Chapter IV: The Counter-Reformation (17)

§ 133.5. =The Reformation in Westphalia, A.D. 1532-1534.=--In
the Westphalian cities much was accomplished by Luther’s hymns.
Pideritz, priest of =Lamgo=, was a supporter of Eck; but wishing
to see the working of the new views for himself, he went to
Brunswick, and returned to inaugurate the Reformation in his
own city. At =Soest=, the Catholic council condemned to death
a workman who had spoken of it with disrespect. Two blundering
attempts were made upon the scaffold, and the victim at last
was conducted home by the crowd in triumph. He died next day.
The council precipitately fled from the city. And thus in July,
A.D. 1533, Catholicism lost its last prop in that place. In
=Paderborn=, where liberty of preaching had been enjoyed, the
Elector of Cologne (§ 135, 7) had some of the leading Lutherans
imprisoned; and when some on the rack confessed to a treasonable
correspondence with the Landgrave of Hesse, of which they had
been falsely accused, he condemned them to death. But moved
by the request of an old man to share their death, and by
the weeping of the wives and maidens, Hermann spared their
lives. In =Münster=, Luther’s doctrines were preached as early
as A.D. 1531 by Rottmann, and soon the evangelicals won the
ascendency, so that council and clergy left the city. The Bishop
of Waldeck, after an unsuccessful attempt by force of arms, was
obliged in A.D. 1533 to grant unconditional religious freedom.
The neighbouring cities were about to follow the example of
the capital, when a catastrophe occurred which resulted in the
complete restoration of Catholicism.

§ 133.6. =Disturbances at Münster, A.D. 1534, 1535.=--Rottmann
had added to his Zwinglian creed the renunciation of infant
baptism, and prepared the way for Anabaptist excesses. John
of Leyden appeared in A.D. 1534, gained great popularity as
a preacher, and the council was weak enough to grant legal
recognition to the fanatics. Mad enthusiasts flocked into the
city. One of their prophets proclaimed it as God’s will that
unbelievers should be expelled. This was done on 27th February,
A.D. 1534. Seven deacons divided what was left among the
believers. In May the bishop laid siege to the city. This had
the effect of confining the mad disorder to Münster. After the
destruction of all images, organs, and books, with exception
only of the Bible, community of goods was introduced. John of
Leyden got the council set aside as required by his revelations,
and appointed a theocratic government of twelve elders, who
took their inspiration from the prophet. He proclaimed polygamy,
himself taking seventeen wives, while Rottmann contented himself
with four. In vain did the moral conscience of the inhabitants
protest. The objectors were executed. One of his fellow prophets
proclaimed John king of the whole world. He set up a showy
and expensive establishment, and committed the most frightful
abominations. He regarded himself as called to inaugurate the
millennium, sent out twenty-eight apostles to extend his kingdom,
and named twelve dukes who should rule the world under him.
The besiegers made an unsuccessful attempt in August, A.D. 1534,
to storm the city. Had not aid been sent them before the end
of the year from Hesse, Treves, Cleves, Mainz, and Cologne,
they would have been obliged to raise the siege. Even then they
could only think of reducing the city by famine. It was already
in great straits. On St. John’s night, A.D. 1535, a deserter
led the troops to the walls. After a stubborn resistance the
Anabaptists were beaten. Rottmann threw himself into the hottest
of the fight, and there perished. John, with his chief officers,
was taken prisoner, put to death with frightful tortures on
22nd Jan., A.D. 1536, and then hung in chains from St. Lambert’s
tower. Catholicism was thus restored to absolute supremacy.

§ 133.7. =Extension of the Schmalcald league, A.D. 1536.=--A
war with France had broken out in A.D. 1536, which taxed all
the emperor’s resources. Francis I. had made a league with
Soliman for a combined attack upon the emperor. Instead therefore
of punishing the Protestant princes for their proceedings in
Württemberg, he was obliged to do all he could to conciliate
them, as Francis was bidding for their alliance. Ferdinand
therefore, from the summer of A.D. 1535, sought to ingratiate
himself with the Protestants. In November he received a visit
of the elector in Vienna, and granted the extension of the Peace
of Nuremberg to all nobles who since its ratification had become
Protestants. The elector then went to an assembly at Schmalcald,
where the Schmalcald League was extended for ten years, the
French embassy dismissed, and the opposition to Austria abandoned.
On the basis of the Vienna compact Württemberg, Pomerania, Anhalt,
and several cities were added to the league. Signature of the
Augsburg Confession was the indispensable condition of reception.
Bucer managed to win over the upland cities to accept this
condition.

§ 133.8. =The Wittenberg Concordat of A.D. 1536.=--Bucer and
ultimately Œcolampadius, made such concessions on the doctrine
of the sacraments as satisfied Luther, but they were rejected
by Bullinger of Zürich. In December, A.D. 1535, there was a
conference at Cassel between Bucer and Melanchthon. A larger
conference was afterward held at Wittenberg, at which Bucer
and Capito from Strassburg, and eight other distinguished
theologians from the uplands, were present. As they accepted
the formula “in, with, and under,” the only question remaining
was whether unbelievers partook of the body of Christ. They
admitted this in regard to the unworthy, but not, as Luther
wished, in regard to the godless and unbelieving. Luther was
satisfied. On 25th May, A.D. 1536, Melanchthon composed the
“Wittenberg Concord,” which was signed by all, and ratified
by the common partaking of the sacrament. In consequence of
this union effort, three of the Swiss theologians, Bullinger,
Myconius, and Grynæus seceded, and produced the _Confessio
Helvetica prior_, in which the Zwinglian doctrine of the
sacraments was moderately but firmly maintained.

§ 134. INCIDENTS OF THE YEARS A.D. 1537-1539.

