Chapter XVIII: Part 5: , pages 225-247 in Soviet fisheries investigations in the (3)

Future programs planned by the Provincial Museum, in addition to the continuance of some of those already mentioned, include a system of monitoring colonies every 5 to 10 years, depending on the sensitivity of the species involved, to detect changes in population numbers and distribution. It is also hoped that the first complete provincial census, with cooperation from Federal and provincial agencies, naturalist groups, and the like, can be budgeted and arranged for in the summer of 1980. That census could conceivably be expanded to include the entire Pacific coast of North America.

Some research on the breeding biology of seabirds has been conducted by universities, notably the University of British Columbia under the guidance of R. H. Drent and M. Udvardy. We expect that graduates returning to coastal universities will continue that work. The section of government dealing with ecological reserves has just recently received funding to permit field studies on reserves harboring marine birds. J. B. Foster, Coordinator of Ecological Reserves, emphasizes that research by other agencies is encouraged under permit on ecological reserves.

There are a number of threats to seabirds in British Columbia. Along with the chemical pollutants in their environment and food, logging, and the specter of huge oil tankers plying the west coast, we are greatly concerned by the potential threat of boating enthusiasts and recreationists. Well-meaning but uninformed vacationers and boaters stopping to visit or picnic at seabird islands can do serious damage to nesting seabirds. The possibility of loss of habitat to seabirds from people searching for island summer homes poses a threat, and indeed some seabird islands have already been lost to speculators. With increased leisure time and travel the potential of unintentionally introducing predators, such as rats (_Rattus_ spp.) and snakes, to seabird islands is great. Intentional or accidental introduction of mammals, such as mink _(Mustella vison)_, rabbit (_Sylvilagus_ spp.), fox (_Vulpes fulva)_, and raccoon _(Procyon lotor)_, to islands is another serious threat to the future existence of seabird populations. The recent unauthorized and apparently unsuccessful introduction of mink on the Queen Charlotte Islands could have resulted in the eventual devastation of seabird colonies there and on adjacent islands. The destruction of habitat by logging near colonies on large islands and complete logging on small offshore islands will no doubt adversely affect some seabird populations. Competition between increasing numbers of gulls (_Larus_ spp.) and certain species of seabirds (e.g., storm-petrels and cormorants) may result in reduced numbers of the seabirds.

What types of programs are needed? About 80% of all known seabird colonies in British Columbia have been investigated to date, and a modest program to monitor changes has been established. We do, however, require exploratory work along the west coast of the Queen Charlotte Islands and northern mainland coast. We need to know more about the breeding biology and reproductive potential of each of the species nesting in the Province, as well as about their adaptability to different habitats. Will some burrow-nesting alcids use man-made tubes erected in otherwise marginal habitat? Can and should more man-made habitat be created for cormorants that have been displaced from ancestral breeding grounds?

Of immediate urgency is exploratory work involving seasonal distribution, abundance, and flight lanes of pelagic seabirds along the coast of British Columbia--especially the northern portion. We lack the base-line data which could help influence routes of oil tankers to lessen the potential danger of spills to marine birds. We know little about the winter distribution of marine birds, especially alcids.

As a general rule, offshore islands of less than 100 ha should be protected completely from logging, and the larger ones supporting major seabird colonies should have some protection from development. We must also consider the possibility of preserving some islands which may act as buffer areas and provide potential alternate habitat to seabirds.

Another concern is the effect of commercial and sport fishing in the Province on food supplies for seabirds, and what damage, if any, gillnetting may have on diving seabirds. Perhaps we should discourage fishing by nets in areas where large numbers of seabirds aggregate to feed.

We also need to know more about the effects of chemical pollutants on individual species and on their reproduction. Of paramount importance, and one which biologists tend to neglect, is communication among all disciplines interested in seabirds. For example, a comprehensive file of the history of seabird colonies in British Columbia is established at the Provincial Museum. It would be a waste of time and money to duplicate that file and have three or four scattered across the country. We would be better advised to tackle another phase of work yet to be accomplished. Communication assures that seabirds benefit and are not unduly harassed.

Annual meetings, both local and international, of persons interested in marine birds should be arranged so that problems relating to seabirds can be discussed. For example, populations of glaucous-winged gulls in British Columbia have increased exponentially in the past 10 years. If they are a threat to the existence of other seabirds (e.g., Leach's storm-petrel, double-crested cormorants), should they be controlled, and, if so, how? Such meetings would also help develop a pattern of universal census methods and techniques that could be put to use along the Pacific Coast to provide comparable data from different areas.

Finally, in today's world, natural resource agencies must operate on limited funding. How can one convince administrators to divert a significant portion of those funds to the investigation of species that are widely regarded as having little social importance?

A detailed bibliography of seabirds of British Columbia is available from either of us.

We thank D. F. Hatler, J. B. Foster, and A. L. Allen for comments on the manuscript.

Petroleum Industry's Role in Marine Bird Conservation

by

Keith G. Hay

American Petroleum Institute
2101 L Street NW
Washington, D.C. 20037

Abstract

Despite improved safety practices, engineering,
and navigational skills, marine tanker
transportation will not be 100% accident
free. The industry seeks to mitigate wildlife
losses through improved technology, research
in the rehabilitation of species exposed to
oil, and the development of oil spill/wildlife
contingency plans.

Oil spills and marine birds not only constitute a deadly mix but have proved to be one of our toughest environmental problems to solve. The rehabilitation of these tragic victims is plagued with controversy, emotion, apathy, and biological unknowns. The costs have been high and the survival rates low. During the last 10 years, a few dedicated people working here and in Europe have reversed this trend. They have, in addition, taken steps to develop contingency plans and conducted research to reduce seabird mortalities from oil spills. I present a brief status report on their progress and the melange of problems involved.

