Chapter II: Introduction

The English language contains a great many words and phrases which are made up of two or more words combined or related in such a way as to form a new verbal phrase having a distinct meaning of its own and differing in meaning from the sum of the component words taken singly. _Income_ and _outgo_, for example, have quite definite meanings related, it is true, to _come_ and _go_ and to _in_ and _out_, but sharply differentiated from those words in their ordinary and general signification. We use these compound words and phrases so commonly that we never stop to think how numerous they are, or how frequently new ones are coined. Any living language is constantly growing and developing new forms. New objects have to be named, new sensations expressed, new experiences described.

Sometimes these words are mere aggregations like _automobile_, _monotype_, _sidewalk_, _policeman_ and the like. Sometimes, indeed very often, they are short cuts. A _hatbox_ is a box for carrying a hat, a _red-haired_ man is a man with red hair. A _bookcase_ is a case to contain books, etc.

Sometimes the phrase consists of two or more separate words, such as _well known_ or _nicely kept_. Sometimes it consists of words joined by a hyphen, such as _boarding-house_, _sleeping-car_. Sometimes it consists of a single word formed by amalgamating or running together the components, such as _penholder_, _nevertheless_.

In which of these forms shall we write the phrase we speak so easily? How shall we shape the new word we have just coined? Which of these three forms shall we use, and why? Ordinarily we look for the answer to such questions from three sources, historical development, the past of the language; some logical principle of general application; or some recognized standard of authority. Unfortunately we get little help from either of these sources in this special difficulty.

The history of the language is a history of constant change. The Anglo-Saxon tongue was full of compounds, but the hyphen was an unknown device to those who spoke it. The English of Chaucer, the period when our new-born English tongue was differentiated from those which contributed to its composition, is full of compounds, and the compounds were generally written with a hyphen. Shakespeare used many compound words and phrases some of which sound strange, if not uncouth, to modern ears, but used the hyphen much less than Chaucer. In modern times the tendency has been and is to drop the hyphen. The more general progression seems to be (1) two words, (2) two words hyphenated, (3) two words run together into one. Sometimes, however, the hyphen drops, leaving two words separated. That there is constant change, and that the change is progressing consistently in the direction of eliminating the hyphen is fairly clear. This, however, does not help us much. At what stage of the process are we with regard to any given word? Which form of the process is operating in any given case?

There are no laws or principles of universal application on which we may build a consistent system of practice. Certain general principles have been laid down and will be here set forth. While they are helpful to the understanding of the subject they are not sufficiently universal to serve as practical guides in all cases. In any event they need to be supplemented by careful study of the rules for the use of the hyphen, by careful study of the best usage in particular cases, and by thorough knowledge of the style of each particular office, as will be pointed out later. Authorities and usage differ widely, and it is often difficult to say that a particular form is right or wrong.

There is no recognized standard authority. The dictionaries do not agree with each other and are not always consistent with themselves. They may always write a certain word in a certain way but they may write another word to all appearance exactly analogous to the first in another way. For example Worcester has _brickwork_ and _brasswork_, but _wood-work_ and _iron-work_. Webster, on the other hand, has _woodwork_ and _brick-work_.

The best that the printer can do is to adopt a set of rules or style of his own and stick to it consistently. Here and there a generally accepted change, like the dropping of the hyphen from _tomorrow_ and _today_ will force itself upon him, but for the most part he may stick to his style. Of course, the author, if he has a marked preference, must be permitted to use his own methods of compounding except in magazine publications and the like. In such cases, when the author's work is to appear in the same volume with that of other writers, the style of the printing office must rule and the individual contributors must bow to it.

GENERAL PRINCIPLES

Three general principles are laid down by Mr. F. Horace Teall which will be found useful, though they must be supplemented in practice by more specific rules which will be given later. They are as follows:

I All words should be separate when used in regular grammatical relations and construction unless they are jointly applied in some arbitrary way.

An _iron fence_ means a fence made of iron. The meaning and
construction are normal and the words are not compounded.

An _iron-saw_ means a saw for cutting iron. The meaning is not the
same as _iron saw_ which would mean a saw made of iron. The
hyphenated compound indicates the special meaning of the words used
in this combination.