Clement VII. made many excuses for postponing the calling of a council. At last, in A.D. 1533, he declared himself willing to do so in the course of the year; but he required of the Protestants unconditional acceptance of its decisions, to which they would not agree. His successor, Paul III., A.D. 1534-1549, called one to meet at Mantua in A.D. 1537. Luther composed for it as a manifesto the Schmalcald Articles; but finally the Protestants renewed their demand for a free council in a German city. In A.D. 1538 the Catholic nobles concluded the Holy Alliance at Nuremberg for carrying out the decrees of the Diet of Augsburg; but the political difficulties of the emperor compelled him to make new concessions to the Protestants in the Frankfort Interim of A.D. 1539. But in the same year the duchy of Saxony and the electorate of Brandenburg went over to the Reformation. By the beginning of A.D. 1540 almost all North Germany was won. Duke Henry of Brunswick alone held out for the old faith.

§ 134.1. =The Schmalcald Articles, A.D. 1537.=--In A.D. 1535
Paul III. sent his legate Vergerius (§ 139, 24) into Germany
to fix a place of meeting for the council. At Wittenberg he
conferred with Luther and Bugenhagen, who scarcely expecting
the council were indifferent as to the place. The council was
formally summoned to meet at Mantua on May 23rd, A.D. 1537. At
a diet at Schmalcald in Feb., A.D. 1537, the Protestants stated
their demands. Luther, by the elector’s orders, had drawn up
the articles of which the council must treat. These Schmalcald
Articles are distinctly polemical, and indicate boldly the
limits of the papal hierarchy demanded by evangelicals. The
first part states briefly four uncontested positions on the
Trinity and the Person of Christ; the second part deals with
the office and work of Christ or our redemption, and marks
abruptly the points of difference between the two confessions;
the third part treats of those points which the council may
further discuss. In the second part Luther unconditionally
rejected the primacy of the pope, as not of Divine right and
inconsistent with the character of a true evangelical Church.
When the articles had been subscribed by the theologians,
Melanchthon added under his name: “As to the pope, I hold
that if he will not oppress the gospel, for the sake of the
peace and unity of those Christians who are or may be under
him, his superiority over bishops _jure humano_ might be allowed
by us.” Melanchthon’s tracts on “The Power of the Pope” and the
“Jurisdiction of Bishops” were also subscribed by the theologians
and added to the Schmalcald Articles. It was then decided that
in order to secure a free Christian council it must be held in
a German city. The elector even made the bold proposal to have
a counter-council summoned, say, at Augsburg, by Luther and his
fellow bishops.

§ 134.2. =The League of Nuremberg, A.D. 1538.=--The Protestant
princes were astonished at the close of the Schmalcald
convention to be told by Vice-Chancellor Held, on behalf
of the emperor, that he did not recognise the Peace of
Cadau or the Vienna Compact, and that the prosecutions
would be resumed. They therefore resumed their old attitude
of opposition. But Held visited all the Catholic courts in
order to complete the formation of a Catholic league for
the suppression of Protestantism. Ferdinand, who knew well
that Held exceeded his instructions, was very angry, for the
emperor was in the greatest straits, but he could not offer
direct opposition without offending the Catholic princes. So
on July 10th, A.D. 1538, the Holy Alliance was actually formed
at Nuremberg, embracing George of Saxony, Albert of Brandenburg,
Henry and Eric of Brunswick, King Ferdinand, and the Archbishop
of Salzburg. The Schmalcald nobles prepared to meet force with
force. A general bloody engagement seemed unavoidable.

§ 134.3. =The Frankfort Interim, A.D. 1539.=--As the emperor
needed help against Soliman, he recalled Held, and sent in
his place John, formerly Archbishop of Leyden. The electors
of Brandenburg and the Palatinate went as mediators with the
new envoy to Frankfort, where negotiations were opened with
the Protestants present, who demanded an unconditional, lasting
peace, and a judiciary court with Protestant as well as Catholic
members. These demands were at first refused, but pressing
need obliged the emperor to reopen negotiations, proposing
that a diet should be held, consisting of learned theologians
and simple, peaceable laymen, to effect a final union of
Christians in faith and worship. He would also grant suspension
of all proceedings against the Protestants for eighteen months.
The Protestants accepted in this “Frankfort Interim” what had
been greatly sought for at the Diet of Nuremberg. It was a
victory of the Schmalcald over the Nuremberg League. The public
confidence in Protestantism grew, and the cause rapidly spread
into new regions.

§ 134.4. =The Reformation in Albertine Saxony, A.D. 1539.=--Duke
George of Saxony, A.D. 1500-1539, was a devoted adherent of the
old faith. Of his four sons only one survived, and he almost
imbecile. He had him married, but he died two months after
the marriage. The old prince was in perplexity, for his brother
Henry, an ardent supporter of the Reformation, was his next
heir. He could ill brook the idea of having the whole work of
his life immediately undone. On the day of the death of his last
son he proposed to his nobles a scheme of succession, according
to which his brother Henry should succeed him only if he joined
the Nuremberg League; otherwise it should go to the emperor
or the King of Rome. Duke Henry rejected the proposal, and
Duke George died before he could produce another scheme. With
loud rejoicing the people received their new prince, and their
allegiance was sworn to him at Leipzig. Luther was there, for
the first time for twenty years, and preached with extraordinary
success. The Reformation proceeded rapidly throughout the whole
district. The King of Rome wished indeed to question George’s
claim, but the Schmalcald League resolved to stand by him, so
that Ferdinand thought it prudent to take no further steps.