The unfortunate encounter between spilled oil and marine birds is not new. It goes back at least to the turn of the century, when coal-burning steamships and sailing clippers were replaced by oil-fueled vessels. Since then thousands of marine birds have succumbed to floating oil, especially during World Wars I and II (Blanks 1942) and in recent spills here and off the coast of Europe (Clark 1969).

With the current and projected demands for energy in the United States and with expanded tanker traffic and accelerated development of offshore petroleum reserves, the oil-contaminated ("oiled") bird is not going to go away. Periodically, this ugly problem will arise, despite the efforts of the petroleum industry to improve its safety practices, engineering, and navigational skills. Unfortunately, the problem is the product of the inherent fallibility of man and his imperfect machines.

We cannot ignore the situation. We must here, as elsewhere, improve our technology and mitigate the impact.

A study of more than 100 spills that occurred throughout the world between 1960 and 1971 revealed that about 1 in 5 spills (20%) involved 50 or more birds (Ottway 1971). Nearshore spills have a far greater effect on waterfowl than do spills occurring several miles or more offshore.

In the 1967 _Torrey Canyon_ tanker spill, some 8,000 oiled birds were rescued. About 6,000 were picked up alive in England and about 2,000 in France, at a cost estimated at $160,000 (Clark 1969; Bourne 1970). Less than 5% of those treated by British authorities survived for release some months later. The survival rate of those rescued in France is unknown.

In 1969 the Santa Barbara spill resulted in the treatment of 1,575 marine birds, of which 169 were eventually released. Many of those released were found dead within a short time (Smail 1971).

In 1970 the tanker _Delian Apollon_ was responsible for a spill in Tampa Bay, Florida. Thousands of seabirds were lost. No exact count was taken, but hundreds of birds were cleaned and farmed out for rehabilitation. Reports show that many of the birds were returned dead within a few days (Smithsonian Institution 1971).

In 1971, when two tankers collided under the Golden Gate Bridge at the mouth of San Francisco Bay, the resulting spill involved some 4,686 oiled birds taken to cleaning centers (Lassen 1972). Eight months later the last of 200 survivors (less than 5%) were released at a cost estimated at $900 per bird (Smith 1975).

The most vulnerable species involved in spills have been the oceanic birds such as the alcids--murres (_Uria_ spp.), auks (_Pinguinus_ spp., _Alca_ spp.), puffins (_Fratercula_ spp., _Lunda_ spp.), and guillemots (_Cepphus_ spp.). Other species less affected included ruddy ducks _(Oxyura jamaicensis)_, scaup (_Aythya marila_, _A. affinis_), scoters (_Melanitta_ spp.), mergansers (_Lophodytes_ spp.), oldsquaws (_Clangula_ spp.), and goldeneyes (_Bucephala_ spp.). Grebes (_Podiceps_ spp.), eiders (_Polysticta_ spp.), loons (_Gavia_ spp.), and cormorants (_Phalacrocorax_ spp.) are also frequently involved. Ruddy ducks and scaup are particularly vulnerable during winter on large river systems with heavy oil transport traffic. Fortunately, none of the above species have been reported in jeopardy as a result of spills in American waters.

In Europe and South Africa, however, it is believed that oil pollution is responsible for a steady decline in seabird colonies. For example, in known oil-dumping areas in the Baltic Sea, where some mortality of oldsquaws has been associated with surface oil, their population has dropped to about one-tenth of the pre-World War II level (Bergman 1961). Other authors report that oil spills have reduced the number of scoters in the Baltic and off southeast England (Atkinson-Willes 1963). The auk populations off the coast of England have been reported to be substantially decreased by oil pollution (Parslow 1967). Tankers traversing South Africa's Cape of Good Hope are said to be responsible for the reduction of jackass penguins, _Spheniscus demersus_ (Rowan 1968). Oil pollution, especially sustained pollution, has thus been cited as a limiting factor on certain seabird populations.

Estimates of seabird mortalities from an oil spill are imprecise; they may differ by thousands of birds. It is believed that only a small fraction of the birds killed in a spill wash up on the shore. Some authors have even speculated that the death rate at sea could range from 6 to 25 times the number washed ashore (Tanis and Mörzer-Bruyns 1968).

In contrast to terrestrial birds and semiaquatic species (e.g., ducks; geese; coots, _Fulica_ spp.; or gulls, _Larus_ spp.), totally seaborne species have a restricted reproductive potential. Many, such as the alcids, do not breed until they are 3 or more years old, and lay only one egg per year. Only one in five survives to go to sea.

Until about 5 years ago we knew little about seabirds. They are not game species (they taste fishy) and thus do not constitute an important economic resource. They have never been the subject of intensive waterfowl management or research by either State or Federal governments.

During the last 5 years a small group of people here and in England have been studying marine birds--their distribution, population status, physiology, diseases, and husbandry in captivity. Four organizations have primarily been involved: The American Petroleum Institute (API); the Wildlife Rehabilitation Center at Upton, Massachusetts; England's Advisory Committee on Oil Pollution of the Sea; and the International Bird Rescue Research Center in Berkeley, California. They have encountered many common biological and people problems, some of which I discuss here.