_Ironwood_ is a specific name applied to a certain kind of very
hard wood. Hence, it becomes a single word compounded but without a
hyphen. Either of the other forms would be ambiguous or impossible
in meaning.

II Abnormal associations of words generally indicate unification in sense and hence compounding in form.

A _sleeping man_ is a phrase in which the words are associated
normally. The man sleeps.

A _sleeping-car_ is a phrase in which the words are associated
abnormally. The car does not sleep. It is a specially constructed
car in which the passengers may sleep comfortably.

A _king fisher_ might be a very skilful fisherman. A _kingfisher_
is a kind of bird. Here again we have an abnormal association of
words and as the compound word is the name of a specific sort of
bird there is no hyphen. A _king-fisher_, if it meant anything,
would probably mean one who fished for kings, as a _pearl-diver_ is
one who dives for pearls.

III Conversely, no expression in the language should ever be changed from two or more words into one (either hyphenated or solid) without change of sense.

_Saw trimmer_ is not compounded because there is no change in the
commonly accepted sense of either word.

_Color work_ is not compounded because the word _color_, by usage
common in English, has the force of an adjective, and the words are
used in their accepted sense. In other languages it would be
differently expressed, for example, in French it would be _oeuvre_,
or _imprimerie en couleur_, _work_, or, _printing in color_.

_Presswork_ is compounded because it has a special and specific
meaning. Good or bad presswork is a good or bad result of work done
on a press.

Here as everywhere in printing the great purpose is to secure
plainness and intelligibility. Print is made to read. Anything
which obscures the sense, or makes the passage hard to read is
wrong. Anything which clears up the sense and makes the passage
easy to read and capable of only one interpretation is right.

INFLUENCE OF ACCENT IN COMPOUNDING

Some writers lay much stress on the influence of accent in the formation of compounds while others ignore it entirely. Accent undoubtedly has some influence and the theory may be easily and intelligibly expressed. It ought to be understood, but it will not be found an entirely safe guide. Usage has modified the results of compounding in many cases in ways which do not lend themselves to logical explanation and classification.

The general principle as stated by Mr. Teall is as follows:

When each part of the compound is accented, use the hyphen;
_laughter-loving_.

When only one part is accented, omit the hyphen; _many sided_.

When the accent is changed, print the compound solid; _broadsword_.
This follows the general rule of accenting the first syllable in
English words.

RULES FOR THE FORMATION OF COMPOUNDS

I Two nouns used together as a name form a compound noun unless:

(_a_) The first is used in a descriptive or attributive sense, that
is, is really an adjective, or

(_b_) The two are in apposition.

Various uses of the noun as an adjective, that is, in some qualifying or attributive sense are when the noun conveys the sense of:

1. "Made of;" _leather belt_, _steel furniture_.

2. "Having the shape, character, or quality of;" _diamond pane_,
_iron ration_, _bull calf_.

3. "Pertaining to, suitable for, representing;" _office desk_,
_labor union_.

4. "Characterized by;" _motor drive_.

5. "Situated in, and the like;" _ocean current_, _city life_.

6. "Supporting or advocating;" _union man_, _Bryan voter_.

7. "Existing in or coming from;" _Yellowstone geyser_, _California
lemon_.

8. "Originated or made by, named for;" _Gordon Press_, _Harvard
College_.

Placing the two nouns in apposition is much the same as using the
first as an adjective.

Such compounds are generally written as two words without the
hyphen, but see specific rules for use of hyphens.

II Every name apparently composed of a plain noun and a noun of agent or verbal noun, but really conveying the sense of a phrase with suffix _er_, _or_, or _ing_, should be treated as a compound; _roller distribution_.

III Possessive phrases used as specific names (generally plants) are treated as compounds.

They are hyphenated unless very common, in which case they are
closed up; _crane's-bill_, _ratsbane_.

IV Any phrase used as a specific name in an arbitrary application not strictly figurative is written as a compound; _blueberry_, _red-coat_, _forget-me-not_.

V Any pair of words used as one name of which the second is a noun but the first not really an adjective should be written as a compound; _foster-brother_, _down-town_, _after-consideration_.

As elsewhere the use of the hyphen depends largely in the
familiarity of the phrase; _spoilsport_, _pickpocket_.