§ 134.5. =The Reformation in Brandenburg and Neighbouring
States, A.D. 1539.=--Henry of Neumark joined the Schmalcald
League, and introduced the Reformation into his territories;
but his brother Joachim II. of Brandenburg, A.D. 1535-1571,
for several years adhered to the old faith without forbidding
evangelical preaching, which gradually made an impression on
his own mind. In the beginning of A.D. 1539, with the approval
of his nobles, he gave his adhesion to the reformed doctrines.
The city of Berlin asked for communion in both kinds, and a
considerable section of the nobles of Brandenburg expressed a
hearty longing for the pure gospel. On November 1st, A.D. 1539,
Joachim assembled all the preachers of his land in the Nicolai
Church at Spandau, the Bishop of Brandenburg held the first
evangelical communion, and the whole court and many knights
received the communion in both kinds. The people followed the
example of the prince. Joachim sketched a service which let
several of the old ceremonies remain, but justification by
faith was the central point of the doctrine, and communion
in both kinds the centre of the worship. The Duchess Elizabeth
of Calenberg-Brunswick followed her brother’s example. After
the death of her husband Eric, who was otherwise minded, she
exercised her influence as regent for the spread of the reformed
religion. The Cardinal-archbishop and Elector of Mainz, Albert
of Brandenburg, sought to preserve his archiepiscopal diocese of
Magdeburg, but his constant calls for money would be responded
to only on condition that he granted liberty of preaching. At
his Halle residence he made vigorous resistance, but there too
was obliged to yield. Before his eyes, Justus Jonas, Luther’s
most trusted friend and fellow labourer, Prof. and Provost of
Wittenberg since A.D. 1521, carried on the work of Reformation
in the city. The cardinal, in a rage, left Halle and the “idol
of Halle” (§ 123, 8) for Mainz.--Mecklenburg also about this
time adopted the evangelical constitution, mainly promoted by
one of its princes, Magnus Bishop of Schwerin. The Abbess of
Quedlinburg, Anna von Stolberg, had not ventured, so long as
Duke George of Saxony lived, to bring forward her evangelical
confession; but now without opposition she reformed her convent
and the city.

§ 135. UNION ATTEMPTS OF A.D. 1540-1546.

The Frankfort Interim revived the idea of a free union among those who in the main agreed upon matters of faith and worship. With the object of realizing this idea a whole series of religious conferences were held. But near as its realization at one time seemed to be all the measures taken proved one after another abortive, because the emperor would not recognise the conclusions of any conference at which a papal legate was not present. And just at this time, when the imposing might of the Protestant nobles excited the brightest hopes, the Protestant princes themselves laid the grounds of their deepest humiliation: the landgrave by his double marriage, and the elector by his quarrels with the ducal Saxon court.

§ 135.1. =The Double Marriage of the Landgrave,
A.D. 1540.=--Landgrave Philip of Hesse had married Christina,
a daughter of the deceased Duke George of Saxony. Various causes
had led to an estrangement between them, and a strong sensuous
nature, which he had been unable to control, had driven him to
repeated acts of unfaithfulness. His conscience reproved him;
he felt himself unworthy to be admitted to communion, great
as his desire for it was, and doubted of his soul’s salvation.
From regard to his wife he could not think of a divorce. Then
came the idea, suggested by the O.T. polygamy that had not been
abrogated in the N.T., that with consent of his wife he might
enter into a regular second marriage with Margaret von der Saale,
one of his sister’s lady’s-maids. In Nov., A.D. 1539, he sent
Bucer to Wittenberg in order to get the advice of Luther and
Melanchthon. The alternative was either continued adultery, or
an honourable married life with a second wife taken with consent
of the first. Luther and Melanchthon entreated him earnestly
for his own and for the gospel’s sake to avoid this terrible
scandal, but haltingly admitted that the latter alternative
was less heinously wicked than the former. They added, however,
that in order to avoid scandal the marriage should be private,
and their answer regarded not as a theological opinion, but
confidential counsel. The landgrave had the marriage consummated
in May, A.D. 1540. But the story soon spread. The court of
Albertine Saxony was deeply incensed, the elector beside
himself with rage, the theologians in most extreme embarrassment.
Melanchthon started to attend a religious conference at Hagenau,
but the excitement over the unhappy business prostrated him
on a sick-bed at Weimar. The emperor threatened Philip with
the infliction of capital punishment, which by the law of the
empire was attached to the crime of bigamy. At last the elector
called a convention of Saxon and Hessian theologians at Eisenach
to consult about the matter. Luther refused to treat it as a
question of law, and demanded absolute privacy as the condition
of permission. Among the opponents of the Reformation, it was
Duke Henry of Brunswick who insisted upon exacting the utmost
penalties of the law. He indeed was least fitted by his own
character to assume the part of defender of morals. It was
well known that he was then living in adultery with Eva von
Trott, after her pretended death and burial. In his perplexity,
Philip turned to the imperial chancellor Granvella, who was
willing to intercede for him, but on conditions to which the
landgrave could not accede. At last, at the Diet of Regensburg,
in A.D. 1541, Philip undertook to further the imperial interests
and to join no union in any way inimical to these; and upon
these terms the emperor agreed to grant him a full indemnity.

§ 135.2. =The Religious Conference at Worms,
A.D. 1540.=--Negotiations for peace with France having failed,
the emperor still required the support of the Protestant
party. He therefore agreed to the holding of a religious
conference at =Worms=, in order to reach if possible a good
mutual understanding on the basis of Holy Scripture. It was
held in Nov., A.D. 1540, under the presidency of Granvella.
On one side were Melanchthon, Bucer, Capito, Brenz, and Calvin;
on the other, Eck, Gropper, canon of Cologne, the Spaniard
Malvenda, etc. But the emperor had insisted on the papal
nuncio Marone taking part, and this, contrary to his intention,
brought the whole affair to naught. For Marone first of all
presented a number of formal objections, and when at last,
in Jan., A.D. 1541, the conference began, and awakened the
utmost apprehensions for the papacy, he rested not till
Granvella, even before the first article on original sin had
been discussed, dissolved the conference in the name and by
command of the emperor. But the emperor did not give up the
idea of conciliation, and called a diet at Regensburg, at
which the negotiations were to be renewed.