Biological Problems

The recuperation record for oiled seabirds in the past has admittedly been dismal. A few birds have been returned to nature, but only after a long and costly period of care. In the process, semidomestication often takes place. The percentage of cleaned birds that actually survive after release is even smaller. One should not infer from this small percentage that rehabilitated birds cannot readjust to life in the wild. Several successful reintroductions have been documented. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service bands were returned from two western grebes that were cleaned and released after the 1971 San Francisco spill. One bird was picked up a year later near Treasure Island, California, and the second after almost 2 years, in the State of Washington (Fletcher 1973).

Survival rates have zoomed with recent strides in cleaning technology and husbandry. The International Bird Rescue Research Center reported a survival rate of 41%, based on hundreds of birds and about 20 different species over a 2-year period (Smith 1975). In South Africa, where powdered clay was used as a cleaning agent on jackass penguins, nearly 50% survived, although exact percentages have not been published (Edwards 1963; Holmes 1973). Rapid retrieval, the relatively small groups of birds treated, and expert cleaning and husbandry techniques are largely responsible for high success ratios. Rehabilitation success is measured not only in terms of percent survival but also in terms of median length of captivity and average cost per bird.

Rescued oiled birds arrive at cleaning centers under a wide range of physical conditions. Before capture they may have spent hours or days in water, during which their energy has been continuously drained. The oil destroys the bird's protective insulation, and metabolic rate must be increased to sustain body temperature. Constant preening also takes energy. Food demands increase, but feeding attempts, especially for diving birds, are thwarted by oil-fouled plumage. A bird may arrive at the cleaning center under stress, chilled, exhausted, dehydrated, starved, and ill from ingested oil. Cold weather accentuates these conditions. Often such birds are jammed together with other species, hauled long distances, and immediately put through a series of cleaning processes that would leave even a healthy bird weak and in a state of shock. One marvels at the stamina of the survivors.

In most past spills, every bird found was routinely cleaned regardless of its condition. Instead of attempting to reclaim all birds, a selective judgment should be made. If a bird's physical condition makes its chances of survival nearly impossible, it should be humanely killed (except for rare or endangered species). This would enable workers to devote more time and care to birds having a reasonable chance at survival.

Fletcher (1973) stated that many variables affect bird survival: weather conditions, the type and amount of oil in and on the bird, the species, the distance of the spill from the shore, the time lag from initial fouling until initial treatment, the degree of stress a bird is subjected to, the husbandry techniques used, the time of release (the sooner released, the higher the apparent survival), the number of birds being cared for (the fewer birds being handled, the higher the survival rate), the quality of the facilities available, and the training and experience of the people handling the birds.

Many of the above biological problems are under study here and in Europe, including the following.

• The effect of ingested oil on the mucosal transport mechanism of marine birds. To use seawater, birds must be able to transport sodium ions through the gut and expel the excess salt through the nasal passages. Oil can block the mucosal ion transport mechanism, resulting in dehydration and eventual death.

• The development of a successful program of hormonal and electrolyte therapy to restore osmotic balance and the functioning of the salt glands in contaminated seabirds.

• Treatment and prevention of aspergillosis (fungus infection); septic arthritis or "bumble-foot" (joint capsule infections); breast sores (especially in seabirds confined on hard surfaces); eye lesions (caused by ammonia fumes from unsanitary pens); dehydration and hypoglycemia; lipid pneumonia; and bacterial infections.

• Treatment of stress after capture, including perfection of handling and cleaning techniques, administration of proper steroids, crowding, light, temperature, noise levels, and so on.

• Development of proper nutritional regimes for certain species and feeding techniques to eliminate forced feeding.

• The establishment of criteria for confident recognition of terminal pathological conditions in oiled birds.

• Determination of optimum density of confined birds to insure healthy conditions and adequate room for preening.

• Determination of proper time and conditions for reintroduction of the birds into their native habitat.

People Problems

Handling an over-responsive and emotional army of bird-cleaning volunteers and training them to play constructive roles is a major undertaking. Planning, cooperation, understanding, patience, and clear direction must be developed. In the absence of these virtues, chaos can and has prevailed.

The San Francisco Bay oil spill of 1971 was a classic example. There was virtually no State or Federal coordination. Splinter groups of volunteers established their own "treatment centers" and jealously guarded their patients. Some actually absconded with their pet patients to seek better care elsewhere. Long hours, fatigue, and frustrations led to dissension and bitter quarrels. Antiestablishment sentiment was rampant.

Instant experts on bird cleaning, avian medicine, and nutrition appeared or developed overnight. Veterinarians volunteered their services, but their knowledge of oiled-bird treatment was limited. A wide variety of food (from canned dog food to live shrimp) was given the birds. Forced feeding was routine. Medications and vitamins of all kinds were also administered. Needless to say, the states of the art in treating oiled birds and handling volunteers were both in their infancy. For both, the success ratio was near zero.

To prevent such fruitless efforts and the frantic, unorganized response that prevailed, a well-designed contingency plan for wildlife involved in an oil spill is needed.

Contingency Planning

It is only prudent to take reasonable measures to prepare for oiled-bird emergencies. This is especially true in regions where bird concentrations and oil shipment traffic converge. Almost equal attention must be devoted to handling volunteers as to handling birds. Safety is a major consideration. The sharp beaks of birds can be very dangerous.

A model State contingency plan should include the following:

• A list of State and Federal agencies to be alerted, including 24-h, 7-day-a-week telephone numbers, and names of individuals to contact.

• Clarification of the roles of State and Federal agencies under the Regional Response Plan of the National Oil and Hazardous Substances Pollution Contingency Plan.

• A list of State and Federal laws pertaining to possession of birds and mammals.

