

It is difficult to set an exact date for the first contact of Buddhist with Chinese art. It may be assumed that the influence of Buddhist art began to be felt noticeably in China in the fifth century. In the seventh and eighth centuries it was so widespread as to be definitely established.

III. THE T'ANG DYNASTY

A.D. 618-905

_Wu Tao-tz[)u]_, also called _Wu Tao-yuean_. Born in Honan toward the
end of the eighth century. His influence was felt in Japanese art
as well as in that of China. He painted landscape, figures and
Buddhist subjects.

_Li Ss[)u]-hsuen_ (651-715 or 720) is considered as the founder of the
Northern School. He appears to have felt the influence which
Buddhist art brought in its train.

_Li Chao-tao_, son of Li Ss[)u]-hsuen, lived at the end of the seventh
and beginning of the eighth centuries. He is said to have varied
from his father's style and even surpassed it.

_Wang Wei_, also called _Wang Mo-k'i_ (699-759), poet, painter and
critic. The great reformer of Chinese landscape painting.
Considered as the founder of the Southern School and the originator
of monochrome painting in Chinese ink.

_Han Kan_, renowned in the period _t'ien-pao_ (742-759). According to
tradition he was a pupil of Wang Wei. His school possessed in the
highest degree knowledge of the form, characteristics and movements
of the horse.

IV. THE SUNG DYNASTY

A.D. 960-1260

_Tung Yuean._ Tenth century. Landscape painter. He worked in both the
Northern and Southern styles.

_Chue Jan_, Buddhist monk. Tenth century. He was at first influenced by
the work of Tung Yuean, but later created an individual style.

_Ma Yuean._ End of the twelfth and beginning of the thirteenth century.
Member of the Academy of Painting. He was the author of a strong
and vigorous style which characterized the school founded by him.

_Hsia Kuei_ served in the college at Han-Lin in the reign of the
Emperor Ning Tsung (1195-1224). He was considered a master of
chiaroscuro and atmospheric perspective.

_Ma Lin_, son of Ma Yuean. Thirteenth century. His work shows that he
painted even more in the tradition of the Southern School than his
father and uncle.

_Li Lung-mien_ or _Li Kung-lin_. Born at Chou in Ngan-huei. He held
public offices, which he resigned in 1100 to retire to the mountain
of Lung-mien, where he died in 1106. Noted for his calligraphy as
well as for his painting. At one time in his life, under religious
influences, he painted a great number of Buddhist figures.

_Mi Fei_ or _Mi Yuean-chang_ or _Mi Nan-kung_ (1051-1107).
Calligraphist, painter and critic. He used strong inking in a style
in which the simplification of monochrome is carried to the
extreme. He had a son, _Mi Yu-Jen_, who painted in his father's
style and lived to an advanced age.

_Hui Tsung_, emperor, poet, painter and calligraphist. Born in 1082,
ascended the throne in 1100, lost his throne in 1125 and died in
captivity in 1135. In the first year of his reign he founded the
Academy of Calligraphy and Painting. He made a large collection of
valuable paintings and rare objects of art which was scattered at
the plundering of his capital by the Tartars in 1225.

V. YUeAN DYNASTY

A.D. 1260-1368

_Chao Meng-fu_, also called _Ts[)u]-ang_. Born in 1254. Man of
letters, painter and calligraphist. He was a great landscape
painter and in the first rank as a painter of horses.

_Ch'ien Hsuean_, also called _Ch'ien Shun-chue_, lived at the end of the
thirteenth and beginning of the fourteenth century. He painted
figures, landscape, flowers and birds. He employed the style and
methods of the Sung dynasty.

_Yen Hui_ lived in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. His
paintings were numerous and indicate a master of the first order.
He painted many Buddhist and Taoist subjects.

_Huang Kung-wang._ Fourteenth century. At first influenced by the style
of Tung Yuean and Chue Jan, he later acquired an individual style and
was one of the great founders of schools in the Yuean period.

_Ni Tsan_, also called Yuen-lin (1301-1374). Man of letters,
calligraphist, collector of books and paintings. He is considered
to be one of the greatest painters of his time.

VI. THE MING DYNASTY

A.D. 1368-1644

_Chou Chih-mien_ lived in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. His
subjects were principally birds and flowers.

_Shen Chou_, also called _Shen Ki-nan_ or _Shen K'i_ (1427-1507).
Landscape painter. His composition is at times overladen, as is
often seen in Ming art.

_Lu Fu_ lived in the fifteenth century. He made a special study of the
plum tree in monochrome. He is comparable to the great Sung
masters.

_Wang Yuean-chang._ Died in 1407 at the age of 73. He painted the bamboo
and plum tree in monochrome. He carried on the Sung tradition,
with which he was directly connected, and was the founder of a
school.

_Wen Cheng-ming_ (1480-1559), painter, poet and calligraphist. He is
often compared with Chao Meng-fu.

_Ju-sue._ Known only under this appellation. He lived in the fifteenth
century and went to Japan, where his influence was marked.
(Japanese _Josetsu_.)

VII. THE CH'ING DYNASTY

1644-1912

_Yuen Chou-p'ing_, appellation _Nan-t'ien_, true name _Yuen Ko_
(1633-1690). He studied at first under the influence of Wang
Shu-ming and Siu Hi. He painted figures, flowers and landscape.

_Shen Nan-p'ing_ lived in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. He
was called to Japan in 1720 and founded there the school of
Ming-Ch'ing or the modern Chinese school.

_Huang Yin-piau_ or _Huang-shen_. At the height of his career between
1727 and 1746. He painted landscape and, toward the end of his
life, legendary figures of Buddhism and Taoism with a technique
that was skillful but often precise and somewhat weak.