§ 135.3. =The Religious Conference at Regensburg,
A.D. 1541.=--The diet at Regensburg was opened on April 5th,
A.D. 1541. The emperor, anxious to reach a peaceable conclusion,
named as members of the conference Eck, Gropper, and Julius
von Pflugk, Dean of Meissen, on the one side; and Melanchthon,
Bucer, and Pistorius, on the other side; with Granvella and
Frederick, count-palatine, as presidents. The nuncio Contarini
was representative of the curia. By such a gathering the emperor
hoped to reach the wished for conclusion. In Italy (§ 139, 22)
there had sprung up a number of men well instructed in Scripture,
who sought to reform the doctrine of the church by adopting the
principle of justification by faith without touching the primacy
of the pope and the whole hierarchical system. Contarini was one
of the leaders of this party. He had come to an understanding
with the emperor that justification by faith, the use of
the cup in communion by the laity, and marriage of priests
should be allowed for Germany, and that, on the other hand,
the Protestants were to agree to the primacy of the pope. The
_justitia imputativa_ was acknowledged by both parties; and
even when Contarini, on the basis of that imputation, insisted
upon a _justitia inhærens_, _i.e._ not merely a declaring but
a making righteous, seeing that he grounded it solely on the
merits of Christ, the Protestants acquiesced. Differences arose
over the doctrine of the church, which were reserved for another
occasion. And now they came to the sacrament of the altar.
Communion in both kinds was agreed to by both; but trouble
arose over the word transubstantiation. Not only Eck, who had
opposed all concessions, but even Contarini, who had his orders
from Rome, would not yield. No more would the Protestants.
The conference had therefore to be dissolved. The emperor
wished both parties to accept the articles agreed on as
a common standard, and to have toleration granted upon the
disputed points; but the Catholic majority would not agree
to this. The Regensburg Interim, therefore, as the decision
of the diet is usually called, extends the Nuremberg Peace
(§ 133, 2) to all presently members of the Schmalcald League,
and enforced upon Protestants only the accepted articles.

§ 135.4. =The Regensburg Declaration, A.D. 1541.=--The emperor,
in order to satisfy the naturally dissatisfied Protestants,
made a special declaration, annulling the prosecutions decree
of the Augsburg Diet and relieving the adherents of the Augsburg
Confession from all disabilities. Also the injunction that no
one should withhold their dues from the clergy was extended
to the Protestant ministers. But on the very day when the
declaration was issued the emperor held a private session
with the Catholic majority, in which the Nuremberg League was
renewed and the pope received into it. Thus he hoped to receive
help from all parties and to ward off internecine conflict till
a more convenient season. He concluded a separate treaty with
the landgrave and the Elector Joachim II., both undertaking
to support imperial interests. The elector expressly promised
not to join the Schmalcald League; and the landgrave promised
to oppose all consorting of the league not only with foreign
powers (England and France), but also with the Duke of Cleves,
with whom the emperor had a standing feud. In return the
landgrave was granted an amnesty for all previous delinquencies
and undisturbed liberty in matters of religion. The emperor’s
negotiations with the Elector of Saxony broke down over the
Cleves dispute, for the Duke of Cleves was his brother-in-law.

§ 135.5. =The Naumburg Bishopric, A.D. 1541, 1542.=--Since
A.D. 1520 the Lutheran doctrines had spread in the diocese
of Naumburg. When the bishop died, in A.D. 1511, the chapter
elected the learned and mild provost Julius von Pflugk. But
the elector regarded it as proper in a Lutheran state to have a
Lutheran bishop, and so refused to confirm Pflugk’s appointment,
and had Nic. von Arnsdorf (§ 127, 4) ordained bishop by Luther,
in A.D. 1542, “without chrism, butter, suet, lard, tar, grease,
incense, and coals.” The civil administration of the diocese was
committed to an electoral officer; Arnsdorf was satisfied with
the small income of 600 florins and the rest of the revenues
were applied to pious uses. After the battle of Mühlberg,
in A.D. 1547, Arnsdorf was expelled and Pflugk restored. On
his death in 1564, the chapter, though then Lutheran, did not
restore Arnsdorf, but gave over the administration to a Saxon
prince. The elector’s violent procedure in this case caused
great offence to the Albertine court. Duke Henry had died in
A.D. 1541, and was succeeded by his son Maurice. The elector
and the young duke quarrelled over a question of jurisdiction,
and it was only with great difficulty that Luther and the
landgrave managed to effect a peaceful solution of the dispute.
But the mutual estrangement and rivalry between the courts soon
afterwards broke out in a violent form.

§ 135.6. =The Reformation in Brunswick and the Palatinate,
A.D. 1542-1546.=--Duke Henry of Brunswick accused the city
of Goslar of the destruction of two monasteries, and in spite
of all the concessions to Protestants the court pronounced
the ban against the city, and empowered Henry to carry it
out. The elector and the landgrave, acting for the Schmalcald
League in defence of the city, entered Henry’s territory in
A.D. 1542 and conquered it. The gospel was now preached, and an
evangelical constitution was given to Brunswick by Bugenhagen.
This completed the conquest of North Germany for the gospel.--In
South Germany Regensburg received the Reformation in A.D. 1542;
but Bavaria, owing to Ferdinand’s influence, gave no place to
the heretics. In the Upper Palatinate evangelical preachers
had for a long time been tolerated. The young prince of
the Neuburg Palatinate in A.D. 1543 called Osiander from
Nuremburg [Nuremberg], and joined the Schmalcald League.
The Elector-palatine Louis died in A.D. 1543. His brother
Frederick II., who succeeded him was not unfavourable to the
Reformation, and formally introduced it into his dominions in
A.D. 1546. Even in Austria evangelical views made such advance
that Ferdinand neither could nor would attempt those violent
measures that he had previously tried.

§ 135.7. =The Reformation in the Electorate of Cologne,
A.D. 1542-1544.=--Hermann von Weid (§ 133, 5), Archbishop and
Elector of Cologne, now far advanced in life, by the study of
Luther’s Bible had convinced himself of the scripturalness of
the Augsburg Confession. He resolved to reform his province
in accordance with God’s word. At the Bonn Assembly of March,
A.D. 1542, he made known his plan, and found himself supported
by his nobles. He invited Bucer to inaugurate the work, and
he was soon joined by Melanchthon. In July, A.D. 1543, the
elector laid before the nobles his Reformation scheme, and
they unanimously accepted it. The cathedral chapter and the
university opposed it in the interests of the papacy; also
the Cologne council from fear of losing their authority.
Nevertheless the movement advanced, and it was hoped that the
opposition would gradually be overcome. Cologne was to remain
after as before an ecclesiastical principality, but with an
evangelical constitution. The Bishop of Münster prepared to
follow the example, and had the work in Cologne been lasting,
certainly many others would have pursued the same course.