• An updated roster should be maintained of team members, assignments, and responsibilities for inland and marine spills, including discovery and notification, record keeping, public information, containment and counter-measures, wildlife protection, and cleanup, restoration and evaluation of effects on the biota.

• A list of individuals or organizations that possess skills and experience in treatment of oiled birds (locally and nationally).

• Location of emergency wildlife reception and treatment centers.

• A list of the necessary supplies, equipment, and holding facilities for cleaning, treating, drying, and post-care operations. Such information can be obtained from:

--California Department of Fish and Game, Oil and Hazardous
Materials Contingency Plan (July 1974)

--International Bird Rescue Research Center, Aquatic Park,
Berkeley, California 94710

--American Petroleum Institute, 2101 L Street, Northwest,
Washington, D.C. 20037

--Wildlife Rehabilitation Center, 84 Grove Street, Upton,
Massachusetts 01568

• An organizational plan which includes assignments of duties and responsibilities for personnel manning a bird-cleaning center. In addition to bird cleaning and husbandry, assignments must be made for record keeping, internal communications, public relations, logistics (supplies), security, sanitation, safety, and meals.

• A slide lecture or film to instruct volunteers in the correct techniques for handling, cleaning, and post-care of oiled birds.

• A selected bibliography of key references on oiled-bird cleaning and care.

• Appendices to the plan should include maps of the major coastal oil terminals, bays, and estuarine areas with heavy oil transport traffic. Map overlays would depict the location of resident species and the migratory patterns, species composition, relative abundance, and winter concentration areas of migrants. Additional overlays would locate commercially important demersal seafood areas (e.g., oyster and abalone beds, lobster and crabbing locales) and marine mammal habitats. Further refinement of an atlas could include information on tides, prevailing winds, ocean currents, and water mass movements to assist in predicting the path of spilled oil.

What Has Been Accomplished

The petroleum industry, through the API, took prompt steps to mitigate the problem after the first seabird mortalities were reported from Santa Barbara in 1969. They commissioned a young aviculturist, Philip Stanton, who has extensive experience working with wild waterfowl, to start a research program on cleaning and caring for oiled birds. At his Wildlife Rehabilitation Center at Upton, Massachusetts. Stanton, with the help of API, has been conducting research on oiled birds for 7 years. He is also an assistant professor of biology at nearby Framingham State College. Stanton's studies (unpublished) include investigations on food shape and color preferences in wild ducks, the effects of lengthened photoperiods on breeding of arctic geese, and the effects of diets of varying protein concentrations on growth and development of the common eider duck.

As a result of his research on cleaning techniques and agents, Stanton has recommended a nontoxic liquid cleaner called Polycomplex A-11. Although not perfect, it is one of several cleaning agents being successfully used today. He has authored a "how to" guide for oiled-bird treatment entitled "Operation Rescue" and prepared a companion bibliography (Stanton 1972). These booklets have been distributed throughout the United States to State and Federal agencies and conservation organizations. He has provided consulting services at numerous spills and has worked to establish oiled-wildlife treatment centers in coastal States.

Since 1972 the API has sponsored an avian physiology study at the University of California at Santa Barbara. Under the direction of W. N. Holmes, the studies are directed at the effects of ingested crude oil and petroleum products on marine birds. Holmes has revealed that small quantities of crude oil introduced into the gut of a saltwater-adapted bird can affect the mucosal transport and extra-renal excretory mechanisms, resulting in acute dehydration and eventual death. Dr. Holmes is also examining the effects of the various distillation fractions derived from crude oil and the long-term effects of ingested oil in mature birds. Incidentally, Alaska North Slope oil was found to be almost innocuous when administered to ducklings in amounts similar to the effective doses of other oils (Holmes and Cronshaw 1975).

Refined products (diesel oil, No. 2 fuel oil, and Bunker "C") are known to be more toxic than crude oil. For example, the relatively small spills of Bunker "C" at Tampa, Florida, in 1970 and in San Francisco in 1971 caused approximate mortalities of 90 and 20 birds per ton of spilled product, respectively. The crude oil spills of the _Torrey Canyon_ and at Santa Barbara, however, resulted in mortalities of only 0.5 and 0.6 bird per ton of oil (Clark 1973).

Dr. Holmes is now testing measured amounts of the above refined oils on adult birds. He is determining the degree of dehydration incurred, the resulting pathological changes, and the replacement (hormonal and electrolyte) therapy necessary to rehabilitate the birds.

It is obviously important to keep as many birds away from an oil slick as possible. This was the objective of an API contract with the Av-Alarm Corporation of Santa Maria, California. Their objective was to determine the feasibility of repelling aquatic birds from an area by using an acoustical jamming device as the stimulus.

The flocking instinct in birds provides mutual protection through their almost constant communication with one another. When this (audio) communication is prevented by jamming with high-frequency sounds, the birds immediately leave the area to seek relief. This harmless technique has been used successfully for years to repel agricultural pest birds.

The Av-Alarm device was tested on waterfowl at the Grizzly Island Game Refuge some 48 km north of San Francisco Bay and in the bay itself over a 2-year period (1972-73). Using a single, fixed-location system covering a three-quarter square mile (1.21 km²) area Crummett (1973) repelled 82% of the ducks and 92% of the shorebirds on the Refuge. The intrepid coot, however, was found to be relatively indifferent to the sounds. Immediately upon activation, there was a sudden drop in the bird count, which was followed by a continual decline in numbers.

In tests of the device from a cruising boat in ocean and bay waters, the degree of effectiveness varied by species. Ducks were repelled 100%; pelicans (_Pelecanus_ spp.) 92%; great egrets _(Casmerodius albus)_ 85%; gulls 42%; cormorants 75%; shearwaters (_Adamastor_ spp.) 29%; and murres, 51%.