VI Any two words other than nouns should be treated as a compound, generally solid, when arbitrarily associated as a name; _standpoint_, _outlook_.

VII A name or an adjective made by adding a suffix to a proper name compounded of two words should be treated as a compound with a hyphen; _East-Indian_, _New-Yorker_. If the name is not inflected this rule does not apply; _East India Company_, _New York man_.

VIII Any pair or series of words arbitrarily associated in a joint sense different from their sense when used separately, should be compounded; _workman-like_, _warlike_.

COMPONENTS OF COMPOUNDS

Compounds having the force of nouns may be made up in several ways.

1. Two nouns used in other than their natural signification;
_claw-hammer_.

2. A noun and an adjective used in other than their natural
signification; _great-uncle_, _dry-goods_.

3. A noun and an adverb; _touch-down_, _holder-forth_.

4. A noun and an adverb; _down-draft_, _flare-back_.

5. A noun and a verb; _know-nothing_, _draw-bar_.

6. A noun and a preposition; _between-decks_.

7. Two adjectives; _high-low_, _wide-awake_.

8. Two verbs; _make-believe_.

9. A verb and an adverb; _cut-off_, _break-up_.

10. A verb and a preposition; _to-do_, _go-between_.

Compounds having the force of adjectives may be made up in several ways.

1. A group of words compacted into one idea;
_never-to-be-forgotten_.

2. Two adjectives; _white-hot_, _ashy-blue_.

3. An adjective and a participle or noun and suffix simulating a
participle; _odd-looking_, _foreign-born_, _bow-legged_.

4. An adjective and a noun; _fire-new_, _type-high_.

5. A noun and a participle (or noun and suffix simulating a
participle); _hand-printed_, _peace-making_.

6. An adverb and an adjective used together before a noun;
_well-bred_, _long-extended_.

7. Two nouns used adjectively before another noun; _cotton-seed
oil_, _shoe-sewing machine_, _Sunday-school teacher_.

8. An adjective and a noun used together before a noun;
_civil-service examination_, _free-trade literature_, _fresh-water
sailor_.

9. A verb and a noun; _John Lack-land_.

Four compounds occur with the force of verbs.

1. Two verbs; _balance-reef_.

2. A verb and a noun; _silver-plate_, _house-break_.

3. A verb and an adjective; _cold-press_, _fine-still_.

4. A verb and an adverb; _cross-examine_.

Several combinations are used with the force of adverbs.

1. Two adverbs; _upright_, _henceforth_.

2. A noun and an adverb; _brain-sickly_.

3. An adjective and an adverb (or compound adjective with suffix,
simulating an adverb); _stout-heartedly_, _ill-naturedly_.

4. An adjective and a verb; _broadcast_.

5. Two nouns; _piecemeal_, _half-mast_.

6. A noun and an adjective; _cost-free_, _pointblank_.

7. A noun and a preposition; _down-stairs_, _above-board_,
_offhand_.

RULES FOR THE USE OF THE HYPHEN

1. Hyphenate nouns formed by the combination of two nouns standing in objective relation to each other, that is, one of whose components is derived from a transitive verb:

_well-wisher_ _wood-turning_
_mind-reader_ _child-study_
_office-holder_ _clay-modeling_

When such compounds are in very common use, and especially when they have a specific or technical meaning, they are printed solid;

_typewriter_ _stockholder_
_proofreader_ _copyholder_
_lawgiver_ _dressmaker_

2. Hyphenate a combination of a present participle with a noun when the meaning of the combination is different from that of the two words taken separately; _boarding-house_, _sleeping-car_, _walking-stick_.

3. Hyphenate a combination of a present participle with a preposition used absolutely (not governing the following noun); _the putting-in or taking-out of a hyphen_.

4. As a rule compounds of _book_, _house_, _will_, _room_, _shop_, and _work_ should be printed solid when the prefixed noun has one syllable; should be hyphenated when it contains two; should be printed in two separate words when it contains three or more;

_handbook_, _notebook_, _story-book_, _pocket-book_, _reference
book_.

_clubhouse_, _storehouse_, _engine-house_, _power-house_,
_business-house_.

_handmill_, _sawmill_, _water-mill_, _paper-mill_, _chocolate
mill_.

_classroom_, _lecture-room_, _recitation room_.

