Chapter IX: ? (See Summary.) Consider just the arguments used. Are the

arguments sufficient to bring conviction to the reader that the hero decided rightly?)

+203. Refutation.+--No question is worth argument unless there are two sides to it--unless there is a chance for some doubt in the mind of the hearer as to which side seems most reasonable. Many questions are of such a nature that in trying to convince our hearers of some truth, we often find it necessary to show them, not only the truth of a proposition or the expediency of a course of action, but also the falsity of some opposing proposition or the inexpediency of the opposite course of action. This tearing to pieces another's argument, is called refutation, or destructive argument. A successful debater shows nearly if not equal skill in tearing down his opponent's arguments as in building up his own.

Even in arguments in which no one takes the opposite side at the given time, we must not forget that there are points on the opposite side which are likely to arise in the minds of our hearers. Just as the skillful teacher must know the difficulties that will arise in the minds of the pupils even though they are not expressed, so must the skillful debater consider the objections that his hearer will mentally set up against his argument. It is well, however, for the debater to avoid overemphasizing objections. Sometimes his discussion gives the objections a weight that they would not otherwise have. It is not wise to set up "a man of straw" for the purpose of knocking him down.

Notice the refutation in the following argument:--

In no respect is the difference of opinion as to the methods of fishing so pronounced and disturbing among anglers as the diverse ones of fishing "up" and "down" stream.

"Fishing up stream" has many advocates who assert that as trout always lie with their heads up current, they are less likely to see the fisherman or the glint of his rod when the casts are made; that the discomfort and fatigue accompanying wading against strong rapids is amply repaid by the increased scores secured; that the flies deftly thrown a foot or two above the head of a feeding trout float more life-like down the current than those drawn against it by the line, when they are apt to exhibit a muscular power which in the live insect would be exaggerated and unnatural.

On the other hand, the "down stream" fisherman is equally assertive as to the value of his method. He feels the charm of gurgling waters around his limbs, a down current that aids rather than retards or fatigues him in each successive step of enjoyment in his pastime; as he casts his fifty or more feet of line adown the stream, he is assured that he is beyond the ken of the most keen-sighted and wary trout; that his artificial bugs, under the tension of the current seaming it from right to left, reaches every square inch of the "swim," as English rodsters term a likely water, and coming naturally down stream, just the direction from whence a hungry trout is awaiting it, are much more likely to be taken, than those thrown against the current, with, doubtless, a foot or more of the leader drooping and bagging before the nose of a trout, with a dead bug, soaked and bedraggled, following slowly behind.

By wading "down stream" its advocates do not mean splashing and lifting the feet above the surface, sending the water hither and yon on to the banks, into the pools, with the soil of silt or mud or fine gravel from the bottom, polluting the stream many yards ahead, and causing every fish to scurry to the shelter of a hole in the bank or under a shelving rock. They intend that the rodster shall enter the water quietly, and, after a few preliminary casts to get the water gear in good working order to proceed down stream by sliding rather than lifting his feet from the bottom, noiselessly and cautiously approaching the most likely pools or eddies behind the roots in mid stream, or still stretches close to the banks, where the quiet reaches broaden down stream, where nine chances in ten, on a good trout water, one or more fish will be seen lazily rising and feeding.

Again, the down-stream angler contends that when a fish is fastened on a hook, taking the lure in a current, that he is more likely to be well hooked, hence more certain of capture when the line is tense, than when rising to a floating bug at the end of a looping line and leader. Certainly it is very difficult when casting against the current to keep the line sufficiently taut to strike quickly and effectively a rising trout, which as a rule ejects the artificial lure the instant he feels the gritty impact of the steel.

In fishing down stream, the advocate of the principle that the greater the surface commotion made by the flies used, the surer the rise and catch, has an advantage over his brother who always fishes "fine" and with flies that do not make a ripple. Drawing the artificial bugs across and slightly up stream over the mirrored bosom of a pool is apt to leave a wake behind them which may not inaptly be compared with the one created by a small stern-wheel steamer; an unnatural condition of things, but of such is a trout's make-up.

--W.C. HARRIS: _Fishing Up or Down Stream_.

+Theme CXV.+--_Persuade a friend, to choose some sport from one of the following pairs:_--

1. Canoeing or sailing.
2. Bicycling or automobiling.
3. Golf or polo.
4. Basket ball or tennis.
5. Football or baseball.

+Theme CXVI.+--_Choose one side of a proposition. Name the probable points on the other side and write out a refutation of them_.

+Theme CXVII.+--_State a proposition and write the direct argument._

+Theme CXVIII.+--_Exchange theme CXVII for one written by a classmate and write the refutation of the arguments in the theme you receive._

(Theme CXVII and the corresponding Theme CXVIII should be read before the class.)

SUMMARY

1. Argument is that form of discourse which attempts to prove the truth of a proposition.

2. Inductive reasoning is that process by which from many individual cases we establish the probable truth of a general proposition.

3. The establishing of a general truth by induction requires--
_a._ That there be a large number of facts, circumstances, or specific
instances supporting it.
_b._ That these facts be true.
_c._ That they be pertinent.
_d._ That there be no facts proving the truth of the contrary
proposition.

4. Deductive reasoning is that process which attempts to prove the truth of a specific proposition by showing that a general theory applies to it.

5. The establishing of the truth of a specific proposition by deductive
reasoning requires--
_a._ A major premise that makes an affirmation about _all_ the members
of a class.
_b._ A minor premise that states that the individual under consideration
belongs to the class named.
_c._ A conclusion that states that the affirmation made about the class
applies to the individual. These three statements constitute a
syllogism.

6. An enthymeme is a syllogism with but one premise expressed.

7. Errors of deduction arise--
_a._ If terms are not used throughout with the same meaning.
_b._ If the major premise does not make a statement about every member
of the class denoted by the middle term.
_c._ If either premise is false.

8. Belief in a specific proposition may arise--
_a._ Because of the presentation of evidence which is true and
pertinent.
_b._ Because of a belief in some general principle or theory which
applies to it.

In arguing therefore we--
_a._ Present true and pertinent facts, or evidence; or
_b._ Appeal directly to general theories, or by means of facts, maxims,
allusions, inferences, or the quoting of authorities, seek to call
up such theories.

9. Classes of arguments:--
_a._ Arguments from cause.
_b._ Arguments from sign and attendant circumstances.
_c._ Arguments from example and analogy.

10. Arrangement.
_a._ Arguments from cause should precede arguments from sign, and
arguments from sign should precede arguments from example.
_b._ Inductive arguments usually precede deductive arguments.
_c._ Arguments should be arranged with reference to climax.
_d._ Arguments should be arranged, when possible, in a coherent order.

11. In making a brief the above principles of arrangement should be observed. Attention should be given to unity so that the trivial and false may be excluded.

12. Persuasion is argument that aims to establish the wisdom of a course of action.

13. Persuasion appeals largely to the feelings.
_a._ Those feelings of satisfaction resulting from approval,
commendation, or praise, or the desire to avoid blame, disaster,
or loss of self-esteem.
_b._ Those feelings resulting from the proper and legitimate use of
one's powers.
_c._ Those feelings which arise from possession, either actual or
anticipated.

14. Persuasion is concerned with--
_a._ Questions of right.
_b._ Questions of expediency.