Grebes and murres dived away from the stimulus, then surfaced and dived again if the threat was still present. To prevent driving the diving species deeper into the center of a slick, investigators recommended that buoyed repelling equipment be placed within the spill area. When the alarm system was used in conjunction with the occasional firing of a rocket or shellcracker, an even greater percentage of birds was repelled.

The International Bird Rescue Research Center, a nonprofit corporation in Berkeley, California, was an outgrowth of the Richmond Bird Care Center that played an active role in the 1971 San Francisco Bay spill. Since that time, a small group of individuals has continued research on bird-cleaning techniques, testing cleaning agents, perfecting husbandry methods, and alleviating stress. Their 41% survival rate speaks for itself. A paper describing their work is being presented at this conference (Smith 1975).

Under a grant from the API, the center is currently evaluating various cleaning agents, and testing the pressurized jet versus serial baths and the re-establishment of feather waterproofing. The center is also perfecting an audio-visual slide presentation that will illustrate how to select the proper cleaning agent, together with the latest bird-cleaning and care procedures.

About 5 years ago, England's Advisory Committee on Oil Pollution of the Sea established a research unit in the Department of Zoology at the University of Newcastle-Upon-Tyne. It was funded by a grant from the Royal Society for Prevention of Cruelty to Animals, the Royal Society for the Preservation of Birds, the World Wildlife Fund Seabird Appeal, and the British Institute of Petroleum.

Their efforts have also led to high survival rates. Focusing primarily on the efficiency of various detergents, they have found that the loss of waterproofing is largely due to soap and oil residues and the disturbance of the feather structure in the cleaning process. Consequently, they have devoted their efforts to selecting detergents that can be completely removed with a minimum disturbance of plumage (Seabird Research Unit 1971).

In May 1974, the API in cooperation with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service convened a seminar on Oil Spill Wildlife Response Planning. The 2-day workshop was held at the Patuxent Wildlife Research Center at Laurel, Maryland. Some 70 State and Federal government personnel in charge of oil spill response plans involving wildlife participated. The program addressed itself to fish and wildlife considerations and the role of regional response teams under the National Oil and Hazardous Substances Pollution Contingency Plan. The actions of State wildlife departments, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Environmental Protection Agency, U.S. Coast Guard, and the oil industry in handling spills involving wildlife were examined. The latest oil spill cleanup technology was reviewed, and the workshop ended with demonstrations of the cleaning of oiled waterfowl. Similar seminars were planned for the Gulf of Mexico and the West Coast.

It was obvious from this seminar that the most comprehensive wildlife oil spill contingency plan had been developed by the State of California. Copies of this plan (Oil and Hazardous Materials Contingency Plan, California Department of Fish and Game, July 1974) were later distributed to all coastal States as a prototype or model plan by API.

The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service has been conducting experiments on various bird-cleaning agents and techniques at its Migratory Bird and Habitat Research Laboratory near Laurel, Maryland. The Fish and Wildlife Service is also working with the API in developing information on migratory patterns and winter waterfowl concentration areas on the East Coast as they relate to petroleum transport traffic and oil terminals.

In Canada, the Petroleum Association for Conservation of the Canadian Environment (PACCE) employed the services of a consulting firm to make a comprehensive review of dispersal and rehabilitation of waterfowl associated with oil spills. The resulting PACCE report (LGL Ltd. 1974) codified what was known about the problem, identified research needs, and developed effective wildlife oil-spill contingency plans for critical areas on Canada's east and west coasts, the Great Lakes, and the Arctic.

The Florida Game and Fresh Water Fish Commission has initiated a program for the rehabilitation and treatment of oiled birds. It is being organized by veterinarian Harold F. Albers of St. Petersburg. He is working in cooperation with the Florida Associated Marine Institutes, the Shell Oil Company, Clean Gulf Associates, and the API.

The Standard Oil Company of California provided a grant to James Naviaux of Pleasant Hill, California, to develop bird-cleaning technology, including the testing of various cleaners. Dr. Naviaux had treated birds from the 1971 San Francisco spill. A publication on the after-care of oil-covered birds (Naviaux 1972) resulted from the collaboration with Alan Pittman, research chemist of the U.S. Department of Agriculture's Western Research Laboratory.

In 1971, the API in cooperation with the National Wildlife Federation (NWF) initiated an NWF/API Fellowship program. One of the first grants under this program was to Charles W. Kirkpatrick, Professor of Wildlife Management at Purdue University. He and assistants studied for 4 years the nesting ecology and productivity of the emperor goose _(Philacte canagica)_ in the Igiak Bay area of the Yukon Delta in Alaska (Eisenhauer and Kirkpatrick 1977).

An extensive program of marine bird research was initiated on the North Slope of Alaska by the Atlantic Richfield Company in 1969. It has been continued ever since and includes the acquisition of extensive base-line data on all waterfowl, including June surveys of breeding pair counts and August surveys for brood counts. The results of these surveys for 1969-73 are presented by Gavin (1975).

Base-line data on marine birds of the Gulf of Alaska are currently being collected and compiled through grants to various universities and institutions by the American petroleum industry. These data will constitute elements of a report on the environmental status of the Gulf of Alaska. Such information is essential prior to development of the Gulf's offshore petroleum resources.

Marine Mammals

Most sea mammals are relatively resistant to oil slicks and tend to avoid contaminated waters. As a result, little research has been conducted on cleaning and treatment techniques except for experiments on live beavers and on the carcasses and pelts of sea otters and beavers.