§ 135.8. =The Emperor’s Difficulties, A.D. 1543, 1544.=--Soliman
in A.D. 1541 had overrun Hungary, converted the principal
church into a mosque, and set a pasha over the whole land,
which now became a Turkish province. Aid against the Turks
was voted at a diet at Spires in the beginning of A.D. 1542,
and the Protestants were left unmolested for five years after
the conclusion of the war. The campaign against the Turks led
by Joachim II. was unsuccessful. Meanwhile new troubles arose
with France, and Soliman prepared for a second campaign.
The emperor now summoned a diet to meet at Nuremberg, Jan.,
A.D. 1543. Ferdinand was willing to grant to the Protestants
the Regensburg Declaration, but William of Bavaria would rather
see the whole world perish or the crescent ruling over all
Germany. In summer of A.D. 1543 the emperor was beset with
dangers from every side; France attacked the Netherlands,
Soliman conquered Grau, the Danes closed the Sound against
the subjects of the emperor, a Turco-French fleet held sway
in the Mediterranean and had already taken Nizza, and the
Protestants were assuming a threatening attitude. Christian III.
of Denmark and Gustavus Vasa of Sweden asked to be received
into the Schmalcald League. The Duke of Cleves, too, broke
his truce. This roused the emperor most of all. He rushed down
upon Cleves and Gelderland, and conquered them, and restored
Catholicism. The emperor’s circumstances now improved: Cleves
was quieted; Denmark and England came to terms with him. But
his most dangerous enemies, Soliman and Francis I., were still
in arms. He could not yet dispense with the powerful support
of the Protestants.

§ 135.9. =Diet at Spires, A.D. 1544.=--In order to get
help against the Turks and French, at the Diet of Spires,
in Feb., A.D. 1544, the emperor relieved the Protestants of
all disabilities, promised a genuine, free Christian council
to settle matters in dispute, and, in case this should not
succeed, in next autumn a national assembly to determine
matters definitely without pope or council. The emperor promised
to propose a scheme of Reformation, and invited the other nobles
to bring forward schemes. After such concessions the Protestants
went in heartily with the emperor’s political projects. He
wished first of all help against the French. In the same year
the emperor led against France an army composed mostly of
Protestants, and in Sept., A.D. 1544, obliged the king to
conclude the Peace of Crespy. The Turks had next to be dealt
with, and the Protestants were eager to show their devotion
to the emperor. In prospect of the national assembly the
Elector of Saxony set his theologians to the composition of
a plan of Reformation. This document, known as the “Wittenberg
Reformation,” allows to the prelates their spiritual and civil
functions, their revenues, goods, and jurisdiction, the right
of ordination, visitation, and discipline, on condition that
these be exercised in an evangelical spirit.

§ 135.10. =Differences between the Emperor and the Protestant
Nobles, A.D. 1545, 1546.=--The pope by calling a council to
meet at Trent sowed seeds of discord between the emperor and
the Protestants. The emperor’s proposals of reform were so
far short of the demands of the Protestants that they were
unanimously rejected. The Reformation movement in Cologne had
seriously imperilled the imperial government of the Netherlands.
An attempt of Henry to reconquer Brunswick was frustrated by the
combined action of the Landgrave of Hesse and the Duke of Saxony.
Frederick II., elector-palatine, began to reform his provinces
and to seek admission to the Schmalcald League. Four of the
six electors had gone over, and the fifth, Sebastian, who after
Albert’s death in A.D. 1545 had been, by Hessian and Palatine
influence, made Elector of Mainz, had just resolved to follow
their example. All these things had greatly irritated the
emperor. He concluded a truce with the Turks in Oct., A.D. 1545,
and arranged with the pope, who pledged his whole possessions
and crown, for the campaign against the heretics. On 13th Dec.,
A.D. 1545, the pope opened the =Council of Trent=, and made
it no secret that it was intended for the destruction of the
Protestants. The emperor attempted to get the Protestants to
take part. In Jan., A.D. 1546, a conference was held in which
Cochlæus (§ 129, 1) and others met with Bucer, Brenz, and Major;
but it was soon dissolved, owing to initial differences. The
horrible fratricide committed at Neuburg upon a Spaniard, Juan
Diaz, showed the Protestants how good Catholics thought heretics
must be dealt with. The murderer was seized, but by order of the
pope to the Bishop of Trent set again at liberty. He remained
unpunished, but hanged himself at Trent A.D. 1551.

§ 135.11. =Luther’s Death, A.D. 1546.=--Luther died at Eisleben
in his 63rd year on 18th Feb., 1546. During his last years he
was harassed with heavy trials. The political turn that affairs
had taken was wholly distasteful to him, but he was powerless to
prevent it. In Wittenberg itself much was done not in accordance
with his will. Wearied with his daily toils, suffering severe
pain and consequent bodily weakness, he often longed to die
in peace. In the beginning of A.D. 1546 the Counts of Mansfeld
called him to Eisleben in order to compose differences between
them by his impartial judgment. In order to perform this
business he spent the three last weeks of his life in his
birthplace, and, with scarcely any previous illness, on the
night of the 18th Feb., he peacefully fell asleep in Jesus.
His body was taken to Wittenberg and there buried in the
castle church.

§ 136. THE SCHMALCALD WAR, THE INTERIM, AND THE COUNCIL,
A.D. 1546-1551.

All attempts at agreement in matters of religion were at an end. The pope, however, had at last convened a council in a German city. The emperor hoped to conciliate the Protestants by bringing about a reformation after a fashion, removing many hierarchical abuses, conceding the marriage of the clergy, the cup to the laity, and even perhaps accepting the doctrine of justification. But he soon came to a rupture with the Protestants, and war broke out before the Schmalcald Leaguers were prepared for it. Their power, however, was far superior to that of the emperor; but through needless scruples, delays, and indecision they let slip the opportunity of certain victory. The power of the league was utterly destroyed, and the emperor’s power reached the summit of its strength. All Southern Germany was forced to submit to the hated interim, and in North Germany only the outlawed Magdeburg ventured to maintain, in spite of the emperor, a pure Protestant profession.