_tinshop_, _tailor-shop_, _carpenter shop_.

_woodwork_, _metal-work_, _filigree work_.

Unusual combinations such as _source-book_ and _wheat-mill_ are sometimes hyphenated, and the hyphen is sometimes omitted for the sake of the appearance as in _school work_.

5. Compounds of _maker_, _dealer_, and other words denoting occupation are generally hyphenated; _harness-maker_, _job-printer_.

The tendency is to print these words solid when they come into very common use; _dressmaker_.

6. Hyphenate nouns when combined in an adjectival sense before the name of the same person; _the martyr-president Lincoln_, _the poet-artist Rosetti._

7. Compounds of _store_ are generally hyphenated when the prefix contains one syllable, otherwise not; _drug-store_, _fruit-store_ (but _bookstore_), _provision store_.

8. Compounds of _fellow_ are hyphenated; _fellow-being_, _play-fellow_, but _bedfellow_.

9. Compounds of _father_, _mother_, _brother_, _sister_, _daughter_, _parent_, and _foster_ should be hyphenated when the word in question forms the first part of the compound; _father-love_, _mother-country_, _brother-officer_, _sister-state_, _daughter-cell_, _parent-word_, _foster-brother_, but (by exception) _fatherland_.

10. Hyphenate compounds of _great_ in phrases indicating degrees of descent; _great-grandmother_, _great-great-grandfather_.

11. Hyphenate compounds of _life_ and _world_; _life-history_, _world-influence_, but (by exception) _lifetime_.

12. Compounds of _skin_ with words of one syllable are printed solid, otherwise as two separate words; _calfskin_, _sheepskin_, _alligator skin_.

13. Hyphenate compounds of _master_; _master-builder_, _master-stroke_, but (by exception) _masterpiece_.

14. Hyphenate compounds of _god_ when this word forms the second element; _sun-god_, _war-god_, _godsend_, _godson_.

15. Hyphenate compounds of _half_ and _quarter_; _half-truth_, _quarter-circle_, _half-title_, but on account of difference in meaning of _quarter_, _quartermaster_, _headquarters_.

16. These prefixes

_ante_- _infra_- _re_-
_anti_- _inter_- _semi_-
_bi_- _intra_- _sub_-
_co_- _pre_- _super_-
_demi_- _post_- _tri_-

are ordinarily joined to the word with which they are used without a hyphen, except when followed by the same letter as that with which they terminate or by _w_ or _y_;

_antechamber_ _post-temporal_
_antiseptic_ _post-graduate_
_anti-imperialistic_ _prearrange_
_biennial_ _pre-empt_
_bipartisan_ _recast_
_co-equal_ _re-enter_
_co-ordinate_ _semiannual_
_demigod_ _subconscious_
_inframarginal_ _subtitle_
_international_ _superfine_
_intersperse_ _tricolor_
_intramural_ _co-workers_
_intra-atomic_ _co-yield_

Exceptions are

(_a_) Combinations with proper names or adjectives derived therefrom, and long or unusual compounds;

_ante-bellum_ _sister-university_
_anti-license_ _post-revolutionary_
_anti-security_ _pre-Raphaelite_
_demi-relievo_ _re-tammanize_

(_b_) Words in which the omission of the hyphen would alter the sense;

_re-formation_ _reformation_
_re-cover_ _recover_
_re-creation_ _recreation_

17. The negative prefixes _un_, _in_, _il_, _im_, and _a_ do not take a hyphen except in very rare or artificial combinations; _unmanly_, _invisible_, _illimitable_, _impenetrable_, _asymmetrical_.

The negative prefix _non_ calls for a hyphen except in very common words;

_non-existent_ _non-combatant_
_non-interference_ _nonsense_
_non-unionist_ _nonessential_

18. The prefixes _quasi_, _extra_, _supra_, _ultra_, and _pan_ call for a hyphen;

_quasi-historical_ _supra-normal_
_quasi-corporation_ _ultra-conservative_
_extra-mural_ _Pan-Germanism_

_Ultramontaine_, probably because a specific party designation, is
always printed solid.

19. _Over_ and _under_ do not ordinarily call for a hyphen; _overemphasize_, _underfed_, but _over-careful_, _over-spiritualistic_.