No sea otter or seal has ever been oiled and subsequently cleaned in an oil spill situation. It is possible, however, that a spill could have significant adverse effects on sea otters and fur seals, especially at a rookery during the pupping season. These animals depend on an air blanket trapped in their dense underfur for warmth and buoyancy. Any form of pollutant, especially oil, could penetrate the outer guard hairs and underfur and allow water to reach the skin, with disastrous effects.

Seals and otters are powerful animals, and the larger males and females can be quite aggressive and dangerous. Only professional wildlife specialists and consulting veterinarians should be permitted to handle and treat them. A guide to cleaning and care of oiled sea otters can be found in the California Oil and Hazardous Materials Contingency Plan.

Conclusions

This status report has revealed that substantial efforts and progress have been made in oiled-wildlife research. New techniques being developed are leading to higher survival rates. Preventive measures are being devised to keep birds from entering a spill area. Wild life contingency plans are being developed and materials to handle future emergencies are being stockpiled. Basic research is being continued on the difficult problems inherent in achieving high survival levels and a rapid return to the wild, at a reasonable cost.

Much more must be done, but these pioneering efforts both within and outside of industry reflect a difficult problem yielding to the time and attention of dedicated men and women.

References

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Atkinson-Willes, C. 1963. Wildfowl in Great Britain. Nat. Conserv.
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Bergman, G. 1961. The migrating populations of the long-tailed duck
_(Clangula hyemalis)_ and the common scoter _(Melanitta nigra)_
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CONSERVATION OF MARINE BIRDS IN OTHER LANDS

Conservation of Marine Birds in New Zealand

by

Gordon R. Williams

New Zealand Wildlife Service
Department of Internal Affairs
Wellington, New Zealand

Abstract

Marine species (pelagic birds and those of
exposed coasts) make up about 48% of New
Zealand's native avifauna, excluding stragglers
and antarctic species. The biological history
that has led to the present status of marine
birds in this archipelago of some 700 islands
is outlined, methods of conservation are
briefly described, and some illustrative case
histories of management programs are given. In
spite of the major environmental changes that
have occurred in New Zealand during 200 years
of European occupation, only one marine species
has become extinct, although five such endemic
species are currently regarded as threatened
as are a few subspecies of widely distributed
forms.

New Zealand, which lies some 2,000 km southeast of Australia, has been a changing archipelago for many millions of years. It has been separated from any major landmass (first, Gondwanaland and later, Australia) for at least 80 million years.

Before the arrival of man, probably between 1,000 and 1,500 years ago, New Zealand was free of any land mammals except two species of bats, and there were few avian predators. These, among a number of other biological peculiarities, reflect the archipelago's considerable and long-standing isolation.

There are nearly 700 islands 0.5 ha or more in area in the New Zealand region; and, if North, South, and Stewart islands are regarded collectively as the mainland, about 650 of these islands lie within 50 km of the coast and 30 beyond that limit, to about 850 km offshore (Atkinson and Bell 1973). The archipelago extends from about 30° to 52°S lat. (over a distance of about 2,400 km)--that is, from the subtropical to the subAntarctic--and from about 166° to 176°W long. (Fig. 1).

Pelagic and coastal birds must obviously be an important part of the avifauna and, in fact, aside from stragglers, antarctic species, and established introduced species, they make up about 48% of the 173 in the New Zealand Checklist (Kinsky 1970). Of the 83 species I have regarded as marine, 48 (28%) are pelagic and 35 (20%) shorebirds of exposed coasts. Ten of the 48 pelagics (21%) and 12 (34%) of the 35 shorebirds are endemic.

More than a thousand years of occupation by Polynesian man with his commensal Polynesian rats _(Rattus exulans)_ and a peculiar breed of domesticated and feral dog (now extinct), did little damage to pelagic and open coast species, even though many, if not most, were used as food--especially the petrels, and particularly those belonging to the genera _Puffinus_, _Procellaria_, and _Pterodroma_. However, the Europeans, who arrived about 200 years ago, brought with them a menagerie of mammals and birds, and 33 species of each have become established and are now feral (Gibb and Flux 1973; Williams 1973). They also put into practice, on a large scale, European methods of land use that had unfortunate effects on almost the entire native avifauna. Although terrestrial, freshwater, and estuarine species suffered most, marine species suffered also. However, reduction in numbers and range rather than extinction was the rule, except locally.

Apart from habitat destruction by man and the various mammalian browsers and grazers, the most inimical agents have been black rats _(Rattus rattus)_, Norway rats _(R. norvegicus)_, feral cats, and feral pigs. One would expect the inhospitality or inaccessibility of an island to be a marine species' best protection, and so it has generally proved-the greatest losses have occurred on the two major mainland islands (North Island and South Island). Bourne (1967) suggested that Polynesians in pre-European times may have caused the extinction of numerous petrels in the Chatham Islands. There are still a few islands on which no exotic mammals occur, but modern transport, allied with human curiosity and cupidity, are stripping all but the most wild and remote of these of the protection against invasion they have had so far. Cruises by nature-hungry but sometimes environmentally illiterate tourists are beginning to be a local problem.

The matter of conservation of marine species in New Zealand has stemmed mainly from the recognition of the value of certain islands as refuges for whole ecosystems, as convenient areas for study, and as arks for the rescue of the threatened species that can be successfully established on them--an often highly hazardous and uncomfortable procedure for men as well as birds.