§ 136.1. =Preparations for the Schmalcald War, A.D. 1546.=--In
consequence of variances among the members of the league the
emperor conceived a plan of securing allies from among the
Protestants themselves by a judicious distribution of favours.
The Margrave Hans of Cüstrin and Duke Eric of Brunswick, the
one cousin, the other son-in-law, of the exiled and imprisoned
Duke of Wolfenbüttel, were ready to take part in war against the
robbers of their friend’s dominions. Much more eager, however,
was the emperor to win over the young Duke Maurice of Saxony. He
tempted him with the promise of the electorate and the greater
part of the elector’s territory, and was successful. The emperor
could not indeed formally release any of them from submission
to the council, but he promised in any case to reserve for
their countries the doctrine of justification, the cup in lay
communion, and the marriage of priests. Now when he was sure
of Maurice the emperor proceeded openly with his preparations,
and made no secret of his intention to punish those princes who
had despised his imperial authority and taken to themselves the
possessions of others. The Schmalcald Leaguers could no longer
deceive themselves, and so they began their preparations.
With such an open breach the Diet of Regensburg ended in June,
A.D. 1546.

§ 136.2. =The Campaign on the Danube, A.D. 1546.=--Schärtlin,
at the head of a powerful army, could have attacked the emperor
or taken the Tyrol; but the council of war, listening to William
of Bavaria, who professed neutrality, and hoping to win over
Ferdinand, foolishly ordered delay. Thus the emperor gained
time to collect an army. On 20th June, A.D. 1546, he issued
from Regensburg a ban against the Landgrave Philip and the
Elector John Frederick as oath-breaking vassals. These princes
at the head of their forces had joined Schärtlin at Donauwörth
[Donauwört]. Papal despatches fell into their hands, in which
the pope proclaimed a crusade for the rooting out of heretics,
promising indulgence to all who would aid in the work. Fatal
indecision still prevailed in the council of war, and winter
came on without a battle being fought. The news that Maurice
had taken possession of the elector’s domains led the landgrave
and the ex-elector to return home, and Schärtlin, for want of
money and ammunition, was unable to face a winter campaign in
Franconia. Thus the whole country lay open to the emperor. One
city after another accepted terms more or less severe. In the
beginning of A.D. 1547 he was master of all Southern Germany.
Now at last he put an end to the Cologne movement (§ 135, 7).
The pope had issued the ban against the archbishop in A.D. 1546,
and now the emperor had the former coadjutor proclaimed
archbishop and elector, in spite of the opposition of the
nobles. Hermann was willing to secure the religious peace of
his dominions by resignation, but this was refused, and being
too weak to offer resistance, he resigned unconditionally. Thus
the Rhine provinces were irretrievably lost to Protestantism.

§ 136.3. =The Campaign on the Elbe, A.D. 1547.=--After rapidly
reconquering his own territories, the Elector John Frederick
hastened with a considerable army to meet his enemy. At Mühlberg
he suddenly came upon the emperor’s forces. There scarcely was
a battle. His comparatively small armament melted away before
the superior numbers of the imperial host, and the elector was
taken prisoner on 24th April, A.D. 1547. He had already been
sentenced to death as a rebel and heretic. It was deemed more
prudent to require of him only the surrender of his fortresses.
The pious prince willingly resigned all temporal dignities, but
in matters of religion he was inflexible. He was sentenced to
life-long imprisonment and his possessions were mostly given
to Maurice. The Landgrave Philip, for want of money, ammunition,
and troops, had been prevented from doing anything. The news
of John Frederick’s misfortunes brought him almost to despair.
Too powerless to offer opposition, he surrendered at discretion
to the emperor. He was to prostrate himself before the emperor,
surrender all his fortresses, neither now nor in future suffer
enemies of the emperor in his lands, and for all his life to
renounce all leagues, to liberate Henry of Brunswick and restore
him to his dominions. The ceremony of prostration was performed
at Halle on 19th July. The two electors with the landgrave
then went by invitation to a supper with the Duke of Alba.
After supper the duke declared the landgrave his prisoner.
The elector’s remonstrances then with Alba and next day with
the imperial councillors were all in vain. The emperor was
equally deaf to all representations.

§ 136.4. =The Council of Trent, A.D. 1545-1547.=--The Council
of Trent opened in Dec., A.D. 1545 (§ 149, 2). At the outset,
contrary to the emperor’s wishes, the pope laid down conditions
that excluded Protestants from taking part in it. Scripture and
tradition were first discussed. The O.T. Apocrypha (§§ 59, 1;
161, 8) had equal authority assigned it with the other books
of the O. and N.T., and the Vulgate was declared to be the
only authentic text for theological discussions and sermons.
Tradition was placed on equal terms alongside of Scripture,
but its contents were carefully defined. Original sin was
extinguished by baptism, and after baptism there is only
actual transgression. The scholastic doctrine of justification
was sanctioned anew, but accommodated as far as possible to
Scripture phraseology; justification is the inward actual change
of a sinner into a righteous man, not merely the forgiveness
of sins, but pre-eminently the sanctification and renewal of
the inner man. It is effected, not so much by the imputation
of Christ’s merits, as by the infusion of habitual righteousness,
which enables men to win salvation by works. It is not forensic,
but a physical act of God, is wrought not once for all, and not
by faith alone, but gradually by the free co-operation of the
man. The emperor, who saw in these decisions the overthrow of
his attempts at conciliation, was highly displeased, and wished
at least to postpone their promulgation. The pope obeyed for
a time; but when the emperor threatened to interfere in the
proceedings of the council, he had the decrees published, Jan.,
A.D. 1547, and some weeks after, on the plea of a dangerous
plague having broken out, removed the council to Bologna, where
for the time proceedings were suspended.