20. Combinations having _self_ and _by_ as the first element of the compound call for a hyphen; _self-evident_, _self-respecting_, _by-law_, _by-product_, but _selfhood_, _selfish_, and _selfsame_.

21. Combinations of _fold_ are printed as one word if the number contains only one syllable but as two if it contains more than one;

_twofold_ _fifteen fold_
_tenfold_ _a hundred fold_

22. Adjectives formed by a noun preceding _like_ do not take a hyphen if the noun is a monosyllable, except when ending in _l_ or a proper noun; if the noun contains more than one syllable a hyphen should be used; _childlike_, _warlike_, _catlike_, _bell-like_, _Napoleon-like_, but (by exception) _Christlike_.

23. _Vice_, _elect_, _ex_, _general_, and _lieutenant_ as parts of titles are connected with the chief noun by a hyphen; _vice-consul_, _ex-president_, _governor-elect_, _postmaster-general_, _lieutenant-colonel_.

24. _Today_, _tonight_, and _tomorrow_ are printed without a hyphen.

25. In fractional numbers spelled out connect the numerator and denominator by a hyphen. "_The day is three-quarters gone_," _four and five-eighths_, _thirty-hundredths_, _ninety-two thousandths_.

Do not use the hyphen in an instance as "_One half the business is owned by Mr. Jones, one quarter by Mr. Smith, and one eighth each by Mr. Browne and Mr. Robinson._"

26. Where two or more compound words occur together having one of their components in common, this component is often omitted from all but the last word and the omission indicated by a hyphen;

_French-and Spanish-speaking countries_, _wood-iron-and
steel-work_, _one-two-three-four and five-cent stamps_.

This usage is objected to in some offices as being a Germanized
form. It is however, less ambiguous than where the hyphen is
omitted and is therefore preferable.

27. Ordinal numbers compounded with nouns take the hyphen in such expressions as _second-hand_, _first-rate_, and the like.

28. Numerals of one syllable take a hyphen in compounds with self-explanatory words such as _four-footed_, _one-eyed_, and the like.

29. Numerals compounded with nouns to form an adjective take the hyphen; _twelve-inch rule_, _three-horse team_, _six-point lead_.

30. The hyphen is used in compounding a noun in the possessive case with another noun; _jew's-harp_, _crow's-nest_.

31. The hyphen is used with most compounds of _tree_; _apple-tree_, _quince-tree_, but not when a particular object, not a tree (vegetable), is meant; _whippletree_, _crosstree_.

32. Use the hyphen in compounding two adjectives generally, especially personal epithets; _asked-for opinion_, _sea-island cotton_, _dry-plate process_, _hard-headed_, _strong-armed_, _broad-shouldered_.

33. The hyphen is not used in points of the compass unless doubly compounded; _northeast_, _southwest_, _north-northeast_, _south-southwest by south_.

34. Compounds ending with _man_ or _woman_ are run solid; _pressman_, _forewoman_.

35. Omit the hyphen in such phrases as _by and by_, _by the bye_, _good morning_ (except when used adjectively, _a good-morning greeting_,) _attorney at law_, _coat of arms_.

36. Compounds ending in _holder_ and _monger_ are run solid; _bondholder_, _cheesemonger_.

37. Compounds beginning with _eye_ are run solid; _eyeglass_, _eyewitness_.

38. Compounds unless very unusual, beginning with _deutero_, _electro_, _pseudo_, _sulpho_, _thermo_, etc., are run solid; _electrotype_, _pseudonym_, _thermostat_.

39. Do not separate

_meanwhile_ _anywhere_ _somebody_
_meantime_ _anybody_ _somehow_
_moreover_ _anyhow_ _something_
_forever_ _anything_ _sometime_
_everywhere_ _anyway_ _somewhat_
_somewhere_

In phrases like _in the meantime_ and _forever and ever_ the words are printed separately.

_Any one_ and _some one_ are separate words.

40. In compounds of color the hyphen is not used except when a noun is used with an adjective to specify color; _reddish-brown_, _gray-white_, _lemon-yellow_, _olive-green_, _silver-gray_.

41. Following is a list of words of everyday occurrence which should be hyphenated, and which do not fall under any of the above classifications.