Conservation Measures

By statute, all feral species of birds in New Zealand are automatically protected unless specifically legislated for otherwise. (About 50 of our grand total of 285 species have been so legislated for.) One fortunate consequence of this provision is that all new arrivals--vagrants or new discoveries--are also fully protected. The legislation also states that it is illegal to have in one's possession the nests, eggs, feathers, skins, or bones of any fully protected species unless one has been issued a permit for this purpose. This restriction may apply to institutions as well as to persons.

After this good start and the setting aside of conservation reserves of various kinds, active conservation measures depend on making careful and comprehensive surveys of the species and its ecosystem--often none too easy a task in the New Zealand region because of the rough seas, the relative inaccessibility of many of the important islands and their ruggedness, and the near-impenetrability of some of the vegetation types they support. Having decided that positive action is necessary, the next step is to use all available media to inform the public (local as well as national, if the island is inhabited) of the situation and the proposals for remedying it. As in most other countries, uninformed emotionalism is one of the most pervasive and serious obstacles to effective conservation because of the political pressure it can generate.

Apart from formal ecological studies, the New Zealand Wildlife Service uses three main methods to support threatened species (other than the attempts we are making to breed certain freshwater and terrestrial species in captivity):

• The translocation and founding of new colonies in promising or unmodified habitat. Such habitats are not common in New Zealand because of the ubiquity of the introduced mammalian browsers, grazers, and predators (Williams 1977).

• The destruction, or at least the reduction, of such browsers, grazers, and predators by physical, chemical, or biological methods, or combinations of these.

• The exertion of social influences to promote changes in methods of land use or in traditional harvest for food (the latter can be particularly important as far as the Polynesian [Maori] population is concerned, as nowadays the taking of birds for food is predominantly a cultural rather than an economic matter).

Translocation has been a valuable technique for increasing the numbers and ranges of a few threatened terrestrial species. The very nature of most marine species, however, limits its application as far as they are concerned. Nevertheless, we have considered it worth trying for one nonmigrant wader; and no doubt it could be tried under similar circumstances elsewhere.

Convincing local experiences have shown that predator or competitor destruction is likely to be practical only on small, not-too-rugged islands, usually no larger than about 500 ha. However, special circumstances have prompted us to attempt destruction, or at least control, on much larger and more difficult islands. It is implicit that the predators or competitors are exotic, not indigenous. Recently, on those rare islands that are inhabited but still free of either black or Norway rats, we have set up permanent bait stations (at which sodium fluoroacetate--"1080"--is used as the poison) on wharves and jetties in the hope that such a precaution will, with the addition of a propaganda campaign calling for the regular fumigation of visiting vessels, prolong the charmed lives that these fortunate islands have so far enjoyed. It goes without saying that we ask that the greatest care be taken when expeditions land stores on uninhabited, rat-free islands which, if by "rat-free" we mean also free of _R. exulans_, are even rarer in our seas.

The sociolegal approach is effective only when ecosystems or communities have not been seriously modified, otherwise it is no substitute for either of the other two measures discussed.

Some Case Histories

Translocation

Last century, an endemic monotypic genus of wader--the New Zealand shore plover _(Thinornis novaeseelandiae)_--was widespread and occasionally very common around the coasts of the North and South islands and the Chatham Islands. As a result of European settlement and the accompanying predation by feral cats and rats, the species now occurs only on South East Island in the Chatham group (860 km east of the mainland), where it at present seems safe, since there are no rats on the island and it is now a reserve. However, the population numbers only about 120 individuals. Because calamities can always occur (for example, ship rats recently reached shore on three important islets off the southwest coast of Stewart Island), the Wildlife Service is anxious to spread the shore plover to other suitable islands, if they can be found. The species is not a migrant and is rather sedentary. The first translocation attempts failed, probably because mainly adult birds were used, and we are now continuing our studies of the species with the thought in mind, among others, that success may come if young birds are used instead; the question is--how young?

As is widely known, the New Zealand Wildlife Service has been remarkably successful in recent years in translocating one species of the endemic wattlebird family--the forest-dwelling saddleback _(Philesturnus carunculatus)_--to other islands than the four small ones it had been reduced to by the early 1960's; three of these islands were the ones recently invaded by ship rats, referred to above.

Predator Control

Some 25 km off the North Island's east coast lies the 3,000-ha, very rugged and forested Little Barrier Island, which has now been a reserve for the protection of flora and fauna for about 80 years. Before that, it had been almost continually occupied by Maoris since their arrival in New Zealand, and about one-third of its forest was felled or burnt, especially after European settlement of the adjoining New Zealand mainland began.

Most unusually, Little Barrier is now free of any grazing or browsing mammals, and has only the Polynesian rat (a reminder of the Maori occupation) and feral cats (a European legacy) to impair its extreme importance as a reserve. The rats have been unmolested by man because, rightly or wrongly, they are considered ineffective predators generally; however, their impact has probably been under-rated. More than half a century of trapping and hunting of cats by successive caretakers on the island has not effectively reduced that population.

Among its other important attributes, Little Barrier supports two birds endemic to New Zealand--the rare black petrel _(Procellaria parkinsoni)_, and one endemic honey-eater, the stitchbird _(Notiomystis cincta)_, which was once widespread on the North Island but is now found only on Little Barrier in moderate numbers, and apparently in no immediate danger. The impact of feral cats on stitchbirds has not been determined, but it is known that cats are seriously affecting the black petrel especially: they kill at least 90% of the chicks and some adults annually. Their impact on a locally remnant population of Cook's petrels _(P. cookii)_ is apparently less severe.