§ 136.5. =The Augsburg Interim, A.D. 1548.=--At a diet
at Augsburg in Sept., A.D. 1547, the Protestants declared
themselves willing to submit to a council meeting again at
Trent, and beginning afresh; but as the pope refused this,
the emperor was obliged to plan an interim, which should form
a standard for all parties till a settlement at a proper council
should be reached. It granted the cup to the laity and marriage
of priests, but held by the Tridentine doctrine of justification.
It represented the pope as simply the highest bishop, in whom
the unity of the church is visibly set forth. The right of
interpreting Scripture was given exclusively to the church.
The sacraments were enumerated as seven, and the doctrine
of transubstantiation emphatically maintained. The duty of
fasting, and seeking the intercession of the mother of God
and the saints, observing all Catholic ceremonies of worship,
processions, festivals, etc., was strictly insisted upon. The
emperor was satisfied, and so too some of the Protestant princes.
Maurice, however, felt that his people would not agree to its
adoption. He gave at last a half assent, which the emperor
accepted as approval. The emperor took no notice of those who
opposed it, the presence of his Spaniards in their dominions
would prevent all trouble. The emperor was not strong enough
to force the Catholic nobles to accept his interim, and so its
observance was to be binding only on the Protestants. Landgrave
Philip, whose power was for ever broken, gave in, but nothing
in the world would induce the noble John Frederick to submit.
The pope too refused persistently to recognise the interim, and
only in Aug., A.D. 1549, did he allow the bishops to agree to
the concessions made by it to the Protestants.

§ 136.6. =The Execution of the Interim= had on all sides to
be compulsorily enforced. Nuremberg, Augsburg, Ulm were one
after another coerced into adopting it. Constance resisted,
was put under the ban, and lost all privileges, till at last
instead of the interim the papacy found entrance, and evangelical
Protestantism got its death-blow. The other cities submitted to
the inevitable. All preachers refusing the interim were exiled
and persecuted. Over 400 true servants of the word wandered with
wives and children through South Germany homeless and without
bread. Frecht of Ulm was taken in chains to the emperor’s camp.
Brenz, one of the most determined opponents of the interim,
during his wanderings often by a miracle escaped capture. Much
more lasting was the opposition in North Germany. In Magdeburg,
still lying under the imperial ban, the fugitive opponents of
the interim gathered from all sides, and there alone was the
press still free in its utterances against the interim. A
flood of controversial tracts, satires, and caricatures were
sent out over all Germany. In Hesse and Brandenburg the princes
were unable to enforce the obnoxious measures; still less could
Maurice do so in the electorate.

§ 136.7. =The Leipzig or Little Interim, A.D. 1549.=--Maurice
in his difficulties sent for Melanchthon. Since the death
of Luther and the overthrow of John Frederick of Saxony,
Melanchthon’s tendency to yield largely for peace’ sake had
lost its wholesome checks. In writing to the minister Carlowitz,
the bitterest foe of Luther and the elector, he even went so far
as to complain of Luther’s combativeness. The result of various
negotiations was the drawing up of a document at the assembly in
Leipzig, 22nd December, A.D. 1548, by the Wittenberg theologians
in accordance with the views of Melanchthon. This modified
interim became the standard for religious practice in Saxony,
and a directory of worship in harmony with it was drawn up
by the theologians, and published in July, A.D. 1549. Calvin
and Brenz wrote letters that cut Melanchthon to the heart.
The measure was everywhere viewed by zealous Lutherans with
indignation, and the Interim of Leipzig was even more hateful
to the people than that of Augsburg. Imprisonment and exile
were vigorously carried out by means of it, yet the revolution
and ferment continued to increase.--The Leipzig Interim treated
Romish customs and ceremonies almost as things indifferent,
passed over many less essential doctrinal differences, and
gave to fundamental differences such a setting as might
be applied equally to the pure evangelical doctrine as to
that of the Augsburg Interim. The evangelical doctrine of
justification was essentially there, but it was not decidedly
and unambiguously expressed; and still less were Romish errors
sharply and unmistakably repudiated. Good works were said to
be necessary, but not in the sense that one could win salvation
by means of them. Whether good works in excess of the law’s
demands could be performed was not explicitly determined. On
church and hierarchy, the positions of the Augsburg Interim
were simply restated. To the pope as the highest bishop, as well
as to the other bishops, who performed their duties according
to God’s will for edification and not destruction, all churchmen
were to yield obedience. The seven sacraments were acknowledged,
though in another than the Romish sense. In the mass the Latin
language was again introduced. Images of saints were allowed,
but not for worship; so too the festivals of Mary and of _Corpus
Christi_, but without processions, etc.

§ 136.8. =The Council again at Trent, A.D. 1551.=--In September,
A.D. 1549, Paul III. dissolved the council at Bologna, where it
had done nothing. His successor, =Julius III.=, A.D. 1550-1555,
the nominee of the imperial party, acceded to the emperor’s
wishes to have the council again held at Trent. The Protestant
nobles declared their willingness to recognise it, but demanded
the cancelling of the earlier proceedings, a seat and vote for
their representatives. This the emperor was prepared to grant,
but the pope and prelates would not agree. The council began
its proceedings on 1st May, A.D. 1551, with the doctrine of
the Lord’s Supper. Meanwhile the Protestants prepared a new
confession, which might form the basis of their discussions
in the council. Melanchthon, who was beginning to take courage
again, sketched the _Confessio Saxonica_, or, as it has been
rightly named, the _Repetitio Confessionis Augustanæ_, in which
no trace of the indecision and ambiguity of the Leipzig Interim
is to be found. The pure doctrine is set forth firmly, with even
a polemical tone, though in a moderate and conciliatory manner.
Brenz, who had been in hiding up to this time, by order of Duke
Christopher of Württemberg, sketched for a like purpose the
“Württemberg Confession.” In November, A.D. 1551, the first
Protestants, lay delegates from Württemberg and Strassburg,
appeared in Trent. They were followed in January by Saxon
statesmen. On 24th January, A.D. 1552, these laid their
credentials before the council, but, notwithstanding all
the effort of the imperial commissioners, they could not gain
admission. In March the Württemberg and Strassburg theologians
arrived, with Brenz at their head, and Melanchthon, with two
Leipzig preachers, was on the way, when suddenly Maurice put
an end to all their well concerted plans.