_after-years_ _food-stuff_ _sea-level_
_bas-relief_ _guinea-pig_ _sense-perception_
_birth-rate_ _horse-power_ _son-in-law_
_blood-relations_ _loan-word_ _subject-matter_
_common-sense_ _man-of-war_ _thought-process_
_cross-examine_ _object-lesson_ _title-page_
_cross-reference_ _page-proof_ _wave-length_
_cross-section_ _pay-roll_ _well-being_
_death-rate_ _poor-law_ _well-nigh_
_folk-song_ _post-office_ _will-power_
_fountain-head_

These rules are the consensus of opinion of a considerable number of good authorities from DeVinne (1901) to Manly and Powell (1913). The great practical difficulty is that authorities differ as to their application. DeVinne uses the dieresis instead of the hyphen in such cases as _co-operate_ or _pre-eminent_, writing _cooeperate_, _preeminent_. Many of the rules have exceptions and authorities differ as to the extent of the exceptions. There are many differences in the great number of unclassified compounds. For example, Manly and Powell write _coat-of-arms_, while Orcutt writes _coat of arms_. Common usage omits the hyphen from post office except when used as an adjective, e. g., _post-office accounts_.

A strict adherence to the rules given would probably result, not in bad composition, but in a much greater use of hyphens than would be found on the pages of many recent books from the presses of some of the best publishers. This is due partly to the fact that usage has never been strictly uniform and partly to the constant progressive change noted at the beginning of this study. We are gradually discontinuing the use of the hyphen just as we are diminishing our use of capital letters, punctuation marks, and italics.

The compositor should ground himself thoroughly in the principles and rules. He should learn the best usage with regard to special words and phrases. He should master the office style. He should follow copy if the author has distinct and definite ideas which are not absolutely wrong and would not introduce inconsistencies in magazines and the like by violating the office style which is followed in other parts of the same publication. If it is clear that the author knows what he wants, the compositor should follow copy. Questions of correctness and conformity to style belong not to him but to the copy editor and proofreader.

SUPPLEMENTARY READING

English Compound Words and Phrases. By Francis Horace Teall. Funk &
Wagnalls, New York.

The Compounding of English Words, When and Why Joining or Separation
is Preferable. By Francis Horace Teall. J. Ireland, New York.

Correct Composition. By Theodore L. De Vinne. The Oswald Publishing Co.,
New York.

A Manual for Writers. By John Matthews Manly and John Arthur Powell.
The University of Chicago Press, Chicago.

The Writer's Desk Book. By William Dana Orcutt. Frederick A. Stokes Co.,
New York.

QUESTIONS

1. What is meant by a "compound"?

2. What is the purpose of a compound?

3. In what three forms do compounds appear?

4. Where should we expect to find guidance in the choice of these forms?

5. Do we so find it, and why?

6. What tendency is observable in usage regarding compounds?

7. What can the printer do?

8. Give Teall's rules, and show the application of each.

9. What is the influence of accent in compounding?

10. What is the rule about two nouns used together to form a name?

11. What is the rule about names composed of a plain noun and a verbal noun?

12. How are possessive phrases used as specific names treated?

13. What is the rule about phrases used as specific names?

14. How do you write a pair of words used as a name when the second word is a noun and the first not really an adjective?