In 1968-69 the Wildlife Service, with veterinary advice and assistance, added an attempt at biological control to the campaign of poisoning ("1080" in fish was the poison and bait used), trapping, and shooting. The very specific viral disease--feline enteritis--was introduced by trapping island cats, infecting them, and then releasing them. Some estimates of the resulting mortality from the combined techniques were as high as 90%; but there has been a recovery since, and the campaign is expensive in both time and man-power. And, oddly enough, the control effort has met with some opposition. Nevertheless, another campaign is planned.

Habitat Rehabilitation by Destruction of Mammals

The Kermadecs are a group of small islands about 800 km north-northeast of the North Island. Their biological significance, insofar as this symposium is concerned, is that they are the southernmost breeding area in New Zealand seas for many elements of the Pacific tropic and subtropical marine avifauna. Unfortunately, goats were liberated on the two largest islands--Raoul (3,000 ha) and Macauley (300 ha)--almost 150 years ago and Macauley Island was burnt over; such forest cover as it had was severely damaged or destroyed, probably at about the same time. The goats were to be an emergency food supply for whalers and shipwrecked mariners. Cats, too, became feral on Raoul Island during one of its fitful periods of occupation. The New Zealand Wildlife Service, in spite of the distance and difficulties involved, has undertaken pest destruction campaigns on both islands, but I offer here only an account of the simpler, and more successful, Macauley operation.

In 1966, a 5-week expedition to this waterless and almost treeless island resulted in the shooting of what was then thought to be all of its 3,000-odd goats (a density of about 15/ha). Four years later, a follow-up expedition found and destroyed another 17 goats (a later brief inspection suggested that these were indeed the last), and rehabilitation of the island is well under way. Now that the short turf is disappearing, erosion of the soft volcanic soils is reduced. With compaction no longer occurring, it will be interesting to see what the effect will be on birds breeding on the island--six breeding species of petrels, three breeding species of terns, and other marine species.

Sociolegal Conservation

The taking of petrels and other procellariiform birds for food has always been part of the Polynesian economy and culture throughout the Pacific. In New Zealand, the practice now has only minor economic importance, but it is still an essential part of Maori culture and tradition. The most commonly taken species are the sooty shearwater _(Puffinus griseus)_ and, until recently, the gray-faced petrel _(Pterodroma macroptera)_. Although no formal study of the impact of the annual harvest of chicks on the population has yet been made, all the indications are that it is not significant. Nevertheless, the Maoris willingly accepted the limited amount of legislation that has been passed to afford the two principal exploited species at least token protection. However, on the Chatham Islands, where there is a strong tradition of taking some of the albatrosses, this tradition has persisted, even though all albatrosses are fully protected throughout New Zealand.

Enforcement of legislation in small and isolated communities is not always easy and sometimes may not be wholly politic. However, the Maoris of the Chathams have been specially informed of the conservation issues at stake, and a "gentleman's agreement" has been reached: If a planned survey shows that full protection of albatrosses in the Chathams is indeed essential, the Maoris will honor the legislation to the letter; on the other hand, if limited exploitation seems justified, the Wildlife Service has agreed that it will be allowed.

Conclusions

Insofar as conservation measures of a passive type are concerned, it is fortunate that the offshore and outlying islands not yet occupied, farmed, or set aside as reserves, are likely to remain unexploited, either because they are too remote for exploitation to be economical or because they are too inhospitable, or both. In any event, public opinion is now such that unmodified or otherwise biologically important islands not already reserved would be proclaimed as reserves if threat of exploitation arose unexpectedly, unless they were found to be major sites for oil or minerals. Even so, legislation exists that offers the possibility of protection even from this threat, and has already been used to exempt some important mainland areas from prospecting and the granting of mining rights.

It is gratifying to realize that, although some endemic marine subspecies (generally not very different from neighboring subspecies) are endangered to varying degrees, there are very few whose disappearance would result in the disappearance of the species itself from the New Zealand area. Only one endemic marine species has become extinct in recent times, the Auckland Island merganser _(Mergus australis)_ in about 1905, and only six are currently in any real danger: the Chatham Island taiko _(Pterodroma magentae)_, the black petrel, Hutton's shearwater _(Puffinus huttoni)_, the Westland black petrel (_Procellaria westlandica)_, the shore plover, and the Chatham Island oystercatcher _(Haematopus chathamensis)_. However, a list of this kind is often a matter of some controversy. Something is at present being done to help all but the first and last of these. The Chatham Island taiko had not been positively identified for about 50 years, until 1977 when this species was "rediscovered" on the main island of the Chatham group; though its numerical status is unknown, it is rare. The Chatham Island oystercatcher, although certainly "threatened" (only about 50 are known to exist), does occur on four islands, two of which are reserves. Although this species has not been actively studied until now, it is soon to be the subject of a full ecological survey.

A few words about the hunting of marine species: Mutton-birding aside--that is, apart from the taking by Maoris of the young of the sooty shearwater and the gray-faced petrel--there has been no legal hunting of any marine birds in New Zealand for 35 years now, nor is there likely to be. This situation reflects the consistently increasing weight of informed public opinion in favor of, let alone scientific concern for, transoceanic migrants. The pro-hunting lobby for some species of waders, in particular the eastern bar-tailed godwit _(Limosa lapponica baueri)_, is a small one, the numbers of which decrease yearly. However, small-scale poaching occasionally occurs; it is punished when discovered.

Protection for marine species extends only to the 3-mile limit of New Zealand's territorial waters, but it would be extended further should New Zealand follow the present trend of including as territorial waters all those that cover the continental shelf or beyond. [This extension occurred in 1977; the marine fishing zone for New Zealand waters has been extended to 200 miles (360 km) around all coasts.]