§ 137A. MAURICE AND THE PEACE OF AUGSBURG A.D. 1550-1555.

In the beginning of A.D. 1550 the affairs of the Reformation were in a worse condition than ever before. In the fetters of the interim, it was like a felon on whom the death sentence was about to be passed. Then just at the right time appeared the Elector Maurice as the man who could break the fetters and lead on again to power and honour. His betrayal of the cause had brought Protestantism to the verge of destruction; his betrayal of the emperor proved its salvation. The Compact of Passau guaranteed to Protestants full religious liberty and equal rights with Catholics until a new council should meet. The Religious Peace of Augsburg removed even this limitation, and brought to a conclusion the history of the German Reformation.

§ 137.1. =The State of Matters in A.D. 1550.=--It was a doleful
time for Germany. The emperor at the height of his power was
laying his plans for securing the succession in the imperial
dignity to his son Philip of Spain. In a bold, autocratic
spirit he trampled on all the rights of the imperial nobles,
and contrary to treaty he retained the presence of Spanish
troops in the empire, which daily committed deeds of atrocious
violence. The deliverance of the landgrave was stubbornly
refused, though all the conditions thereof were long ago
fulfilled. Protestant Germany groaned under the yoke of the
interim; the council would only confirm this, if not rather
enforce something even worse. Only one bulwark of evangelical
liberty stood in the emperor’s way, the brave, outlawed
Magdeburg. But how could it continue to hold out? Down to
autumn, A.D. 1552, all attempts to storm the city had failed.
Then Maurice undertook, by the order of the emperor and at the
cost of the empire, to execute the ban.

§ 137.2. =The Elector Maurice, A.D. 1551.--Maurice had lost the
hearts of his own people, and was regarded with detestation by
the Protestants of Germany, and notwithstanding imperial favour
his position was by no means secure. Yet he was too much of the
German and Protestant prince to view with favour the emperor’s
proceedings, while he felt indignant at the illegal detention
of his father-in-law. In these circumstances he resolved to
betray the emperor, as before he had betrayed to him the cause
of Protestantism. A master in dissimulation, he continued the
siege of Magdeburg with all diligence, but at the same time
joined a secret league with the Margrave Hans of Cüstrin and
Albert of Franconian Brandenburg, as also with the sons of the
landgrave, for the restoration of evangelical and civil liberty,
and entered into negotiations with Henry II. of France, who
undertook to aid him with money. Magdeburg at last capitulated,
and Maurice entered on 4th November, A.D. 1551. Arrears of
pay formed an excuse for not disbanding the imperial troops,
and, strengthened by the Magdeburg garrison and the auxiliary
troops of his allies, he threw off the mask, and issued public
proclamations in which he brought bitter charges against the
emperor, and declared that he could no longer lie under the
feet of priests and Spaniards. The emperor in vain appealed for
help to the Catholic princes. He found himself without troops
or money at Innsbrück, which could not stand a siege, and every
road to his hereditary territories seemed closed, for where
the leagued German princes were not the Ottomans on sea and
the French on land were ready to oppose him. Maurice was already
on the way to Innsbrück “to seek out the fox in his hole.” But
his troops’ demands for pay detained him, and the emperor gained
time. On a cold, wet night he fled, though not yet recovered
from fever, over the mountains covered with snow, and found
refuge in Villach. Three days after Maurice entered Innsbrück;
the council had already dissolved.

§ 137.3. =The Compact of Passau, A.D. 1552.=--Before the
flight of the emperor from Innsbrück, Maurice had an interview
with Ferdinand at Linz, where, besides the liberation of the
landgrave, he demanded a German national assembly for religious
union, and till it met unconditional toleration. The emperor,
notwithstanding all his embarrassments, would not listen to the
proposal. Negotiations were reopened at Passau, and Maurice’s
proposals were in the main accepted. Ferdinand consented, but
the emperor would not. Ferdinand himself travelled to Villach
and employed all his eloquence, but unconditional toleration
the emperor would not grant. His stubbornness conquered; the
majority gave in, and accepted a compact which gave to the
Protestants a full amnesty, general peace, and equal rights,
till the meeting of a national or œcumenical council, to be
arranged for at the next diet. Meanwhile the emperor had made
great preparations. Frankfort was his main stronghold, and
against it Maurice now advanced, and began the siege. Matters
were not promising, when the Passau delegate appeared in his
camp with the draft of the terms of peace. Had he refused his
signature, the ban would have been pronounced against him,
and his cousin would have been restored to the electorate.
He therefore subscribed the document. With difficulty Ferdinand
secured the subscription of the emperor, who believed himself
to be sufficiently strong to carry on the battle. The two
imprisoned princes were now at last liberated, and the preachers
exiled by the interim were allowed to return. John Frederick
died in A.D. 1554, and the Landgrave Philip in A.D. 1567.

§ 137.4. =Death of Maurice, A.D. 1553.=--The Margrave Albert
of Brandenburg had been Maurice’s comrade in the Schmalcald
war, and with him also he turned against the emperor. But after
the ratification of the Passau Compact, to which he was not a
party, Albert continued the war against the prelates and their
principalities. He now fell out with Maurice, and was taken into
his service by the emperor, who not only granted him an amnesty
for all his acts of spoliation and breaches of the truce, but
promised to enforce recognition of him from all the bishops.
Albert therefore helped the emperor against the French, and
then carried his conquests into Germany. Soon an open rupture
occurred between him and Maurice. In the battle of Sievershausen
Maurice gained a brilliant victory, but received a mortal wound,
of which he died in two days. Albert fled to France. The rude
soldier was broken down by misfortune, the religious convictions
of his youth awakened, and the composition of a beautiful and
well-known German hymn marks the turning point in his life.
He died in A.D. 1557.--The year 1554 was wholly occupied with
internal troubles. A desire for a lasting peace prevailed, and
the calamities of both parties brought Protestants and Catholics
nearer to one another. Even Henry of Brunswick was willing to
tolerate Protestantism in his dominions.