15. How do you treat two words, not nouns, arbitrarily used as a name?

16. How do you treat a compound consisting of a suffix and a compound proper name?

17. How do you treat words so associated that their joint sense is different from their separate sense?

18. How may compounds having the force of nouns be made up?

19. How may compounds having the force of adjectives be made up?

20. How may compounds having the force of verbs be made up?

21. How may compounds having the force of adverbs be made up?

22. How are compound nouns written when one of the components is derived from a transitive verb?

23. How is a compound of a present participle and a noun written?

24. How is a compound of a present participle and a preposition treated?

25. What is the usage in compounds of _book_, _house_, _will_, _room_, _shop_, and _work_?

26. How are compounds of _maker_ and _dealer_ written?

27. What is done when nouns are combined in a descriptive phrase before a name of a person?

28. How are compounds of _store_ treated?

29. How are compounds of _fellow_ treated?

30. How are compounds of _father_, _mother_, _brother_, _sister_, _daughter_, _parent_, and _foster_ treated?

31. What compounds of _great_ are hyphenated?

32. How are compounds of _life_ and _world_ treated?

33. What is the rule about compounds of _skin_?

34. How are compounds of _master_ treated?

35. What is the rule about compounds of _god_?

36. Give fifteen common prefixes and tell how they are used, stating exceptions.

37. What are the negative prefixes and how are they used?

38. What is the rule about the prefixes _quasi_, _extra_, _supra_, _ultra_, and _pan_?

39. What is the rule about _over_ and _under_?

40. What is the rule about compounds of _self_ and _by_?

41. How are compounds of _fold_ treated?

42. What is the rule about compounds of a noun followed by _like_?

43. How are titles treated when compounded with _vice_, _elect_, _ex_, _general_, and _lieutenant_?

44. How do you write three familiar compounds denoting time?

45. How should you treat fractional numbers spelled out?

46. What is done when two or more compound words with a common component occur in succession?

47. How do you write compounds of ordinal numbers and nouns?

48. What rule is given about numerals of one syllable?

49. What rule is given about numerals compounded with nouns?

50. How do you treat a compound of two nouns one in the possessive case?

51. How are compounds of _tree_ treated?

52. What is the rule about compounds of two adjectives?

53. What is the rule about points of the compass?

54. What should you do with compounds ending in _man_ or _woman_?

55. Give certain common typical phrases which omit the hyphen.

56. How do you treat compounds ending in _holder_ and _monger_?

57. How do you treat compounds beginning with _eye_?

58. What is said of compounds beginning with _deutero_, _electro_, _pseudo_, _sulpho_, _thermo_, and the like?

59. Give some common compounds which are always run solid.

60. How are compounds of color treated?

61. Are these rules universally followed?

62. What is the duty of the compositor in these cases, especially when doubtful?

In this volume, as in so many in this section, much depends upon practice drills. The memorizing of rules is difficult and is of very little use unless accompanied by a great deal of practice so that the apprentice will become so thoroughly familiar with them that he will apply them at once without conscious thought. He should no more think of the rule when he writes _fellow-man_, than he thinks of the multiplication table when he says seven times eight are fifty-six. This drill may be given in several ways, by asking the student to explain the use or omission of hyphens in printed matter, by giving written matter purposely incorrect in parts and asking him to set it correctly, or by giving dictations and having the apprentice write out the matter and then set it up. Later, when it will not be too wasteful of time, the apprentice can be given the ordinary run of copy as customers send it in and told to set it in correct form. He will probably find enough errors in it to test his knowledge of compounding and of many other things.

TYPOGRAPHIC TECHNICAL SERIES FOR APPRENTICES

The following list of publications, comprising the TYPOGRAPHIC TECHNICAL SERIES FOR APPRENTICES, has been prepared under the supervision of the Committee on Education of the United Typothetae of America for use in trade classes, in course of printing instruction, and by individuals.

Each publication has been compiled by a competent author or group of authors, and carefully edited, the purpose being to provide the printers of the United States--employers, journeymen, and apprentices--with a comprehensive series of handy and inexpensive compendiums of reliable, up-to-date information upon the various branches and specialties of the printing craft, all arranged in orderly fashion for progressive study.

The publications of the series are of uniform size, 5 x 8 inches. Their general make-up, in typography, illustrations, etc., has been, as far as practicable, kept in harmony throughout. A brief synopsis of the particular contents and other chief features of each volume will be found under each title in the following list.

Each topic is treated in a concise manner, the aim being to embody in each publication as completely as possible all the rudimentary information and essential facts necessary to an understanding of the subject. Care has been taken to make all statements accurate and clear, with the purpose of bringing essential information within the understanding of beginners in the different fields of study. Wherever practicable, simple and well-defined drawings and illustrations have been used to assist in giving additional clearness to the text.

In order that the pamphlets may be of the greatest possible help for use in trade-school classes and for self-instruction, each title is accompanied by a list of Review Questions covering essential items of the subject matter. A short Glossary of technical terms belonging to the subject or department treated is also added to many of the books.

These are the Official Text-books of the United Typothetae of America.

Address all orders and inquiries to COMMITTEE ON EDUCATION, UNITED TYPOTHETAE OF AMERICA, CHICAGO, ILLINOIS, U. S. A.